Clavulanic acid and its salts and esters. The acid is a suicide inhibitor of bacterial beta-lactamase enzymes from Streptomyces clavuligerus. Administered alone, it has only weak antibacterial activity against most organisms, but given in combination with other beta-lactam antibiotics it prevents antibiotic inactivation by microbial lactamase.
A fixed-ratio combination of amoxicillin trihydrate and potassium clavulanate.
A broad-spectrum semisynthetic antibiotic similar to AMPICILLIN except that its resistance to gastric acid permits higher serum levels with oral administration.
An element in the alkali group of metals with an atomic symbol K, atomic number 19, and atomic weight 39.10. It is the chief cation in the intracellular fluid of muscle and other cells. Potassium ion is a strong electrolyte that plays a significant role in the regulation of fluid volume and maintenance of the WATER-ELECTROLYTE BALANCE.
Acids, salts, and derivatives of clavulanic acid (C8H9O5N). They consist of those beta-lactam compounds that differ from penicillin in having the sulfur of the thiazolidine ring replaced by an oxygen. They have limited antibacterial action, but block bacterial beta-lactamase irreversibly, so that similar antibiotics are not broken down by the bacterial enzymes and therefore can exert their antibacterial effects.
Substances that reduce the growth or reproduction of BACTERIA.
Cell membrane glycoproteins that are selectively permeable to potassium ions. At least eight major groups of K channels exist and they are made up of dozens of different subunits.
Enzymes found in many bacteria which catalyze the hydrolysis of the amide bond in the beta-lactam ring. Well known antibiotics destroyed by these enzymes are penicillins and cephalosporins.
A group of antibiotics that contain 6-aminopenicillanic acid with a side chain attached to the 6-amino group. The penicillin nucleus is the chief structural requirement for biological activity. The side-chain structure determines many of the antibacterial and pharmacological characteristics. (Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 8th ed, p1065)
Any tests that demonstrate the relative efficacy of different chemotherapeutic agents against specific microorganisms (i.e., bacteria, fungi, viruses).
Four-membered cyclic AMIDES, best known for the PENICILLINS based on a bicyclo-thiazolidine, as well as the CEPHALOSPORINS based on a bicyclo-thiazine, and including monocyclic MONOBACTAMS. The BETA-LACTAMASES hydrolyze the beta lactam ring, accounting for BETA-LACTAM RESISTANCE of infective bacteria.
A building block of penicillin, devoid of significant antibacterial activity. (From Merck Index, 11th ed)
A beta-lactamase inhibitor with very weak antibacterial action. The compound prevents antibiotic destruction of beta-lactam antibiotics by inhibiting beta-lactamases, thus extending their spectrum activity. Combinations of sulbactam with beta-lactam antibiotics have been used successfully for the therapy of infections caused by organisms resistant to the antibiotic alone.
Therapy with two or more separate preparations given for a combined effect.
Inflammation of the MIDDLE EAR including the AUDITORY OSSICLES and the EUSTACHIAN TUBE.
A semisynthetic macrolide antibiotic derived from ERYTHROMYCIN that is active against a variety of microorganisms. It can inhibit PROTEIN SYNTHESIS in BACTERIA by reversibly binding to the 50S ribosomal subunits. This inhibits the translocation of aminoacyl transfer-RNA and prevents peptide chain elongation.
Nonsusceptibility of bacteria to the action of the beta-lactam antibiotics. Mechanisms responsible for beta-lactam resistance may be degradation of antibiotics by BETA-LACTAMASES, failure of antibiotics to penetrate, or low-affinity binding of antibiotics to targets.
Semi-synthetic derivative of penicillin that functions as an orally active broad-spectrum antibiotic.
An antibiotic derived from penicillin similar to CARBENICILLIN in action.
The ability of bacteria to resist or to become tolerant to chemotherapeutic agents, antimicrobial agents, or antibiotics. This resistance may be acquired through gene mutation or foreign DNA in transmissible plasmids (R FACTORS).
A nitroimidazole used to treat AMEBIASIS; VAGINITIS; TRICHOMONAS INFECTIONS; GIARDIASIS; ANAEROBIC BACTERIA; and TREPONEMAL INFECTIONS. It has also been proposed as a radiation sensitizer for hypoxic cells. According to the Fourth Annual Report on Carcinogens (NTP 85-002, 1985, p133), this substance may reasonably be anticipated to be a carcinogen (Merck, 11th ed).
A gram-positive organism found in the upper respiratory tract, inflammatory exudates, and various body fluids of normal and/or diseased humans and, rarely, domestic animals.
A species of HAEMOPHILUS found on the mucous membranes of humans and a variety of animals. The species is further divided into biotypes I through VIII.
Nonsusceptibility of an organism to the action of penicillins.
A class of drugs that act by inhibition of potassium efflux through cell membranes. Blockade of potassium channels prolongs the duration of ACTION POTENTIALS. They are used as ANTI-ARRHYTHMIA AGENTS and VASODILATOR AGENTS.
Potassium channels where the flow of K+ ions into the cell is greater than the outward flow.
Broad-spectrum cephalosporin antibiotic resistant to beta-lactamase. It has been proposed for infections with gram-negative and gram-positive organisms, GONORRHEA, and HAEMOPHILUS.
Potassium or potassium compounds used in foods or as foods.
A group of broad-spectrum antibiotics first isolated from the Mediterranean fungus ACREMONIUM. They contain the beta-lactam moiety thia-azabicyclo-octenecarboxylic acid also called 7-aminocephalosporanic acid.
Cyclic AMIDES formed from aminocarboxylic acids by the elimination of water. Lactims are the enol forms of lactams.
A condition due to decreased dietary intake of potassium, as in starvation or failure to administer in intravenous solutions, or to gastrointestinal loss in diarrhea, chronic laxative abuse, vomiting, gastric suction, or bowel diversion. Severe potassium deficiency may produce muscular weakness and lead to paralysis and respiratory failure. Muscular malfunction may result in hypoventilation, paralytic ileus, hypotension, muscle twitches, tetany, and rhabomyolysis. Nephropathy from potassium deficit impairs the concentrating mechanism, producing POLYURIA and decreased maximal urinary concentrating ability with secondary POLYDIPSIA. (Merck Manual, 16th ed)
A spiral bacterium active as a human gastric pathogen. It is a gram-negative, urease-positive, curved or slightly spiral organism initially isolated in 1982 from patients with lesions of gastritis or peptic ulcers in Western Australia. Helicobacter pylori was originally classified in the genus CAMPYLOBACTER, but RNA sequencing, cellular fatty acid profiles, growth patterns, and other taxonomic characteristics indicate that the micro-organism should be included in the genus HELICOBACTER. It has been officially transferred to Helicobacter gen. nov. (see Int J Syst Bacteriol 1989 Oct;39(4):297-405).
A semi-synthetic macrolide antibiotic structurally related to ERYTHROMYCIN. It has been used in the treatment of Mycobacterium avium intracellulare infections, toxoplasmosis, and cryptosporidiosis.
Potassium channel whose permeability to ions is extremely sensitive to the transmembrane potential difference. The opening of these channels is induced by the membrane depolarization of the ACTION POTENTIAL.
Inorganic compounds that contain potassium as an integral part of the molecule.
Semisynthetic, broad-spectrum, AMPICILLIN derived ureidopenicillin antibiotic proposed for PSEUDOMONAS infections. It is also used in combination with other antibiotics.
Infections with organisms of the genus HELICOBACTER, particularly, in humans, HELICOBACTER PYLORI. The clinical manifestations are focused in the stomach, usually the gastric mucosa and antrum, and the upper duodenum. This infection plays a major role in the pathogenesis of type B gastritis and peptic ulcer disease.
A family of bacteria including numerous parasitic and pathogenic forms.
A 4-methoxy-3,5-dimethylpyridyl, 5-methoxybenzimidazole derivative of timoprazole that is used in the therapy of STOMACH ULCERS and ZOLLINGER-ELLISON SYNDROME. The drug inhibits an H(+)-K(+)-EXCHANGING ATPASE which is found in GASTRIC PARIETAL CELLS.
Semisynthetic broad-spectrum cephalosporin.
Compounds that contain benzimidazole joined to a 2-methylpyridine via a sulfoxide linkage. Several of the compounds in this class are ANTI-ULCER AGENTS that act by inhibiting the POTASSIUM HYDROGEN ATPASE found in the PROTON PUMP of GASTRIC PARIETAL CELLS.
Beta-lactam antibiotics that differ from PENICILLINS in having the thiazolidine sulfur atom replaced by carbon, the sulfur then becoming the first atom in the side chain. They are unstable chemically, but have a very broad antibacterial spectrum. Thienamycin and its more stable derivatives are proposed for use in combinations with enzyme inhibitors.
A family of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that do not form endospores. Its organisms are distributed worldwide with some being saprophytes and others being plant and animal parasites. Many species are of considerable economic importance due to their pathogenic effects on agriculture and livestock.
Any infection acquired in the community, that is, contrasted with those acquired in a health care facility (CROSS INFECTION). An infection would be classified as community-acquired if the patient had not recently been in a health care facility or been in contact with someone who had been recently in a health care facility.
Stable potassium atoms that have the same atomic number as the element potassium, but differ in atomic weight. K-41 is a stable potassium isotope.
Cephalosporinase is an enzyme produced by certain bacteria that can hydrolyze and confer resistance to cephalosporin antibiotics.
The ability of microorganisms, especially bacteria, to resist or to become tolerant to chemotherapeutic agents, antimicrobial agents, or antibiotics. This resistance may be acquired through gene mutation or foreign DNA in transmissible plasmids (R FACTORS).
'Anaerobic Bacteria' are types of bacteria that do not require oxygen for growth and can often cause diseases in humans, including dental caries, gas gangrene, and tetanus, among others.
Invasion of the host RESPIRATORY SYSTEM by microorganisms, usually leading to pathological processes or diseases.
A subcategory of CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE. The disease is characterized by hypersecretion of mucus accompanied by a chronic (more than 3 months in 2 consecutive years) productive cough. Infectious agents are a major cause of chronic bronchitis.

Comparative in vitro activities of amoxicillin-clavulanate against aerobic and anaerobic bacteria isolated from antral puncture specimens from patients with sinusitis. (1/322)

By an agar dilution method, the antimicrobial susceptibilities of antral sinus puncture isolates were studied. Pneumococci were generally susceptible to amoxicillin, azithromycin, and clarithromycin, but 17% of pneumococcal isolates were resistant to cefuroxime. Haemophilus influenzae isolates were resistant to amoxicillin and clarithromycin. beta-Lactamase production occurred in 69% of Prevotella species. One-third of Peptostreptococcus magnus isolates were resistant to azithromycin and clarithromycin. Cefuroxime had limited activity against Prevotella species and P. magnus. Levofloxacin was active against most isolates except peptostreptococci. Amoxicillin-clavulanate was active against all isolates, with the MIC at which 90% of the isolates were inhibited being < or = 1 microgram/ml.  (+info)

Integron- and carbenicillinase-mediated reduced susceptibility to amoxicillin-clavulanic acid in isolates of multidrug-resistant Salmonella enterica serotype typhimurium DT104 from French patients. (2/322)

Fifty-seven Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium (S. typhimurium) isolates were collected from human patients in two French hospitals, Hopital Antoine Beclere (Clamart, France) and Hopital Bicetre (Le Kremlin-Bicetre, France), between 1996 and 1997. Thirty of them (52 percent) were resistant to amino-, carbeni-, and ureidopenicillins, had reduced susceptibility to amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, were susceptible to cephalothin, and were resistant to sulfonamides, streptomycin, chloramphenicol, and tetracyclines. All these strains possessed a blaPSE-1-like gene and were of phage type DT104. Ten of them were studied in more detail, which revealed that blaPSE-1 is located on the variable region of a class 1 integron. This integron was found to be chromosomally located, as was another class 1 integron containing aadA2, a streptomycin-spectinomycin resistance gene. The reduced susceptibility to amoxicillin-clavulanic acid (and to ticarcillin-clavulanic acid) may result from the high level of hydrolysis of the beta-lactam rather than to the clavulanic acid resistance properties of PSE-1 in these clonally related S. typhimurium isolates.  (+info)

In vitro development of resistance to five quinolones and amoxicillin-clavulanate in Streptococcus pneumoniae. (3/322)

The ability of 50 sequential subcultures in subinhibitory concentrations of ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, grepafloxacin, sparfloxacin, trovafloxacin, and amoxicillin-clavulanate to select for resistance was studied for six penicillin-susceptible and four penicillin-intermediate pneumococci. Subculturing in ciprofloxacin, grepafloxacin, levofloxacin, and sparfloxacin led to selection of mutants requiring increased MICs for all 10 strains, with MICs rising from (i) 0.5 to 4.0 to (ii) 4.0 to 32.0 microgram/ml after 7 to 12 passages for ciprofloxacin, from (i) 0.06 to 0.25 to (ii) 0.5 to 8.0 microgram/ml after 5 to 23 passages for grepafloxacin, from (i) 0.5 to 1.0 to (ii) 4.0 to 64 microgram/ml after 14 to 49 passages for levofloxacin, and from (i) 0.125 to 0.25 to (ii) 1.0 to 16.0 microgram/ml after 8 to 26 passages for sparfloxacin. Subculturing in trovafloxacin led to increased MICs for eight strains, with MICs rising from (i) 0.06 to 0.125 to (ii) 0.5 to 8.0 microgram/ml after 6 to 28 passages. Subculturing in amoxicillin-clavulanate led to raised MICs for only one strain, with the MIC rising from 0.015 to 0. 125 microgram/ml after 24 passages. Double mutations in both ParC and GyrA led to high-level quinolone resistance when ParC mutations were at S79. Trovafloxacin MICs were 1 to 2 microgram/ml in double mutants with ParC mutations at positions other than S79 (e.g., D83). Mutations in ParE (at D435, R447, and E474) and GyrB (at S405, D406, and D435) were found in four and six mutants, respectively. In the presence of reserpine, 29 mutants had lower ciprofloxacin MICs (2 to 16 times lower), 8 mutants had lower levofloxacin MICs (2 times), and one mutant had a lower trovafloxacin MIC (2 times), suggesting the involvement of an efflux mechanism. In contrast to the case for quinolones, subculturing in the presence of amoxicillin-clavulanate did not select for resistance to this drug.  (+info)

beta-lactamase production and antimicrobial susceptibility of oral heterogeneous Fusobacterium nucleatum populations in young children. (4/322)

Oral Fusobacterium nucleatum populations from 20 young, healthy children were examined for beta-lactamase production. Ten children (50%) harbored, altogether, 25 beta-lactamase-positive F. nucleatum isolates that were identified as F. nucleatum subsp. polymorphum, F. nucleatum subsp. nucleatum, and F. nucleatum subsp. vincentii (J. L. Dzink, M. T. Sheenan, and S. S. Socransky, Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 40:74-78, 1990). In vitro susceptibility of these beta-lactamase-producing and 26 non-beta-lactamase-producing F. nucleatum isolates was tested with penicillin G, amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, tetracycline hydrochloride, metronidazole, trovafloxacin, and azithromycin. Except for penicillin G, the antimicrobials exhibited good activity against all F. nucleatum isolates.  (+info)

Antibiotic use in patients admitted with acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. (5/322)

The objective of this report was to document the pattern of initial antibiotic prescribing in acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) in a hospital setting. All episodes of acute exacerbation of COPD, as diagnosed by the admitting doctor, in one hospital in the period January to May 1996, were identified. Case notes were reviewed retrospectively. Cases of radiographic pneumonia, bronchiectasis and incorrectly coded admissions were excluded. Symptoms, microbial cultures and initial antibiotic therapies were recorded. One hundred and fifty-nine patient episodes were identified; 40 were excluded yielding a sample of 119. Nineteen case notes were unavailable leaving a sample of 100 (84%) episodes. Eighty were treated with antibiotics on admission; amoxycillin was the most frequently prescribed, in 46 (58%) episodes. Of the antibiotic treated group, 42 (53%) patients were given dual therapy, most commonly a macrolide antibiotic with either amoxycillin or a cephalosporin. Intravenous treatment was used in 22 (28%) cases. The duration of intravenous treatment was >48 h in 12 (15%) cases. A total of 76 sputum samples were analysed from 55 patient episodes: 34 (45%) were culture positive. In 15 (27%) patient episodes, antibiotic therapy was changed or instituted on the basis of culture results. These data suggest that antibiotic treatment is not optimal, with overuse of antibiotics, especially intravenous and dual therapy.  (+info)

Co-amoxiclav affects cytokine production by human polymorphonuclear cells. (6/322)

Some antimicrobial agents have been reported to modify the host immune responses both in vivo and in vitro. As we demonstrated previously that co-amoxiclav had beneficial properties which result in enhancement of the microbicidal functions of human poly-morphonuclear cell (PMNs), we investigated the modulatory effect of this combination on cytokine production by human PMNs in vitro. The addition of co-amoxiclav elicited the production by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated PMNs of substantial amounts of some cytokines, namely IL-8 and IL-1beta, after the addition of Klebsiella pneumoniae. These cytokine levels were higher than those obtained by PMNs incubated in culture medium only, without co-amoxiclav.  (+info)

Sensitivity of amoxicillin-resistant Helicobacter pylori to other penicillins. (7/322)

The sensitivities to penicillins and to a penicillin and beta-lactamase inhibitor combination agent were determined for Helicobacter pylori strains that were sensitive, moderately resistant, or highly resistant to amoxicillin. All strains were resistant to nafcillin and oxacillin. Moderately resistant strains showed an intermediate zone of inhibition to ticarcillin, mezlocillin, piperacillin, and amoxicillin-clavulanic acid. High-level resistance was associated with the smallest zone size for all penicillins tested.  (+info)

Differences between the activity of penicillin, amoxycillin, and co-amoxyclav against 5,252 Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates tested in the Alexander Project 1992-1996. (8/322)

A number of published studies have shown that the MICs of amoxycillin and/or co-amoxyclav are lower than those of ampicillin and/or penicillin for Streptococcus pneumoniae. Other published studies have concluded that the activities of amoxycillin and co-amoxyclav are comparable with that of penicillin for S. pneumoniae. A collection of 5252 S. pneumoniae isolates obtained during a 5 year period (1992-1996) was analysed to determine differences between the MICs of penicillin, amoxycillin and co-amoxyclav. Among the isolates analysed, 3788 (72%) were penicillin-susceptible, 615 (12%) were penicillin-intermediate and 849 (16%) were penicillin-resistant. Differences between the agents were assessed by examination of MIC distribution functions and simultaneous 95% CIs. In addition, penicillin-intermediate and -resistant isolates were analysed to determine the number and percentage of isolates which had an amoxycillin and co-amoxyclav MIC less than, equal to, or greater than the penicillin MIC. Results showed that the amoxycillin and co-amoxyclav MIC90s were one two-fold dilution lower than those of penicillin for all isolates collected between 1992-1993 and 1994-1996. Simultaneous 95% CIs showed that the mean differences between MICs of amoxycillin and penicillin, and between MICs of co-amoxyclav and penicillin, were less than zero. The majority of the penicillin-intermediate and penicillin-resistant isolates had an amoxycillin and co-amoxyclav MIC less than the penicillin MIC. In conclusion, amoxycillin and co-amoxyclav MICs were shown to be lower than the penicillin MICs for the S. pneumoniae isolates analysed in this study.  (+info)

Clavulanic acid is a type of beta-lactamase inhibitor, which is a compound that is used to increase the effectiveness of certain antibiotics. It works by preventing the breakdown of beta-lactam antibiotics (such as penicillins and cephalosporins) by bacterial enzymes called beta-lactamases. This allows the antibiotic to remain active against the bacteria for a longer period of time, increasing its ability to kill the bacteria and treat the infection.

Clavulanic acid is often combined with amoxicillin in a medication called Augmentin, which is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections, including respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, and skin and soft tissue infections. It may also be used in other combinations with other beta-lactam antibiotics.

Like all medications, clavulanic acid can have side effects, including gastrointestinal symptoms such as diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting. It may also cause allergic reactions in some people, particularly those who are allergic to penicillin or other beta-lactam antibiotics. It is important to follow the instructions of a healthcare provider when taking clavulanic acid or any medication.

The Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination is an antibiotic medication used to treat various infections caused by bacteria. This combination therapy combines the antibiotic amoxicillin with potassium clavulanate, which is a beta-lactamase inhibitor. The addition of potassium clavulanate helps protect amoxicillin from being broken down by certain types of bacteria that produce beta-lactamases, thus increasing the effectiveness of the antibiotic against a broader range of bacterial infections.

Amoxicillin is a type of penicillin antibiotic that works by inhibiting the synthesis of the bacterial cell wall, ultimately leading to bacterial death. However, some bacteria have developed enzymes called beta-lactamases, which can break down and inactivate certain antibiotics like amoxicillin. Potassium clavulanate is added to the combination to inhibit these beta-lactamase enzymes, allowing amoxicillin to maintain its effectiveness against a wider range of bacteria.

This combination medication is used to treat various infections, including skin and soft tissue infections, respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, and dental infections. It's essential to follow the prescribed dosage and duration as directed by a healthcare professional to ensure effective treatment and prevent antibiotic resistance.

Common brand names for this combination include Augmentin and Amoxiclav.

Amoxicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form cell walls, which is necessary for their growth and survival. By disrupting this process, amoxicillin can kill bacteria and help to clear up infections.

Amoxicillin is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections, including respiratory tract infections, ear infections, skin infections, and urinary tract infections. It is available as a tablet, capsule, chewable tablet, or liquid suspension, and is typically taken two to three times a day.

Like all antibiotics, amoxicillin should be used only under the direction of a healthcare provider, and it is important to take the full course of treatment as prescribed, even if symptoms improve before the medication is finished. Misuse of antibiotics can lead to the development of drug-resistant bacteria, which can make infections more difficult to treat in the future.

Potassium is a essential mineral and an important electrolyte that is widely distributed in the human body. The majority of potassium in the body (approximately 98%) is found within cells, with the remaining 2% present in blood serum and other bodily fluids. Potassium plays a crucial role in various physiological processes, including:

1. Regulation of fluid balance and maintenance of normal blood pressure through its effects on vascular tone and sodium excretion.
2. Facilitation of nerve impulse transmission and muscle contraction by participating in the generation and propagation of action potentials.
3. Protein synthesis, enzyme activation, and glycogen metabolism.
4. Regulation of acid-base balance through its role in buffering systems.

The normal serum potassium concentration ranges from 3.5 to 5.0 mEq/L (milliequivalents per liter) or mmol/L (millimoles per liter). Potassium levels outside this range can have significant clinical consequences, with both hypokalemia (low potassium levels) and hyperkalemia (high potassium levels) potentially leading to serious complications such as cardiac arrhythmias, muscle weakness, and respiratory failure.

Potassium is primarily obtained through the diet, with rich sources including fruits (e.g., bananas, oranges, and apricots), vegetables (e.g., leafy greens, potatoes, and tomatoes), legumes, nuts, dairy products, and meat. In cases of deficiency or increased needs, potassium supplements may be recommended under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Clavulanic acid is not a medical condition, but rather an antibacterial compound that is often combined with certain antibiotics to increase their effectiveness against bacteria that have become resistant to the antibiotic alone. It works by inhibiting certain enzymes produced by bacteria that help them to resist the antibiotic, allowing the antibiotic to work more effectively.

Clavulanic acid is typically combined with antibiotics such as amoxicillin or ticarcillin to treat a variety of bacterial infections, including respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, and skin and soft tissue infections. It is important to note that clavulanate-containing medications should only be used under the direction of a healthcare provider, as misuse or overuse can contribute to antibiotic resistance.

Anti-bacterial agents, also known as antibiotics, are a type of medication used to treat infections caused by bacteria. These agents work by either killing the bacteria or inhibiting their growth and reproduction. There are several different classes of anti-bacterial agents, including penicillins, cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones, macrolides, and tetracyclines, among others. Each class of antibiotic has a specific mechanism of action and is used to treat certain types of bacterial infections. It's important to note that anti-bacterial agents are not effective against viral infections, such as the common cold or flu. Misuse and overuse of antibiotics can lead to antibiotic resistance, which is a significant global health concern.

Potassium channels are membrane proteins that play a crucial role in regulating the electrical excitability of cells, including cardiac, neuronal, and muscle cells. These channels facilitate the selective passage of potassium ions (K+) across the cell membrane, maintaining the resting membrane potential and shaping action potentials. They are composed of four or six subunits that assemble to form a central pore through which potassium ions move down their electrochemical gradient. Potassium channels can be modulated by various factors such as voltage, ligands, mechanical stimuli, or temperature, allowing cells to fine-tune their electrical properties and respond to different physiological demands. Dysfunction of potassium channels has been implicated in several diseases, including cardiac arrhythmias, epilepsy, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Beta-lactamases are enzymes produced by certain bacteria that can break down and inactivate beta-lactam antibiotics, such as penicillins, cephalosporins, and carbapenems. This enzymatic activity makes the bacteria resistant to these antibiotics, limiting their effectiveness in treating infections caused by these organisms.

Beta-lactamases work by hydrolyzing the beta-lactam ring, a structural component of these antibiotics that is essential for their antimicrobial activity. By breaking down this ring, the enzyme renders the antibiotic ineffective against the bacterium, allowing it to continue growing and potentially causing harm.

There are different classes of beta-lactamases (e.g., Ambler Class A, B, C, and D), each with distinct characteristics and mechanisms for breaking down various beta-lactam antibiotics. The emergence and spread of bacteria producing these enzymes have contributed to the growing problem of antibiotic resistance, making it increasingly challenging to treat infections caused by these organisms.

To overcome this issue, researchers have developed beta-lactamase inhibitors, which are drugs that can bind to and inhibit the activity of these enzymes, thus restoring the effectiveness of certain beta-lactam antibiotics. Examples of such combinations include amoxicillin/clavulanate (Augmentin) and piperacillin/tazobactam (Zosyn).

Penicillins are a group of antibiotics derived from the Penicillium fungus. They are widely used to treat various bacterial infections due to their bactericidal activity, which means they kill bacteria by interfering with the synthesis of their cell walls. The first penicillin, benzylpenicillin (also known as penicillin G), was discovered in 1928 by Sir Alexander Fleming. Since then, numerous semi-synthetic penicillins have been developed to expand the spectrum of activity and stability against bacterial enzymes that can inactivate these drugs.

Penicillins are classified into several groups based on their chemical structure and spectrum of activity:

1. Natural Penicillins (e.g., benzylpenicillin, phenoxymethylpenicillin): These have a narrow spectrum of activity, mainly targeting Gram-positive bacteria such as streptococci and staphylococci. However, they are susceptible to degradation by beta-lactamase enzymes produced by some bacteria.
2. Penicillinase-resistant Penicillins (e.g., methicillin, oxacillin, nafcillin): These penicillins resist degradation by certain bacterial beta-lactamases and are primarily used to treat infections caused by staphylococci, including methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA).
3. Aminopenicillins (e.g., ampicillin, amoxicillin): These penicillins have an extended spectrum of activity compared to natural penicillins, including some Gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Haemophilus influenzae. However, they are still susceptible to degradation by many beta-lactamases.
4. Antipseudomonal Penicillins (e.g., carbenicillin, ticarcillin): These penicillins have activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and other Gram-negative bacteria with increased resistance to other antibiotics. They are often combined with beta-lactamase inhibitors such as clavulanate or tazobactam to protect them from degradation.
5. Extended-spectrum Penicillins (e.g., piperacillin): These penicillins have a broad spectrum of activity, including many Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. They are often combined with beta-lactamase inhibitors to protect them from degradation.

Penicillins are generally well-tolerated antibiotics; however, they can cause allergic reactions in some individuals, ranging from mild skin rashes to life-threatening anaphylaxis. Cross-reactivity between different penicillin classes and other beta-lactam antibiotics (e.g., cephalosporins) is possible but varies depending on the specific drugs involved.

Microbial sensitivity tests, also known as antibiotic susceptibility tests (ASTs) or bacterial susceptibility tests, are laboratory procedures used to determine the effectiveness of various antimicrobial agents against specific microorganisms isolated from a patient's infection. These tests help healthcare providers identify which antibiotics will be most effective in treating an infection and which ones should be avoided due to resistance. The results of these tests can guide appropriate antibiotic therapy, minimize the potential for antibiotic resistance, improve clinical outcomes, and reduce unnecessary side effects or toxicity from ineffective antimicrobials.

There are several methods for performing microbial sensitivity tests, including:

1. Disk diffusion method (Kirby-Bauer test): A standardized paper disk containing a predetermined amount of an antibiotic is placed on an agar plate that has been inoculated with the isolated microorganism. After incubation, the zone of inhibition around the disk is measured to determine the susceptibility or resistance of the organism to that particular antibiotic.
2. Broth dilution method: A series of tubes or wells containing decreasing concentrations of an antimicrobial agent are inoculated with a standardized microbial suspension. After incubation, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) is determined by observing the lowest concentration of the antibiotic that prevents visible growth of the organism.
3. Automated systems: These use sophisticated technology to perform both disk diffusion and broth dilution methods automatically, providing rapid and accurate results for a wide range of microorganisms and antimicrobial agents.

The interpretation of microbial sensitivity test results should be done cautiously, considering factors such as the site of infection, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the antibiotic, potential toxicity, and local resistance patterns. Regular monitoring of susceptibility patterns and ongoing antimicrobial stewardship programs are essential to ensure optimal use of these tests and to minimize the development of antibiotic resistance.

Beta-lactams are a class of antibiotics that include penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems, and monobactams. They contain a beta-lactam ring in their chemical structure, which is responsible for their antibacterial activity. The beta-lactam ring inhibits the bacterial enzymes necessary for cell wall synthesis, leading to bacterial death. Beta-lactams are commonly used to treat a wide range of bacterial infections, including respiratory tract infections, skin and soft tissue infections, urinary tract infections, and bone and joint infections. However, some bacteria have developed resistance to beta-lactams through the production of beta-lactamases, enzymes that can break down the beta-lactam ring and render the antibiotic ineffective. To overcome this resistance, beta-lactam antibiotics are often combined with beta-lactamase inhibitors, which protect the beta-lactam ring from degradation.

Penicillanic acid is not a term that has a widely accepted or established medical definition in the context of human medicine or clinical practice. It is a chemical compound that is a derivative of penicillin, an antibiotic produced by certain types of mold. Penicillanic acid is a breakdown product of penicillin and is not itself used as a medication.

In chemistry, penicillanic acid is a organic compound with the formula (CH3)2C6H5COOH. It is a derivative of benzene and has a carboxylic acid group and a five-membered ring containing a sulfur atom and a double bond, which is a characteristic feature of penicillin and its derivatives.

It's important to note that while penicillanic acid may have relevance in the context of chemistry or microbiology research, it does not have a direct medical definition or application in clinical medicine.

Sulbactam is not a medication itself, but it's a type of β-lactamase inhibitor. It's often combined with other antibiotics such as ampicillin or cefoperazone to increase their effectiveness against bacteria that produce β-lactamases, enzymes that can inactivate certain types of antibiotics (like penicillins and cephalosporins). By inhibiting these enzymes, sulbactam helps to protect the antibiotic from being deactivated, allowing it to maintain its activity against bacteria.

The combination of sulbactam with other antibiotics is used to treat various infections caused by susceptible bacteria, including skin and soft tissue infections, respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, and intra-abdominal infections. It's important to note that the specific medical definition of sulbactam would be a β-lactamase inhibitor used in combination with other antibiotics for treating bacterial infections.

Combination drug therapy is a treatment approach that involves the use of multiple medications with different mechanisms of action to achieve better therapeutic outcomes. This approach is often used in the management of complex medical conditions such as cancer, HIV/AIDS, and cardiovascular diseases. The goal of combination drug therapy is to improve efficacy, reduce the risk of drug resistance, decrease the likelihood of adverse effects, and enhance the overall quality of life for patients.

In combining drugs, healthcare providers aim to target various pathways involved in the disease process, which may help to:

1. Increase the effectiveness of treatment by attacking the disease from multiple angles.
2. Decrease the dosage of individual medications, reducing the risk and severity of side effects.
3. Slow down or prevent the development of drug resistance, a common problem in chronic diseases like HIV/AIDS and cancer.
4. Improve patient compliance by simplifying dosing schedules and reducing pill burden.

Examples of combination drug therapy include:

1. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV treatment, which typically involves three or more drugs from different classes to suppress viral replication and prevent the development of drug resistance.
2. Chemotherapy regimens for cancer treatment, where multiple cytotoxic agents are used to target various stages of the cell cycle and reduce the likelihood of tumor cells developing resistance.
3. Cardiovascular disease management, which may involve combining medications such as angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, beta-blockers, diuretics, and statins to control blood pressure, heart rate, fluid balance, and cholesterol levels.
4. Treatment of tuberculosis, which often involves a combination of several antibiotics to target different aspects of the bacterial life cycle and prevent the development of drug-resistant strains.

When prescribing combination drug therapy, healthcare providers must carefully consider factors such as potential drug interactions, dosing schedules, adverse effects, and contraindications to ensure safe and effective treatment. Regular monitoring of patients is essential to assess treatment response, manage side effects, and adjust the treatment plan as needed.

Otitis media is an inflammation or infection of the middle ear. It can occur as a result of a cold, respiratory infection, or allergy that causes fluid buildup behind the eardrum. The buildup of fluid can lead to infection and irritation of the middle ear, causing symptoms such as ear pain, hearing loss, and difficulty balancing. There are two types of otitis media: acute otitis media (AOM), which is a short-term infection that can cause fever and severe ear pain, and otitis media with effusion (OME), which is fluid buildup in the middle ear without symptoms of infection. In some cases, otitis media may require medical treatment, including antibiotics or the placement of ear tubes to drain the fluid and relieve pressure on the eardrum.

Clarithromycin is a antibiotic medication used to treat various types of bacterial infections, including respiratory, skin, and soft tissue infections. It is a member of the macrolide antibiotic family, which works by inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis. Clarithromycin is available by prescription and is often used in combination with other medications to treat conditions such as Helicobacter pylori infection and Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) infection.

The medical definition of clarithromycin is:

"A antibiotic medication used to treat various types of bacterial infections, belonging to the macrolide antibiotic family. It works by inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis and is available by prescription."

Beta-lactam resistance is a type of antibiotic resistance in which bacteria have developed the ability to inactivate or circumvent the action of beta-lactam antibiotics. Beta-lactams are a class of antibiotics that include penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems, and monobactams. They work by binding to and inhibiting the activity of enzymes called penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), which are essential for bacterial cell wall synthesis.

Bacteria can develop beta-lactam resistance through several mechanisms:

1. Production of beta-lactamases: These are enzymes that bacteria produce to break down and inactivate beta-lactam antibiotics. Some bacteria have acquired genes that encode for beta-lactamases that can hydrolyze and destroy the beta-lactam ring, rendering the antibiotic ineffective.
2. Alteration of PBPs: Bacteria can also develop mutations in their PBPs that make them less susceptible to beta-lactams. These alterations can reduce the affinity of PBPs for beta-lactams or change their conformation, preventing the antibiotic from binding effectively.
3. Efflux pumps: Bacteria can also develop efflux pumps that actively pump beta-lactam antibiotics out of the cell, reducing their intracellular concentration and limiting their effectiveness.
4. Biofilm formation: Some bacteria can form biofilms, which are communities of microorganisms that adhere to surfaces and are encased in a protective matrix. Biofilms can make bacteria more resistant to beta-lactams by preventing the antibiotics from reaching their targets.

Beta-lactam resistance is a significant public health concern because it limits the effectiveness of these important antibiotics. The overuse and misuse of beta-lactams have contributed to the emergence and spread of resistant bacteria, making it essential to use these antibiotics judiciously and develop new strategies to combat bacterial resistance.

Ampicillin is a penicillin-type antibiotic used to treat a wide range of bacterial infections. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form cell walls, which are essential for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die.

The medical definition of Ampicillin is:

"A semi-synthetic penicillin antibiotic, derived from the Penicillium mold. It is used to treat a variety of infections caused by susceptible gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Ampicillin is effective against both aerobic and anaerobic organisms. It is commonly used to treat respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, meningitis, and endocarditis."

It's important to note that Ampicillin is not effective against infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) or other bacteria that have developed resistance to penicillins. Additionally, overuse of antibiotics like Ampicillin can lead to the development of antibiotic resistance, which is a significant public health concern.

Ticarcillin is an antibiotic medication that belongs to the class of drugs called penicillins. It is primarily used to treat infections caused by susceptible bacteria. Ticarcillin has activity against various gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

The drug works by inhibiting the synthesis of bacterial cell walls, leading to bacterial death. It is often administered intravenously in a hospital setting due to its poor oral bioavailability. Common side effects include gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, as well as allergic reactions, including rash and itching.

It's important to note that the use of ticarcillin should be based on the results of bacterial culture and sensitivity testing to ensure its effectiveness against the specific bacteria causing the infection. Additionally, healthcare providers should monitor renal function during treatment, as ticarcillin can affect kidney function in some patients.

Bacterial drug resistance is a type of antimicrobial resistance that occurs when bacteria evolve the ability to survive and reproduce in the presence of drugs (such as antibiotics) that would normally kill them or inhibit their growth. This can happen due to various mechanisms, including genetic mutations or the acquisition of resistance genes from other bacteria.

As a result, bacterial infections may become more difficult to treat, requiring higher doses of medication, alternative drugs, or longer treatment courses. In some cases, drug-resistant infections can lead to serious health complications, increased healthcare costs, and higher mortality rates.

Examples of bacterial drug resistance include methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE), and multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB). Preventing the spread of bacterial drug resistance is crucial for maintaining effective treatments for infectious diseases.

Metronidazole is an antibiotic and antiprotozoal medication. It is primarily used to treat infections caused by anaerobic bacteria and certain parasites. Metronidazole works by interfering with the DNA of these organisms, which inhibits their ability to grow and multiply.

It is available in various forms, including tablets, capsules, creams, and gels, and is often used to treat conditions such as bacterial vaginosis, pelvic inflammatory disease, amebiasis, giardiasis, and pseudomembranous colitis.

Like all antibiotics, metronidazole should be taken only under the direction of a healthcare provider, as misuse can lead to antibiotic resistance and other complications.

Streptococcus pneumoniae, also known as the pneumococcus, is a gram-positive, alpha-hemolytic bacterium frequently found in the upper respiratory tract of healthy individuals. It is a leading cause of community-acquired pneumonia and can also cause other infectious diseases such as otitis media (ear infection), sinusitis, meningitis, and bacteremia (bloodstream infection). The bacteria are encapsulated, and there are over 90 serotypes based on variations in the capsular polysaccharide. Some serotypes are more virulent or invasive than others, and the polysaccharide composition is crucial for vaccine development. S. pneumoniae infection can be treated with antibiotics, but the emergence of drug-resistant strains has become a significant global health concern.

Haemophilus influenzae is a gram-negative, coccobacillary bacterium that can cause a variety of infectious diseases in humans. It is part of the normal respiratory flora but can become pathogenic under certain circumstances. The bacteria are named after their initial discovery in 1892 by Richard Pfeiffer during an influenza pandemic, although they are not the causative agent of influenza.

There are six main serotypes (a-f) based on the polysaccharide capsule surrounding the bacterium, with type b (Hib) being the most virulent and invasive. Hib can cause severe invasive diseases such as meningitis, pneumonia, epiglottitis, and sepsis, particularly in children under 5 years of age. The introduction of the Hib conjugate vaccine has significantly reduced the incidence of these invasive diseases.

Non-typeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi) strains lack a capsule and are responsible for non-invasive respiratory tract infections, such as otitis media, sinusitis, and exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). NTHi can also cause invasive diseases but at lower frequency compared to Hib.

Proper diagnosis and antibiotic susceptibility testing are crucial for effective treatment, as Haemophilus influenzae strains may display resistance to certain antibiotics.

Penicillin resistance is the ability of certain bacteria to withstand the antibacterial effects of penicillin, a type of antibiotic. This occurs when these bacteria have developed mechanisms that prevent penicillin from binding to and inhibiting the function of their cell wall biosynthesis proteins, particularly the enzyme transpeptidase.

One common mechanism of penicillin resistance is the production of beta-lactamases, enzymes that can hydrolyze and inactivate the beta-lactam ring structure present in penicillin and other related antibiotics. Another mechanism involves alterations in the bacterial cell wall that prevent penicillin from binding to its target proteins.

Penicillin resistance is a significant concern in clinical settings, as it can limit treatment options for bacterial infections and may necessitate the use of more potent or toxic antibiotics. It is important to note that misuse or overuse of antibiotics can contribute to the development and spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, including those resistant to penicillin.

Potassium channel blockers are a class of medications that work by blocking potassium channels, which are proteins in the cell membrane that control the movement of potassium ions into and out of cells. By blocking these channels, potassium channel blockers can help to regulate electrical activity in the heart, making them useful for treating certain types of cardiac arrhythmias (irregular heart rhythms).

There are several different types of potassium channel blockers, including:

1. Class III antiarrhythmic drugs: These medications, such as amiodarone and sotalol, are used to treat and prevent serious ventricular arrhythmias (irregular heart rhythms that originate in the lower chambers of the heart).
2. Calcium channel blockers: While not strictly potassium channel blockers, some calcium channel blockers also have effects on potassium channels. These medications, such as diltiazem and verapamil, are used to treat hypertension (high blood pressure), angina (chest pain), and certain types of arrhythmias.
3. Non-selective potassium channel blockers: These medications, such as 4-aminopyridine and tetraethylammonium, have a broader effect on potassium channels and are used primarily in research settings to study the electrical properties of cells.

It's important to note that potassium channel blockers can have serious side effects, particularly when used in high doses or in combination with other medications that affect heart rhythms. They should only be prescribed by a healthcare provider who is familiar with their use and potential risks.

Inwardly rectifying potassium channels (Kir) are a type of potassium channel that allow for the selective passage of potassium ions (K+) across cell membranes. The term "inwardly rectifying" refers to their unique property of allowing potassium ions to flow more easily into the cell (inward current) than out of the cell (outward current). This characteristic is due to the voltage-dependent blockage of these channels by intracellular magnesium and polyamines at depolarized potentials.

These channels play crucial roles in various physiological processes, including:

1. Resting membrane potential maintenance: Kir channels help establish and maintain the negative resting membrane potential in cells by facilitating potassium efflux when the membrane potential is near the potassium equilibrium potential (Ek).
2. Action potential repolarization: In excitable cells like neurons and muscle fibers, Kir channels contribute to the rapid repolarization phase of action potentials, allowing for proper electrical signaling.
3. Cell volume regulation: Kir channels are involved in regulating cell volume by mediating potassium influx during osmotic stress or changes in intracellular ion concentrations.
4. Insulin secretion: In pancreatic β-cells, Kir channels control the membrane potential and calcium signaling necessary for insulin release.
5. Renal function: Kir channels are essential for maintaining electrolyte balance and controlling renal tubular transport in the kidneys.

There are several subfamilies of inwardly rectifying potassium channels (Kir1-7), each with distinct biophysical properties, tissue distributions, and functions. Mutations in genes encoding these channels can lead to various human diseases, including cardiac arrhythmias, epilepsy, and Bartter syndrome.

Cefuroxime is a type of antibiotic known as a cephalosporin, which is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections. It works by interfering with the bacteria's ability to form a cell wall, which is necessary for its survival. Without a functional cell wall, the bacteria are unable to grow and multiply, and are eventually destroyed by the body's immune system.

Cefuroxime is effective against many different types of bacteria, including both Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms. It is often used to treat respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, skin and soft tissue infections, and bone and joint infections.

Like all antibiotics, cefuroxime should be used only under the direction of a healthcare provider, and it is important to take the full course of treatment as prescribed, even if symptoms improve before the medication is finished. Misuse of antibiotics can lead to the development of drug-resistant bacteria, which are more difficult to treat and can pose a serious threat to public health.

Dietary Potassium is a mineral and an essential electrolyte that is required in the human body for various physiological processes. It is primarily obtained through dietary sources. The recommended daily intake of potassium for adults is 4700 milligrams (mg).

Potassium plays a crucial role in maintaining normal blood pressure, heart function, and muscle and nerve activity. It also helps to balance the body's fluids and prevent kidney stones. Foods that are rich in dietary potassium include fruits such as bananas, oranges, and melons; vegetables such as leafy greens, potatoes, and tomatoes; legumes such as beans and lentils; dairy products such as milk and yogurt; and nuts and seeds.

It is important to maintain a balanced intake of dietary potassium, as both deficiency and excess can have negative health consequences. A deficiency in potassium can lead to muscle weakness, fatigue, and heart arrhythmias, while an excess can cause hyperkalemia, which can result in serious cardiac complications.

Cephalosporins are a class of antibiotics that are derived from the fungus Acremonium, originally isolated from seawater and cow dung. They have a similar chemical structure to penicillin and share a common four-membered beta-lactam ring in their molecular structure.

Cephalosporins work by inhibiting the synthesis of bacterial cell walls, which ultimately leads to bacterial death. They are broad-spectrum antibiotics, meaning they are effective against a wide range of bacteria, including both Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms.

There are several generations of cephalosporins, each with different spectra of activity and pharmacokinetic properties. The first generation cephalosporins have a narrow spectrum of activity and are primarily used to treat infections caused by susceptible Gram-positive bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pneumoniae.

Second-generation cephalosporins have an expanded spectrum of activity that includes some Gram-negative organisms, such as Escherichia coli and Haemophilus influenzae. Third-generation cephalosporins have even broader spectra of activity and are effective against many resistant Gram-negative bacteria, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae.

Fourth-generation cephalosporins have activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms, including some that are resistant to other antibiotics. They are often reserved for the treatment of serious infections caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria.

Cephalosporins are generally well tolerated, but like penicillin, they can cause allergic reactions in some individuals. Cross-reactivity between cephalosporins and penicillin is estimated to occur in 5-10% of patients with a history of penicillin allergy. Other potential adverse effects include gastrointestinal symptoms (such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea), neurotoxicity, and nephrotoxicity.

A lactam is a cyclic amide compound containing a carbonyl group (a double-bonded carbon atom) and a nitrogen atom. The name "lactam" is derived from the fact that these compounds are structurally similar to lactones, which are cyclic esters, but with an amide bond instead of an ester bond.

Lactams can be found in various natural and synthetic compounds, including some antibiotics such as penicillin and cephalosporins. These antibiotics contain a four-membered lactam ring (known as a β-lactam) that is essential for their biological activity. The β-lactam ring makes these compounds highly reactive, allowing them to inhibit bacterial cell wall synthesis and thus kill the bacteria.

In summary, lactams are cyclic amide compounds with a carbonyl group and a nitrogen atom in the ring structure. They can be found in various natural and synthetic compounds, including some antibiotics such as penicillin and cephalosporins.

Potassium deficiency, also known as hypokalemia, is a condition characterized by low levels of potassium (

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a gram-negative, microaerophilic bacterium that colonizes the stomach of approximately 50% of the global population. It is closely associated with gastritis and peptic ulcer disease, and is implicated in the pathogenesis of gastric adenocarcinoma and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma. H. pylori infection is usually acquired in childhood and can persist for life if not treated. The bacterium's spiral shape and flagella allow it to penetrate the mucus layer and adhere to the gastric epithelium, where it releases virulence factors that cause inflammation and tissue damage. Diagnosis of H. pylori infection can be made through various tests, including urea breath test, stool antigen test, or histological examination of a gastric biopsy. Treatment typically involves a combination of antibiotics and proton pump inhibitors to eradicate the bacteria and promote healing of the stomach lining.

Azithromycin is a widely used antibiotic drug that belongs to the class of macrolides. It works by inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis, which leads to the death of susceptible bacteria. This medication is active against a broad range of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, atypical bacteria, and some parasites.

Azithromycin is commonly prescribed to treat various bacterial infections, such as:

1. Respiratory tract infections, including pneumonia, bronchitis, and sinusitis
2. Skin and soft tissue infections
3. Sexually transmitted diseases, like chlamydia
4. Otitis media (middle ear infection)
5. Traveler's diarrhea

The drug is available in various forms, including tablets, capsules, suspension, and intravenous solutions. The typical dosage for adults ranges from 250 mg to 500 mg per day, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Like other antibiotics, azithromycin should be used judiciously to prevent antibiotic resistance. It is essential to complete the full course of treatment as prescribed by a healthcare professional, even if symptoms improve before finishing the medication.

Voltage-gated potassium channels are a type of ion channel found in the membrane of excitable cells such as nerve and muscle cells. They are called "voltage-gated" because their opening and closing is regulated by the voltage, or electrical potential, across the cell membrane. Specifically, these channels are activated when the membrane potential becomes more positive, a condition that occurs during the action potential of a neuron or muscle fiber.

When voltage-gated potassium channels open, they allow potassium ions (K+) to flow out of the cell down their electrochemical gradient. This outward flow of K+ ions helps to repolarize the membrane, bringing it back to its resting potential after an action potential has occurred. The precise timing and duration of the opening and closing of voltage-gated potassium channels is critical for the normal functioning of excitable cells, and abnormalities in these channels have been linked to a variety of diseases, including cardiac arrhythmias, epilepsy, and neurological disorders.

Potassium compounds refer to substances that contain the element potassium (chemical symbol: K) combined with one or more other elements. Potassium is an alkali metal that has the atomic number 19 and is highly reactive, so it is never found in its free form in nature. Instead, it is always found combined with other elements in the form of potassium compounds.

Potassium compounds can be ionic or covalent, depending on the properties of the other element(s) with which it is combined. In general, potassium forms ionic compounds with nonmetals and covalent compounds with other metals. Ionic potassium compounds are formed when potassium donates one electron to a nonmetal, forming a positively charged potassium ion (K+) and a negatively charged nonmetal ion.

Potassium compounds have many important uses in medicine, industry, and agriculture. For example, potassium chloride is used as a salt substitute and to treat or prevent low potassium levels in the blood. Potassium citrate is used to treat kidney stones and to alkalinize urine. Potassium iodide is used to treat thyroid disorders and to protect the thyroid gland from radioactive iodine during medical imaging procedures.

It's important to note that some potassium compounds can be toxic or even fatal if ingested in large quantities, so they should only be used under the supervision of a healthcare professional.

Piperacillin is a type of antibiotic known as a semisynthetic penicillin that is used to treat a variety of infections caused by bacteria. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die.

Piperacillin has a broad spectrum of activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, including many strains that are resistant to other antibiotics. It is often used in combination with other antibiotics, such as tazobactam, to increase its effectiveness against certain types of bacteria.

Piperacillin is typically administered intravenously in a hospital setting and is used to treat serious infections such as pneumonia, sepsis, and abdominal or urinary tract infections. As with all antibiotics, it should be used only when necessary and under the guidance of a healthcare professional to reduce the risk of antibiotic resistance.

Helicobacter infections are caused by the bacterium Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori), which colonizes the stomach lining and is associated with various gastrointestinal diseases. The infection can lead to chronic active gastritis, peptic ulcers, gastric mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma, and gastric cancer.

The spiral-shaped H. pylori bacteria are able to survive in the harsh acidic environment of the stomach by producing urease, an enzyme that neutralizes gastric acid in their immediate vicinity. This allows them to adhere to and colonize the epithelial lining of the stomach, where they can cause inflammation (gastritis) and disrupt the normal functioning of the stomach.

Transmission of H. pylori typically occurs through oral-oral or fecal-oral routes, and infection is more common in developing countries and in populations with lower socioeconomic status. The diagnosis of Helicobacter infections can be confirmed through various tests, including urea breath tests, stool antigen tests, or gastric biopsy with histology and culture. Treatment usually involves a combination of antibiotics and proton pump inhibitors to eradicate the bacteria and reduce stomach acidity.

Actinomycetaceae is a family of Gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria that are characterized by their filamentous growth and the production of branching hyphae. These bacteria are often found in soil and water, and some species can cause disease in humans and animals. They are classified as aerobic or facultatively anaerobic organisms, meaning they can grow with or without oxygen.

The name "Actinomycetaceae" comes from the Greek words "aktis," meaning "ray" or "beam," and "mykes," meaning "fungus." This reflects the filamentous, fungus-like growth of these bacteria.

Some species of Actinomycetaceae are known to produce various antibiotics, including streptomycin, neomycin, and tetracycline. These antibiotics have been widely used in medicine to treat a variety of bacterial infections.

In humans, some species of Actinomycetaceae can cause actinomycosis, a chronic infection that typically affects the face, neck, and mouth. Symptoms of actinomycosis include swelling, pain, and the formation of abscesses or fistulas. Treatment usually involves long-term antibiotic therapy and sometimes surgical drainage of any abscesses.

Overall, Actinomycetaceae is an important family of bacteria with both beneficial and harmful effects on humans and other organisms.

Omeprazole is defined as a proton pump inhibitor (PPI) used in the treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), gastric ulcers, and other conditions where reducing stomach acid is desired. It works by blocking the action of the proton pumps in the stomach, which are responsible for producing stomach acid. By inhibiting these pumps, omeprazole reduces the amount of acid produced in the stomach, providing relief from symptoms such as heartburn and pain caused by excess stomach acid.

It is available in various forms, including tablets, capsules, and oral suspension, and is typically taken once or twice a day, depending on the condition being treated. As with any medication, omeprazole should be used under the guidance of a healthcare professional, and its potential side effects and interactions with other medications should be carefully considered before use.

Cefotaxime is a third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic, which is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections. It works by inhibiting the synthesis of the bacterial cell wall. Cefotaxime has a broad spectrum of activity and is effective against many Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including some that are resistant to other antibiotics.

Cefotaxime is often used to treat serious infections such as pneumonia, meningitis, and sepsis. It may also be used to prevent infections during surgery or in people with weakened immune systems. The drug is administered intravenously or intramuscularly, and its dosage depends on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Like all antibiotics, cefotaxime can cause side effects, including diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and rash. In rare cases, it may cause serious allergic reactions or damage to the kidneys or liver. It is important to follow the prescribing physician's instructions carefully when taking this medication.

2-Pyridinylmethylsulfinylbenzimidazoles is a class of chemical compounds that have both a pyridinylmethylsulfinyl group and a benzimidazole ring in their structure. Pyridinylmethylsulfinyl refers to a functional group consisting of a sulfinyl group (-S(=O)-) attached to a methyl group (-CH2-) that is, in turn, attached to a pyridine ring. Benzimidazoles are heterocyclic compounds containing a fused benzene and imidazole ring.

These types of compounds have been studied for their potential biological activity, including anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and antitumor properties. However, it's important to note that medical definitions typically refer to specific substances or classes of substances that have established clinical use or are under investigation for therapeutic purposes. As such, 2-Pyridinylmethylsulfinylbenzimidazoles do not have a recognized medical definition in this sense.

Thienamycins are a group of antibiotics that are characterized by their beta-lactam structure. They belong to the class of carbapenems and are known for their broad-spectrum antibacterial activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, including many that are resistant to other antibiotics. Thienamycins inhibit bacterial cell wall synthesis by binding to penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), which leads to bacterial cell death.

Thienamycin itself is not used clinically due to its instability, but several semi-synthetic derivatives of thienamycin have been developed and are used in the treatment of serious infections caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria. Examples of thienamycin derivatives include imipenem, meropenem, and ertapenem. These antibiotics are often reserved for the treatment of severe infections that are unresponsive to other antibiotics due to their potential to select for resistant bacteria and their high cost.

Enterobacteriaceae is a family of gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria that are commonly found in the intestines of humans and animals. Many species within this family are capable of causing various types of infections, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems. Some common examples of Enterobacteriaceae include Escherichia coli (E. coli), Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, and Salmonella enterica.

These bacteria are typically characterized by their ability to ferment various sugars and produce acid and gas as byproducts. They can also be distinguished by their biochemical reactions, such as their ability to produce certain enzymes or resist specific antibiotics. Infections caused by Enterobacteriaceae can range from mild to severe, depending on the species involved and the overall health of the infected individual.

Some infections caused by Enterobacteriaceae include urinary tract infections, pneumonia, bloodstream infections, and foodborne illnesses. Proper hygiene, such as handwashing and safe food handling practices, can help prevent the spread of these bacteria and reduce the risk of infection.

Community-acquired infections are those that are acquired outside of a healthcare setting, such as in one's own home or community. These infections are typically contracted through close contact with an infected person, contaminated food or water, or animals. Examples of community-acquired infections include the common cold, flu, strep throat, and many types of viral and bacterial gastrointestinal infections.

These infections are different from healthcare-associated infections (HAIs), which are infections that patients acquire while they are receiving treatment for another condition in a healthcare setting, such as a hospital or long-term care facility. HAIs can be caused by a variety of factors, including contact with contaminated surfaces or equipment, invasive medical procedures, and the use of certain medications.

It is important to note that community-acquired infections can also occur in healthcare settings if proper infection control measures are not in place. Healthcare providers must take steps to prevent the spread of these infections, such as washing their hands regularly, using personal protective equipment (PPE), and implementing isolation precautions for patients with known or suspected infectious diseases.

Potassium isotopes refer to variants of the element potassium that have different numbers of neutrons in their atomic nuclei, while having the same number of protons, which defines the element. The most common and stable potassium isotope is potassium-39 (39K), which contains 19 neutrons and 20 protons. However, there are also other naturally occurring potassium isotopes, including potassium-40 (40K) with 21 neutrons and potassium-41 (41K) with 22 neutrons.

Potassium-40 is a radioactive isotope that undergoes both beta decay and electron capture, making it useful for various scientific applications such as dating rocks and determining the age of archaeological artifacts. It has a half-life of approximately 1.25 billion years.

In medical contexts, potassium isotopes may be used in diagnostic tests or therapeutic procedures, such as positron emission tomography (PET) scans, where radioactive potassium-40 or other radioisotopes are introduced into the body to help visualize and diagnose various conditions. However, it's important to note that the use of potassium isotopes in medical settings is relatively rare due to the availability of other more commonly used radioisotopes.

A cephalosporinase is an enzyme that can break down and inactivate cephalosporins, a group of antibiotics commonly used to treat various bacterial infections. Bacteria that produce this enzyme are referred to as "cephalosporin-resistant" or "cephalosporinase-producing" organisms. The production of cephalosporinases by bacteria can lead to treatment failures and make infections more difficult to manage.

Cephalosporins are broad-spectrum antibiotics, which means they can be effective against a wide range of bacterial species. However, some bacteria have developed resistance mechanisms, such as the production of cephalosporinases, to counteract their effects. These enzymes hydrolyze the beta-lactam ring in cephalosporins, rendering them ineffective.

There are different classes of cephalosporinases (e.g., Ambler classes A, C, and D), each with distinct characteristics and substrate profiles. Some cephalosporinases can hydrolyze a broader range of cephalosporins than others, leading to varying degrees of resistance.

To overcome cephalosporinase-mediated resistance, alternative antibiotics or combinations of antibiotics may be used. Additionally, the development of new cephalosporins with improved stability against these enzymes is an ongoing area of research in the field of antimicrobial drug discovery.

Microbial drug resistance is a significant medical issue that refers to the ability of microorganisms (such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites) to withstand or survive exposure to drugs or medications designed to kill them or limit their growth. This phenomenon has become a major global health concern, particularly in the context of bacterial infections, where it is also known as antibiotic resistance.

Drug resistance arises due to genetic changes in microorganisms that enable them to modify or bypass the effects of antimicrobial agents. These genetic alterations can be caused by mutations or the acquisition of resistance genes through horizontal gene transfer. The resistant microbes then replicate and multiply, forming populations that are increasingly difficult to eradicate with conventional treatments.

The consequences of drug-resistant infections include increased morbidity, mortality, healthcare costs, and the potential for widespread outbreaks. Factors contributing to the emergence and spread of microbial drug resistance include the overuse or misuse of antimicrobials, poor infection control practices, and inadequate surveillance systems.

To address this challenge, it is crucial to promote prudent antibiotic use, strengthen infection prevention and control measures, develop new antimicrobial agents, and invest in research to better understand the mechanisms underlying drug resistance.

Anaerobic bacteria are a type of bacteria that do not require oxygen to grow and survive. Instead, they can grow in environments that have little or no oxygen. Some anaerobic bacteria can even be harmed or killed by exposure to oxygen. These bacteria play important roles in many natural processes, such as decomposition and the breakdown of organic matter in the digestive system. However, some anaerobic bacteria can also cause disease in humans and animals, particularly when they infect areas of the body that are normally oxygen-rich. Examples of anaerobic bacterial infections include tetanus, gas gangrene, and dental abscesses.

Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are infections that affect the respiratory system, which includes the nose, throat (pharynx), voice box (larynx), windpipe (trachea), bronchi, and lungs. These infections can be caused by viruses, bacteria, or, less commonly, fungi.

RTIs are classified into two categories based on their location: upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs) and lower respiratory tract infections (LRTIs). URTIs include infections of the nose, sinuses, throat, and larynx, such as the common cold, flu, laryngitis, and sinusitis. LRTIs involve the lower airways, including the bronchi and lungs, and can be more severe. Examples of LRTIs are pneumonia, bronchitis, and bronchiolitis.

Symptoms of RTIs depend on the location and cause of the infection but may include cough, congestion, runny nose, sore throat, difficulty breathing, wheezing, fever, fatigue, and chest pain. Treatment for RTIs varies depending on the severity and underlying cause of the infection. For viral infections, treatment typically involves supportive care to manage symptoms, while antibiotics may be prescribed for bacterial infections.

Chronic bronchitis is a long-term inflammation of the airways (bronchi) in the lungs. It is characterized by a persistent cough that produces excessive mucus or sputum. The cough and mucus production must be present for at least three months in two consecutive years to meet the diagnostic criteria for chronic bronchitis.

The inflammation of the airways can lead to narrowing, obstructing the flow of air into and out of the lungs, resulting in shortness of breath and wheezing. Chronic bronchitis is often associated with exposure to irritants such as tobacco smoke, dust, or chemical fumes over an extended period.

It is a significant component of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which also includes emphysema. While there is no cure for chronic bronchitis, treatments can help alleviate symptoms and slow the progression of the disease. These may include bronchodilators, corticosteroids, and pulmonary rehabilitation. Quitting smoking is crucial in managing this condition.

... amoxicillin MeSH D03.438.260.825.750.050.050.060 - amoxicillin-potassium clavulanate combination MeSH D03.438.260.825.750.050. ... amoxicillin MeSH D03.605.084.737.750.050.050.060 - amoxicillin-potassium clavulanate combination MeSH D03.605.084.737.750.050. ... trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole combination MeSH D03.383.773.050 - anisomycin MeSH D03.383.773.107 - bepridil MeSH D03.383. ...
... amoxicillin MeSH D02.065.589.099.750.750.050.050.060 - amoxicillin-potassium clavulanate combination MeSH D02.065.589.099. ... amoxicillin-potassium clavulanate combination MeSH D02.065.589.099.500 - monobactams MeSH D02.065.589.099.500.044 - aztreonam ... potassium citrate MeSH D02.241.081.944.509 - pentanoic acids MeSH D02.241.081.944.509.350 - gemfibrozil MeSH D02.241.081.944. ... potassium acetate MeSH D02.241.081.038.208.025.800 - sodium acetate MeSH D02.241.081.038.208.025.900 - thioglycolates MeSH ...
In its most common preparations, potassium clavulanate (clavulanic acid as a salt of potassium) is combined with: amoxicillin ( ... Despite this, some bacterial strains that are resistant even to such combinations have emerged. Fischer J, Ganellin CR (2006). ... "Drug Record - Amoxicillin-Clavulanate". LiverTox - Clinical and Research Information on Drug-Induced Liver Injury. Retrieved ... Amoxicillin-clavulanic acid is a first-line treatment for many types of infections, including sinus infections, and urinary ...
Other agents, such as amoxicillin/clavulanate are generally preferred, however. Acute otitis media caused by H. influenzae, M. ... In combination with ceftriaxone, azithromycin is part of the United States Centers for Disease Control-recommended regimen for ... low blood levels of potassium or magnesium, a slower than normal heart rate, or those who use certain drugs to treat abnormal ... Amoxicillin or another beta lactam antibiotic is generally preferred. Community-acquired pneumonia due to C. pneumoniae, H. ...
Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination / therapeutic use * Anti-Bacterial Agents / therapeutic use* * Colon, Sigmoid / ...
... compared with a standard 10-day course of amoxicillin/clavulanate, in the treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic ... Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination / adverse effects * Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination / therapeutic ... Telithromycin is as effective as amoxicillin/clavulanate in acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis Respir Med. 2002 Nov;96( ... Bacteriologic outcome was satisfactory for 69.2% of telithromycin recipients vs 70.0% for amoxicillin/clavulanate recipients. ...
Clavulanic Acid (Potassium Clavulanate) 7. Azithromycin (Zithromax) 8. Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination (Co- ... Potassium, Penicillin V; Sodium, Penicillin V; V Cillin K; V Sodium, Penicillin; VCillin K; Penicillin, Phenoxymethyl; 4-Thia-1 ... Penicillin V Potassium; Penicillin V Sodium; Penicillin VK; V-Cillin K; Vegacillin; Penicillin Beromycin; Penicillin Berromycin ...
Clindamycin (Cleocin) and the combination of amoxicillin-clavulanate potassium (Augmentin) are effective against most pathogens ... Warm soaks, oral antibiotics (clindamycin [Cleocin] or amoxicillin-clavulanate potassium [Augmentin]); spontaneous drainage, if ... When it is necessary to wear vinyl gloves, cotton gloves should be worn underneath.3,10 Treatment with a combination of topical ... 8 A wet mount with potassium hydroxide from a scraping may show hyphae, or a culture of the purulent discharge may show hyphae ...
... amoxicillin MeSH D03.438.260.825.750.050.050.060 - amoxicillin-potassium clavulanate combination MeSH D03.438.260.825.750.050. ... amoxicillin MeSH D03.605.084.737.750.050.050.060 - amoxicillin-potassium clavulanate combination MeSH D03.605.084.737.750.050. ... trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole combination MeSH D03.383.773.050 - anisomycin MeSH D03.383.773.107 - bepridil MeSH D03.383. ...
Amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium tablets, USP are an oral antibacterial combination consisting of amoxicillin and the beta ... Amoxicillin and Clavulanate Potassium Amoxicillin Clavulanate Potassium Amoxicillin Clavulanate Potassium 400 mg/57 mg (5 mL of ... Amoxicillin and Clavulanate Potassium Amoxicillin Clavulanate Potassium Amoxicillin Clavulanate Potassium 250 mg/125 mg every 8 ... Amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium tablets 400 mg/57 mg per 5 mL for oral suspensiona Amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium ...
Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination 24% * Amoxicillin 21% * Deglutition Disorders 19% * Research Personnel 13% ...
Amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium tablets, USP are an oral antibacterial combination consisting of amoxicillin and the beta ... One amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium 250 mg/62.5 mg chewable tablet or two amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium 125 mg/ ... amoxicillin 500 MG / clavulanate potassium 125 MG Oral Tablet. PSN. 2. 617296. amoxicillin 500 MG / clavulanate 125 MG Oral ... Amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium (2:1 ratio formulation of amoxicillin:clavulanate) at oral doses of up to 1,200 mg/kg/day ...
Potassium Clavulanate Amoxicillin Combination Potassium Clavulanate-Amoxicillin Combination BRL-25000 - Narrower Concept UI. ... Potassium Clavulanate Amoxicillin Combination. Potassium Clavulanate-Amoxicillin Combination. Spektramox. Synulox. Tree number( ... Amoxi Clavulanate Amoxi-Clavulanate Amoxicillin Clavulanic Acid Amoxicillin Potassium Clavulanate Combination Amoxicillin- ... Amoxi Clavulanate. Amoxi-Clavulanate. Amoxicillin Clavulanic Acid. Amoxicillin Potassium Clavulanate Combination. Amoxicillin- ...
Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination. D2.886.675.966.500.750.750.50.50.60 D2.886.108.750.750.50.50.60. D4.75.80.875. ... Potassium Acetate D1.745.312. Precipitin Tests E5.478.594.760.645. Prefrontal Cortex A8.186.211.730.885.213.270.700 A8.186. ... Amoxicillin D2.886.675.966.500.750.750.50.50 D2.886.108.750.750.50.50. D4.75.80.875.99.221.750.750.50.50. ... Replaced for 2008 by Sodium-Potassium-Exchanging ATPase). Nafcillin D2.886.675.966.500.750.562 D2.886.108.750.562. D4.75.80.875 ...
Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination. D2.886.675.966.500.750.750.50.50.60 D2.886.108.750.750.50.50.60. D4.75.80.875. ... Potassium Acetate D1.745.312. Precipitin Tests E5.478.594.760.645. Prefrontal Cortex A8.186.211.730.885.213.270.700 A8.186. ... Amoxicillin D2.886.675.966.500.750.750.50.50 D2.886.108.750.750.50.50. D4.75.80.875.99.221.750.750.50.50. ... Replaced for 2008 by Sodium-Potassium-Exchanging ATPase). Nafcillin D2.886.675.966.500.750.562 D2.886.108.750.562. D4.75.80.875 ...
Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination. D2.886.675.966.500.750.750.50.50.60 D2.886.108.750.750.50.50.60. D4.75.80.875. ... Potassium Acetate D1.745.312. Precipitin Tests E5.478.594.760.645. Prefrontal Cortex A8.186.211.730.885.213.270.700 A8.186. ... Amoxicillin D2.886.675.966.500.750.750.50.50 D2.886.108.750.750.50.50. D4.75.80.875.99.221.750.750.50.50. ... Replaced for 2008 by Sodium-Potassium-Exchanging ATPase). Nafcillin D2.886.675.966.500.750.562 D2.886.108.750.562. D4.75.80.875 ...
Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination. D2.886.675.966.500.750.750.50.50.60 D2.886.108.750.750.50.50.60. D4.75.80.875. ... Potassium Acetate D1.745.312. Precipitin Tests E5.478.594.760.645. Prefrontal Cortex A8.186.211.730.885.213.270.700 A8.186. ... Amoxicillin D2.886.675.966.500.750.750.50.50 D2.886.108.750.750.50.50. D4.75.80.875.99.221.750.750.50.50. ... Replaced for 2008 by Sodium-Potassium-Exchanging ATPase). Nafcillin D2.886.675.966.500.750.562 D2.886.108.750.562. D4.75.80.875 ...
Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination. Value Set Concept Status. Published. Value Set Concept Status Date. 04/19/2018. ... Amoxicillin / Clavulanate Code System Concept Status. Published. Code System Preferred Concept Name. Amoxicillin / Clavulanate ...
Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination. D2.886.675.966.500.750.750.50.50.60 D2.886.108.750.750.50.50.60. D4.75.80.875. ... Potassium Acetate D1.745.312. Precipitin Tests E5.478.594.760.645. Prefrontal Cortex A8.186.211.730.885.213.270.700 A8.186. ... Amoxicillin D2.886.675.966.500.750.750.50.50 D2.886.108.750.750.50.50. D4.75.80.875.99.221.750.750.50.50. ... Replaced for 2008 by Sodium-Potassium-Exchanging ATPase). Nafcillin D2.886.675.966.500.750.562 D2.886.108.750.562. D4.75.80.875 ...
Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination. D2.886.675.966.500.750.750.50.50.60 D2.886.108.750.750.50.50.60. D4.75.80.875. ... Potassium Acetate D1.745.312. Precipitin Tests E5.478.594.760.645. Prefrontal Cortex A8.186.211.730.885.213.270.700 A8.186. ... Amoxicillin D2.886.675.966.500.750.750.50.50 D2.886.108.750.750.50.50. D4.75.80.875.99.221.750.750.50.50. ... Replaced for 2008 by Sodium-Potassium-Exchanging ATPase). Nafcillin D2.886.675.966.500.750.562 D2.886.108.750.562. D4.75.80.875 ...
Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination. D2.886.675.966.500.750.750.50.50.60 D2.886.108.750.750.50.50.60. D4.75.80.875. ... Potassium Acetate D1.745.312. Precipitin Tests E5.478.594.760.645. Prefrontal Cortex A8.186.211.730.885.213.270.700 A8.186. ... Amoxicillin D2.886.675.966.500.750.750.50.50 D2.886.108.750.750.50.50. D4.75.80.875.99.221.750.750.50.50. ... Replaced for 2008 by Sodium-Potassium-Exchanging ATPase). Nafcillin D2.886.675.966.500.750.562 D2.886.108.750.562. D4.75.80.875 ...
Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination. D2.886.675.966.500.750.750.50.50.60 D2.886.108.750.750.50.50.60. D4.75.80.875. ... Potassium Acetate D1.745.312. Precipitin Tests E5.478.594.760.645. Prefrontal Cortex A8.186.211.730.885.213.270.700 A8.186. ... Amoxicillin D2.886.675.966.500.750.750.50.50 D2.886.108.750.750.50.50. D4.75.80.875.99.221.750.750.50.50. ... Replaced for 2008 by Sodium-Potassium-Exchanging ATPase). Nafcillin D2.886.675.966.500.750.562 D2.886.108.750.562. D4.75.80.875 ...
Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination. D2.886.675.966.500.750.750.50.50.60 D2.886.108.750.750.50.50.60. D4.75.80.875. ... Potassium Acetate D1.745.312. Precipitin Tests E5.478.594.760.645. Prefrontal Cortex A8.186.211.730.885.213.270.700 A8.186. ... Amoxicillin D2.886.675.966.500.750.750.50.50 D2.886.108.750.750.50.50. D4.75.80.875.99.221.750.750.50.50. ... Replaced for 2008 by Sodium-Potassium-Exchanging ATPase). Nafcillin D2.886.675.966.500.750.562 D2.886.108.750.562. D4.75.80.875 ...
Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination. D2.886.675.966.500.750.750.50.50.60 D2.886.108.750.750.50.50.60. D4.75.80.875. ... Potassium Acetate D1.745.312. Precipitin Tests E5.478.594.760.645. Prefrontal Cortex A8.186.211.730.885.213.270.700 A8.186. ... Amoxicillin D2.886.675.966.500.750.750.50.50 D2.886.108.750.750.50.50. D4.75.80.875.99.221.750.750.50.50. ... Replaced for 2008 by Sodium-Potassium-Exchanging ATPase). Nafcillin D2.886.675.966.500.750.562 D2.886.108.750.562. D4.75.80.875 ...
... of daily intravenous ceftriaxone/metronidazole with completion of a 7-day antibiotic course with amoxicillin-clavulanate of all ... Patients discharged prior to 5 days were discharged home without oral amoxicillin-clavulanate if no leukocytosis at discharge. ... Administration, Oral; Adolescent; Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination; Anti-Bacterial Agents; Appendectomy; ... Patients discharged prior to 5 days were discharged home without oral amoxicillin-clavulanate if no leukocytosis at discharge. ...
Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination. 1. + 126. Interferon Type I. 1. + 127. Cephalexin. 1. + ...
MeSH headings : Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination; Animals; Anti-Bacterial Agents / therapeutic use; Cefazolin; ...
Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination 46% * Pharmacists 35% * United Arab Emirates 34% 13 Citations (Scopus) ... Cost-effectiveness Analysis of Amlodipine-Candesartan and Amlodipine-Ramipril Combination Therapy in Hypertensive Outpatient ...
Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination 10% * Purpura 10% * Azithromycin 10% * Sulfamethoxazole Drug Combination ...
Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination 95% * Clavulanic Acid 95% * amoxicillin 90% 2 Downloads (Pure) ... Quality of amoxicillin/clavulanic acid oral formulations for intended veterinary use in the UK, Malaysia, Serbia and Thailand. ...
Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination Medicine & Life Sciences 12% View full fingerprint Cite this. * APA ... amoxicillin, amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, oral antistaphylococcal penicillin, cotrimoxazole, erythromycin and metronidazole) ... amoxicillin, amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, oral antistaphylococcal penicillin, cotrimoxazole, erythromycin and metronidazole) ... amoxicillin, amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, oral antistaphylococcal penicillin, cotrimoxazole, erythromycin and metronidazole) ...
Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination Medicine & Life Sciences 91% * Otitis Media with Effusion Medicine & Life ... A total of 150 children with acute otitis media were randomly allocated to treatment with amoxicillin-potassium clavulanate ( ... "A total of 150 children with acute otitis media were randomly allocated to treatment with amoxicillin-potassium clavulanate ( ... A total of 150 children with acute otitis media were randomly allocated to treatment with amoxicillin-potassium clavulanate ( ...
The antibiotic combination of clavulanate potassium and amoxicillin ... Description: The antibiotic combination of clavulanate potassium and amoxicillin provides greater protection against a wider ... range of bacteria than amoxicillin alone. This antibiotic is used to treat many different types of infection, such as ...
Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination Medicine & Life Sciences 15% * Guidelines Medicine & Life Sciences 14% ... The most commonly prescribed antibiotic was amoxicillin, followed by amoxicillin + clavulanic acid and metronidazole. These top ... The most commonly prescribed antibiotic was amoxicillin, followed by amoxicillin + clavulanic acid and metronidazole. These top ... The most commonly prescribed antibiotic was amoxicillin, followed by amoxicillin + clavulanic acid and metronidazole. These top ...
  • A total of 150 children with acute otitis media were randomly allocated to treatment with amoxicillin-potassium clavulanate (Augmentin) or with cefaclor. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Augmentin is a combination of the antibiotic amoxicillin and potassium clavulanate. (newshunttimes.com)
  • Augmentin is used to treat the same illnesses as amoxicillin, but it might also be prescribed to kill bacteria in infected bites and infections of the mouth. (newshunttimes.com)
  • Augmentin is a combination antibiotic medication that is commonly prescribed for the treatment of various bacterial infections. (augmentin4day.top)
  • This combination of ingredients makes Augmentin effective against a wide range of bacterial infections, including respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, skin infections, and sinusitis. (augmentin4day.top)
  • Augmentin is a combination antibiotic medication containing amoxicillin and clavulanic acid. (augmentin4day.top)
  • The brand name for Augmentin, also known by its generic name amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, describes the composition of this medication. (augmentin4day.top)
  • Augmentin contains two active ingredients - amoxicillin, a penicillin antibiotic, and clavulanic acid, a beta-lactamase inhibitor. (augmentin4day.top)
  • The combination of these two active ingredients makes Augmentin a broad-spectrum antibiotic that can target a wide range of bacteria. (augmentin4day.top)
  • Augmentin stands out due to its unique composition as a combination antibiotic therapy. (nsurcoin.com)
  • Augmentin is a brand name for the combination of two active ingredients: amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium. (nsurcoin.com)
  • The combination of these two components in Augmentin enhances its effectiveness against bacterial infections. (nsurcoin.com)
  • Amoxicillin, the primary component of Augmentin, works by inhibiting the synthesis of bacterial cell walls, leading to the weakening and eventual destruction of the bacteria. (nsurcoin.com)
  • The addition of clavulanate potassium in Augmentin helps overcome bacterial resistance by preventing the bacteria from producing an enzyme called beta-lactamase, which can inactivate amoxicillin. (nsurcoin.com)
  • Augmentin, a combination antibiotic therapy comprising amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium, is a valuable tool in the fight against bacterial infections. (nsurcoin.com)
  • Augmentin 500 125 mg is a combination drug containing two active ingredients namely Amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium that works together to fight bacterial infections. (alldaychemist.com)
  • Since both the amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium tablets 250 mg/125 mg and 500 mg/125 mg contain the same amount of clavulanic acid (125 mg, as the potassium salt), two 250 mg/125 mg tablets are not equivalent to one amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium tablet 500 mg/125 mg. (nih.gov)
  • The amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium tablet 250 mg/125 mg and the 250 mg/62.5 mg chewable tablet do not contain the same amount of clavulanic acid (as the potassium salt). (nih.gov)
  • The amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium tablet 250 mg/125 mg contains 125 mg of clavulanic acid, whereas the 250 mg/62.5 mg chewable tablet contains 62.5 mg of clavulanic acid. (nih.gov)
  • The most commonly prescribed antibiotic was amoxicillin, followed by amoxicillin + clavulanic acid and metronidazole. (edu.au)
  • Six of 14 paediatric formulations (amoxicillin, amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, oral antistaphylococcal penicillin, cotrimoxazole, erythromycin and metronidazole) were approved in more than two-thirds of countries. (smu.ac.za)
  • It contains two active ingredients: amoxicillin and clavulanic acid. (augmentin4day.top)
  • Amoxicillin is a penicillin-type antibiotic that works by stopping the growth of bacteria, while clavulanic acid is a beta-lactamase inhibitor that helps prevent certain bacteria from becoming resistant to the antibiotic. (augmentin4day.top)
  • Amoxicillin works by inhibiting the growth of bacteria, while clavulanic acid enhances the effectiveness of amoxicillin by preventing the bacteria from developing resistance mechanisms. (augmentin4day.top)
  • Potassium clavulanate (figure 1) is a salt of clavulanic acid which is a major ß-lactam antibiotic produced by the organism Streptomyces clavuligerus [1]. (netzsch.com)
  • It was observed that the stability of the admixture amoxicillin/clavulanic acid is affected by an increase in temperature from 25°C to 40°C [3]. (netzsch.com)
  • We are offering Amoxicillin 200mg + Clavulanic 28.5mg in our brand name" AMOXOBIX-DS" with 2.5/30ml packing. (arklehealthcare.in)
  • Amoxicillin:Potassium Clavulanate (2:1) is a combination of Amoxicillin (one part) and Potassium Clavulanate (Clavulanic Acid)(two parts) which prevents the degradation of Amoxicillin by β-lactamase enzymes and allows for greater efficacy against β-lactam resistant strains. (toku-e.com)
  • Kim SH et al (2015) Characterization of Amoxicillin- and clavulanic acid-specific T cells in patients with Amoxicillin-clavulanate-induced liver injury. (toku-e.com)
  • Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid is a combination penicillin-type antibiotic used to treat a wide variety of bacterial infections . (aveciahealthcare.in)
  • Our product range includes a wide range of amoxycillin and potassium clavulanate tablets, pcd pharma franchise in meghalaya, pcd pharma franchise company in bengaluru, pcd pharma franchise in agra, pcd pharma franchise in allahabad and opthalmic pcd pharma franchise. (aveciahealthcare.in)
  • These highlights do not include all the information needed to use AMOXICILLIN and CLAVULANATE POTASSIUM TABLETS safely and effectively. (nih.gov)
  • When susceptibility test results show susceptibility to amoxicillin, indicating no beta-lactamase production, amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium tablets should not be used. (nih.gov)
  • To reduce the development of drug-resistant bacteria and maintain the effectiveness of amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium tablets and other antibacterial drugs, amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium tablets should be used only to treat or prevent infections that are proven or strongly suspected to be caused by bacteria. (nih.gov)
  • History of a serious hypersensitivity reaction (e.g., anaphylaxis or Stevens-Johnson syndrome) to amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium tablets or to other beta-lactams (e.g., penicillins or cephalosporins). (nih.gov)
  • History of cholestatic jaundice/hepatic dysfunction associated with amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium tablets. (nih.gov)
  • however, absorption of clavulanate potassium is enhanced when amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium tablets are administered at the start of a meal. (nih.gov)
  • To minimize the potential for gastrointestinal intolerance, amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium tablets should be taken at the start of a meal. (nih.gov)
  • Two amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium tablets 250 mg/125 mg should not be substituted for one amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium tablet 500 mg/125 mg. (nih.gov)
  • The antibiotic combination of clavulanate potassium and amoxicillin provides greater protection against a wider range of bacteria than amoxicillin alone. (chemobiological.in)
  • Clavulanate potassium is an inhibitor of beta-lactamase that helps prevent specific bacteria from being amoxicillin resistant. (kapypharmaceutical.co.in)
  • Potassium clavulanate is an enzyme that helps the antibiotic fight bacteria that might be resistant to antibiotics. (newshunttimes.com)
  • Clavulin provides the same powerful combination of amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium, ensuring the elimination of harmful bacteria. (augmentin4day.top)
  • Amoxicillin belongs to the penicillin group of antibiotics and is effective against a wide range of bacteria. (nsurcoin.com)
  • Clavulanate potassium, on the other hand, is a beta-lactamase inhibitor that helps in overcoming antibiotic resistance by blocking an enzyme produced by bacteria, which can inactivate amoxicillin. (nsurcoin.com)
  • Amoxicillin kills bacteria by inhibiting their growth, while Clavulanate prevents bacterial resistance to amoxicillin. (incuitypharma.com)
  • Clavulanate inhibits enzymes that some bacteria produce to counteract amoxicillin's effects, preventing resistance. (incuitypharma.com)
  • On its own, it is actually only capable of weak antibacterial activity against most organisms, but in combination with the antibiotic amoxicillin, it is effective against ß-lactamaseproducing staphylococcus bacteria which are resistant to amoxicillin alone [2, 3]. (netzsch.com)
  • Amoxicillin is also used with other medications to treat stomach/intestinal ulcers caused by the bacteria H. pylori and to prevent the ulcers from returning. (arklehealthcare.in)
  • The combination of amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium is used to treat many different infections caused by bacteria, such as sinusitis, pneumonia, ear infections, bronchitis, urinary tract infections, and infections of the skin. (rewinepharmaceutical.com)
  • Amoxicillin targets a wide range of β-lactamase negative Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria including E. coli and a number of Streptococcus and Staphylococcus species. (toku-e.com)
  • Because peptidoglycan is synthesized in Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, Amoxicillin can be used against a wide variety of microbes. (toku-e.com)
  • Clavulanate competitively and irreversibly inhibits a wide variety of β-lactamases found in bacteria that are resistant to penicillins and cephalosporins. (toku-e.com)
  • Nine WHO-EML 'access' antibiotics (amoxicillin, ampicillin, benzylpenicillin, ceftriaxone, clarithromycin, ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, gentamicin and metronidazole) were approved in all countries, and all 26 'access' antibiotics were approved in more than two-thirds of countries. (smu.ac.za)
  • If you have serious kidney disease, have liver problems or jaundice while taking this medicine, or if you are allergic to penicillin or cephalosporin antibiotics, you should not take amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium. (kapypharmaceutical.co.in)
  • Administered alone, it has only weak antibacterial activity against most organisms, but given in combination with other beta-lactam antibiotics it prevents antibiotic inactivation by microbial lactamase. (arklehealthcare.in)
  • Potassium clavulanate can also combined with other penicillin-based antibiotics. (mainchem.com)
  • Clavulanate Potassium is a semi-synthetic beta-lactamase inhibitor isolated from streptomyces. (arklehealthcare.in)
  • Potassium Clavulanate, produced by the fermentation of Streptomyces clavuligerus , is a β-lactamase inhibitor which can irreversibly inactivate β-lactamase enzymes. (toku-e.com)
  • Patients with mononucleosis who receive amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium develop skin rash. (nih.gov)
  • Concomitant use of Amoxicillin with allopurinol, could cause severe skin rash. (alldaychemist.com)
  • Like all β-lactams, Amoxicillin targets PBP's (penicillin binding proteins) involved in the final phase of peptidoglycan synthesis. (toku-e.com)
  • This randomized, double-blind study evaluated the efficacy and safety of a short, 5-day course of telithromycin, a new ketolide antibacterial, compared with a standard 10-day course of amoxicillin/clavulanate, in the treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis (AECB). (nih.gov)
  • A fixed-ratio combination of amoxicillin trihydrate and potassium clavulanate. (bvsalud.org)
  • Before taking this antibiotic combination drug, tell your doctor if you are on dialysis, or ever had jaundice. (alldaychemist.com)
  • We are a leading Wholesale Trader of Amoxicillin Potassium Clavulanate, Caspofungin Acetate, Propotec 20ml (Propofol INJ), Hepapro 25,000 IU Injection (Heparin Sodium Injection IP 25,000 IU/5ml), Terlipressin 10ml and OSIVIR-250MG (ACYCLOVIR INTRAVENOUS INJECTION) from Mumbai, India. (indiamart.com)
  • Amoxicillin, an antibiotic, inhibits bacterial growth, while Clavulanate enhances its effectiveness by preventing bacterial resistance. (incuitypharma.com)
  • The usual adult dose is one amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium tablet 500 mg/125 mg every 12 hours or one amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium tablet 250 mg/125 mg every 8 hours. (nih.gov)
  • For more severe infections and infections of the respiratory tract, the dose should be one amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium tablet 875 mg/125 mg every 12 hours or one amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium tablet 500 mg/125 mg every 8 hours. (nih.gov)
  • The amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium tablet 250 mg/125 mg and the 250 mg/62.5 mg chewable tablet should not be substituted for each other, as they are not interchangeable. (nih.gov)
  • Amoxicillin and clavulanate may not work as well or be hazardous if you do not use your doctor\'s actual tablet form. (kapypharmaceutical.co.in)
  • Amoxicillin is also available in tablet or capsule form for adults and older children. (newshunttimes.com)
  • Amoxicillin & Potassium Clavulanate Oral Suspension is a combination medication used to treat bacterial infections. (incuitypharma.com)
  • This allows for the prediction of the potassium clavulanate degradation for specific temperature and time conditions. (netzsch.com)
  • While using Amoxicillin & Potassium Clavulanate Oral Suspension, adhere to these precautions. (incuitypharma.com)
  • Concomitant use of amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium and oral anticoagulants may increase the prolongation of prothrombin time. (nih.gov)
  • Resistance to Amoxicillin is due to β-lactamase enzymes found in resistant strains. (toku-e.com)
  • Antidepressants can lower your dosage of klonopin dosage in the amoxicillin 500mg price 1mg klonopin cvs amoxicillin cost for depression dosage range from 250mg to 500mg per day. (ampaperu.info)
  • Outcomes were compared to the previous protocol of daily intravenous ceftriaxone/metronidazole with completion of a 7-day antibiotic course with amoxicillin-clavulanate of all patients discharged prior to 5 days. (childrensmercy.org)
  • Amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium may reduce efficacy of oral contraceptives. (nih.gov)
  • Patients discharged prior to 5 days were discharged home without oral amoxicillin-clavulanate if no leukocytosis at discharge. (childrensmercy.org)
  • Amoxicillin & Potassium Clavulanate Oral Suspension offers dual benefits for bacterial infections. (incuitypharma.com)
  • Shake the Amoxicillin & Potassium Clavulanate Oral Suspension well before each use. (incuitypharma.com)
  • Amoxicillin & Potassium Clavulanate Oral Suspension works by combining two components. (incuitypharma.com)
  • Amoxicillin & Potassium Clavulanate Oral Suspension cause side effects. (incuitypharma.com)
  • Clomid is a drug that is used for women to stimulate their ovaries in combination with a small non prescription amoxicillin amount of the drug norethindrone to prevent a spontaneous pregnancy as well as to prevent pregnancy in women that have unprotected sex. (ampaperu.info)
  • Amoxicillin is an extended-spectrum β-lactam antibiotic similar in structure to Ampicillin. (toku-e.com)
  • To study the clinical efficacy of amoxicillin-clavulanate potassium combined with budesonide suspension inhalation in the treatment of children with sinusitis. (jptcp.com)
  • The control group (n=64) received amoxicillin-clavulanate potassium therapy, and the study group (n=64) received amoxicillin-clavulanate potassium combined with budesonide suspension aerosol inhalation therapy. (jptcp.com)
  • Conclusion :The application of amoxicillin-clavulanate potassium combined with budesonide suspension aerosol inhalation therapy for children with sinusitis has a synergistic effect and has a greater therapeutic advantage. (jptcp.com)
  • Thus, a 5-day course of telithromycin 800 mg qd is an effective and well-tolerated alternative to a standard 10-day course of amoxicillin/clavulanate 500/125 mg tid for first-line empiric treatment of AECB in adults with COPD. (nih.gov)
  • The treatment for a viral infection such as flu or the common cold is not carried out with amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium. (kapypharmaceutical.co.in)
  • It contains a combination of amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium.However, this treatment has become scarce lately. (nigerianprices.com)
  • Study on the effect of amoxicillin treatment in children with sinusitis [J]. Capital Food and Medicine, 2019, 26 (09): 42. (jptcp.com)
  • What is the best treatment for amoxicillin side effects? (electrokits.ro)
  • It consists of a combination of the active ingredients amoxicillin and clavulanate potassium. (augmentin4day.top)
  • Amoxicillin is commonly used in clinical in vitro microbiological antimicrobial susceptibility tests (panels, discs, and MIC strips) against Gram-positive and Gram-negative microbial isolates. (toku-e.com)
  • This can effectively relieve the clinical symptoms of children without significantly increasing adverse reactions, suggesting that the combination of the two drugs is safe and has high clinical application value. (jptcp.com)
  • The viruses from the two cases are closely related genetically, resistant to amantadine and rimantadine, and contain a unique combination of gene segments that previously has not been reported among swine or human influenza viruses in the United States or elsewhere. (cdc.gov)
  • Worlitzch D et al (2001) Effects of Amoxicillin, gentamicin, and moxifloxacin on the hemolytic activity of Staphylococcus aureus in vitro and in vivo . (toku-e.com)
  • This product is a combination of B vitamins used to treat or prevent vitamin deficiency due to poor diet , certain illnesses, alcoholism, or during pregnancy. (allendalebiosciences.com)