Tests that are dependent on the clumping of cells, microorganisms, or particles when mixed with specific antiserum. (From Stedman, 26th ed)
The clumping together of suspended material resulting from the action of AGGLUTININS.
Passive agglutination tests in which antigen is adsorbed onto latex particles which then clump in the presence of antibody specific for the adsorbed antigen. (From Stedman, 26th ed)
Agglutination of spermatozoa by antibodies or autoantibodies.
The aggregation of ERYTHROCYTES by AGGLUTININS, including antibodies, lectins, and viral proteins (HEMAGGLUTINATION, VIRAL).
Sensitive tests to measure certain antigens, antibodies, or viruses, using their ability to agglutinate certain erythrocytes. (From Stedman, 26th ed)
Infections with bacteria of the genus LEPTOSPIRA.
Substances, usually of biological origin, that cause cells or other organic particles to aggregate and stick to each other. They include those ANTIBODIES which cause aggregation or agglutination of particulate or insoluble ANTIGENS.
A genus of aerobic, helical spirochetes, some species of which are pathogenic, others free-living or saprophytic.
Infection caused by bacteria of the genus BRUCELLA mainly involving the MONONUCLEAR PHAGOCYTE SYSTEM. This condition is characterized by fever, weakness, malaise, and weight loss.
Immunoelectrophoresis in which immunoprecipitation occurs when antigen at the cathode is caused to migrate in an electric field through a suitable medium of diffusion against a stream of antibody migrating from the anode as a result of endosmotic flow.
Immunoglobulins produced in a response to BACTERIAL ANTIGENS.
Substances elaborated by bacteria that have antigenic activity.
Process of determining and distinguishing species of bacteria or viruses based on antigens they share.
Commercially prepared reagent sets, with accessory devices, containing all of the major components and literature necessary to perform one or more designated diagnostic tests or procedures. They may be for laboratory or personal use.
Studies determining the effectiveness or value of processes, personnel, and equipment, or the material on conducting such studies. For drugs and devices, CLINICAL TRIALS AS TOPIC; DRUG EVALUATION; and DRUG EVALUATION, PRECLINICAL are available.
Proteins that share the common characteristic of binding to carbohydrates. Some ANTIBODIES and carbohydrate-metabolizing proteins (ENZYMES) also bind to carbohydrates, however they are not considered lectins. PLANT LECTINS are carbohydrate-binding proteins that have been primarily identified by their hemagglutinating activity (HEMAGGLUTININS). However, a variety of lectins occur in animal species where they serve diverse array of functions through specific carbohydrate recognition.
Binary classification measures to assess test results. Sensitivity or recall rate is the proportion of true positives. Specificity is the probability of correctly determining the absence of a condition. (From Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 2d ed)
Serum that contains antibodies. It is obtained from an animal that has been immunized either by ANTIGEN injection or infection with microorganisms containing the antigen.
Agglutination of ERYTHROCYTES by a virus.
Diagnostic procedures involving immunoglobulin reactions.
A MANNOSE/GLUCOSE binding lectin isolated from the jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis). It is a potent mitogen used to stimulate cell proliferation in lymphocytes, primarily T-lymphocyte, cultures.
Serologic tests based on inactivation of complement by the antigen-antibody complex (stage 1). Binding of free complement can be visualized by addition of a second antigen-antibody system such as red cells and appropriate red cell antibody (hemolysin) requiring complement for its completion (stage 2). Failure of the red cells to lyse indicates that a specific antigen-antibody reaction has taken place in stage 1. If red cells lyse, free complement is present indicating no antigen-antibody reaction occurred in stage 1.
A genus of gram-negative, aerobic bacteria that causes BRUCELLOSIS. Its cells are nonmotile coccobacilli and are animal parasites and pathogens. The bacterium is transmissible to humans through contact with infected dairy products or tissue.
An immunoassay utilizing an antibody labeled with an enzyme marker such as horseradish peroxidase. While either the enzyme or the antibody is bound to an immunosorbent substrate, they both retain their biologic activity; the change in enzyme activity as a result of the enzyme-antibody-antigen reaction is proportional to the concentration of the antigen and can be measured spectrophotometrically or with the naked eye. Many variations of the method have been developed.
Positive test results in subjects who do not possess the attribute for which the test is conducted. The labeling of healthy persons as diseased when screening in the detection of disease. (Last, A Dictionary of Epidemiology, 2d ed)
A class of immunoglobulin bearing mu chains (IMMUNOGLOBULIN MU-CHAINS). IgM can fix COMPLEMENT. The name comes from its high molecular weight and originally being called a macroglobulin.
A severe form of LEPTOSPIROSIS, usually caused by LEPTOSPIRA INTERROGANS SEROVAR ICTEROHAEMORRHAGIAE and occasionally other serovars. It is transmitted to humans by the rat and is characterized by hemorrhagic and renal symptoms with accompanying JAUNDICE.
Substances of fungal origin that have antigenic activity.
Serological reactions in which an antiserum against one antigen reacts with a non-identical but closely related antigen.
A disease of cattle caused by bacteria of the genus BRUCELLA leading to abortion in late pregnancy. BRUCELLA ABORTUS is the primary infective agent.
Enzymes that cause coagulation in plasma by forming a complex with human PROTHROMBIN. Coagulases are produced by certain STAPHYLOCOCCUS and YERSINIA PESTIS. Staphylococci produce two types of coagulase: Staphylocoagulase, a free coagulase that produces true clotting of plasma, and Staphylococcal clumping factor, a bound coagulase in the cell wall that induces clumping of cells in the presence of fibrinogen.
The study of serum, especially of antigen-antibody reactions in vitro.
Immunoglobulins produced in a response to PROTOZOAN ANTIGENS.
A test to detect non-agglutinating ANTIBODIES against ERYTHROCYTES by use of anti-antibodies (the Coombs' reagent.) The direct test is applied to freshly drawn blood to detect antibody bound to circulating red cells. The indirect test is applied to serum to detect the presence of antibodies that can bind to red blood cells.
Technique involving the diffusion of antigen or antibody through a semisolid medium, usually agar or agarose gel, with the result being a precipitin reaction.
A genus of question mark-shaped bacteria spirochetes which is found in fresh water that is contaminated by animal urine. It causes LEPTOSPIROSIS.
An antibiotic mixture of two components, A and B, obtained from Nocardia lurida (or the same substance produced by any other means). It is no longer used clinically because of its toxicity. It causes platelet agglutination and blood coagulation and is used to assay those functions in vitro.
The major immunoglobulin isotype class in normal human serum. There are several isotype subclasses of IgG, for example, IgG1, IgG2A, and IgG2B.
Red blood cells. Mature erythrocytes are non-nucleated, biconcave disks containing HEMOGLOBIN whose function is to transport OXYGEN.
The acquired form of infection by Toxoplasma gondii in animals and man.
A species of the genus BRUCELLA whose natural hosts are cattle and other bovidae. Abortion and placentitis are frequently produced in the pregnant animal. Other mammals, including humans, may be infected.
Serologic tests in which a known quantity of antigen is added to the serum prior to the addition of a red cell suspension. Reaction result is expressed as the smallest amount of antigen which causes complete inhibition of hemagglutination.
A species of gram-negative bacteria infecting DOGS, the natural hosts, and causing canine BRUCELLOSIS. It can also cause a mild infection in humans.
A chronic disease caused by LEISHMANIA DONOVANI and transmitted by the bite of several sandflies of the genera Phlebotomus and Lutzomyia. It is commonly characterized by fever, chills, vomiting, anemia, hepatosplenomegaly, leukopenia, hypergammaglobulinemia, emaciation, and an earth-gray color of the skin. The disease is classified into three main types according to geographic distribution: Indian, Mediterranean (or infantile), and African.
Precipitin tests which occur over a narrow range of antigen-antibody ratio, due chiefly to peculiarities of the antibody (precipitin). (From Stedman, 26th ed)
A genus of protozoa parasitic to birds and mammals. T. gondii is one of the most common infectious pathogenic animal parasites of man.
Protein or glycoprotein substances of plant origin that bind to sugar moieties in cell walls or membranes. Some carbohydrate-metabolizing proteins (ENZYMES) from PLANTS also bind to carbohydrates, however they are not considered lectins. Many plant lectins change the physiology of the membrane of BLOOD CELLS to cause agglutination, mitosis, or other biochemical changes. They may play a role in plant defense mechanisms.
Antibodies found in adult RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS patients that are directed against GAMMA-CHAIN IMMUNOGLOBULINS.
An antibiotic similar to FLUCLOXACILLIN used in resistant staphylococci infections.
A bright bluish pink compound that has been used as a dye, biological stain, and diagnostic aid.
A mitosporic Tremellales fungal genus whose species usually have a capsule and do not form pseudomycellium. Teleomorphs include Filobasidiella and Fidobasidium.
A genus of gram-positive, coccoid bacteria whose organisms occur in pairs or chains. No endospores are produced. Many species exist as commensals or parasites on man or animals with some being highly pathogenic. A few species are saprophytes and occur in the natural environment.
The formation of clumps of RED BLOOD CELLS under low or non-flow conditions, resulting from the attraction forces between the red blood cells. The cells adhere to each other in rouleaux aggregates. Slight mechanical force, such as occurs in the circulation, is enough to disperse these aggregates. Stronger or weaker than normal aggregation may result from a variety of effects in the ERYTHROCYTE MEMBRANE or in BLOOD PLASMA. The degree of aggregation is affected by ERYTHROCYTE DEFORMABILITY, erythrocyte membrane sialylation, masking of negative surface charge by plasma proteins, etc. BLOOD VISCOSITY and the ERYTHROCYTE SEDIMENTATION RATE are affected by the amount of erythrocyte aggregation and are parameters used to measure the aggregation.
Polysaccharides found in bacteria and in capsules thereof.
Negative test results in subjects who possess the attribute for which the test is conducted. The labeling of diseased persons as healthy when screening in the detection of disease. (Last, A Dictionary of Epidemiology, 2d ed)
Glycoprotein moieties on the surfaces of cell membranes that bind concanavalin A selectively; the number and location of the sites depends on the type and condition of the cell.
A technique that combines protein electrophoresis and double immunodiffusion. In this procedure proteins are first separated by gel electrophoresis (usually agarose), then made visible by immunodiffusion of specific antibodies. A distinct elliptical precipitin arc results for each protein detectable by the antisera.
Potentially pathogenic bacteria found in nasal membranes, skin, hair follicles, and perineum of warm-blooded animals. They may cause a wide range of infections and intoxications.
Techniques used in studying bacteria.
The species Oryctolagus cuniculus, in the family Leporidae, order LAGOMORPHA. Rabbits are born in burrows, furless, and with eyes and ears closed. In contrast with HARES, rabbits have 22 chromosome pairs.
Thin, hairlike appendages, 1 to 20 microns in length and often occurring in large numbers, present on the cells of gram-negative bacteria, particularly Enterobacteriaceae and Neisseria. Unlike flagella, they do not possess motility, but being protein (pilin) in nature, they possess antigenic and hemagglutinating properties. They are of medical importance because some fimbriae mediate the attachment of bacteria to cells via adhesins (ADHESINS, BACTERIAL). Bacterial fimbriae refer to common pili, to be distinguished from the preferred use of "pili", which is confined to sex pili (PILI, SEX).
A technique using antibodies for identifying or quantifying a substance. Usually the substance being studied serves as antigen both in antibody production and in measurement of antibody by the test substance.
Testing erythrocytes to determine presence or absence of blood-group antigens, testing of serum to determine the presence or absence of antibodies to these antigens, and selecting biocompatible blood by crossmatching samples from the donor against samples from the recipient. Crossmatching is performed prior to transfusion.
Test for tissue antigen using either a direct method, by conjugation of antibody with fluorescent dye (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, DIRECT) or an indirect method, by formation of antigen-antibody complex which is then labeled with fluorescein-conjugated anti-immunoglobulin antibody (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, INDIRECT). The tissue is then examined by fluorescence microscopy.
EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES based on the detection through serological testing of characteristic change in the serum level of specific ANTIBODIES. Latent subclinical infections and carrier states can thus be detected in addition to clinically overt cases.
A parasitic hemoflagellate of the subgenus Leishmania leishmania that infects man and animals and causes visceral leishmaniasis (LEISHMANIASIS, VISCERAL). The sandfly genera Phlebotomus and Lutzomyia are the vectors.
A trypanosome found in the blood of adult rats and transmitted by the rat flea. It is generally non-pathogenic in adult rats but can cause lethal infection in suckling rats.
Chemical analysis based on the phenomenon whereby light, passing through a medium with dispersed particles of a different refractive index from that of the medium, is attenuated in intensity by scattering. In turbidimetry, the intensity of light transmitted through the medium, the unscattered light, is measured. In nephelometry, the intensity of the scattered light is measured, usually, but not necessarily, at right angles to the incident light beam.
Immunologic techniques based on the use of: (1) enzyme-antibody conjugates; (2) enzyme-antigen conjugates; (3) antienzyme antibody followed by its homologous enzyme; or (4) enzyme-antienzyme complexes. These are used histologically for visualizing or labeling tissue specimens.
Agents that cause agglutination of red blood cells. They include antibodies, blood group antigens, lectins, autoimmune factors, bacterial, viral, or parasitic blood agglutinins, etc.
A series of steps taken in order to conduct research.
Excrement from the INTESTINES, containing unabsorbed solids, waste products, secretions, and BACTERIA of the DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.
The major human blood type system which depends on the presence or absence of two antigens A and B. Type O occurs when neither A nor B is present and AB when both are present. A and B are genetic factors that determine the presence of enzymes for the synthesis of certain glycoproteins mainly in the red cell membrane.
The type (and only) species of RUBIVIRUS causing acute infection in humans, primarily children and young adults. Humans are the only natural host. A live, attenuated vaccine is available for prophylaxis.
A proteolytic enzyme obtained from Streptomyces griseus.
Inflammation of the coverings of the brain and/or spinal cord, which consist of the PIA MATER; ARACHNOID; and DURA MATER. Infections (viral, bacterial, and fungal) are the most common causes of this condition, but subarachnoid hemorrhage (HEMORRHAGES, SUBARACHNOID), chemical irritation (chemical MENINGITIS), granulomatous conditions, neoplastic conditions (CARCINOMATOUS MENINGITIS), and other inflammatory conditions may produce this syndrome. (From Joynt, Clinical Neurology, 1994, Ch24, p6)
Domesticated bovine animals of the genus Bos, usually kept on a farm or ranch and used for the production of meat or dairy products or for heavy labor.
One of the protein CROSS-LINKING REAGENTS that is used as a disinfectant for sterilization of heat-sensitive equipment and as a laboratory reagent, especially as a fixative.
Sets of cell surface antigens located on BLOOD CELLS. They are usually membrane GLYCOPROTEINS or GLYCOLIPIDS that are antigenically distinguished by their carbohydrate moieties.
Diseases of domestic cattle of the genus Bos. It includes diseases of cows, yaks, and zebus.
A protein present in the cell wall of most Staphylococcus aureus strains. The protein selectively binds to the Fc region of human normal and myeloma-derived IMMUNOGLOBULIN G. It elicits antibody activity and may cause hypersensitivity reactions due to histamine release; has also been used as cell surface antigen marker and in the clinical assessment of B lymphocyte function.
The property of antibodies which enables them to react with some ANTIGENIC DETERMINANTS and not with others. Specificity is dependent on chemical composition, physical forces, and molecular structure at the binding site.
Infections with bacteria of the genus STREPTOCOCCUS.
Premature expulsion of the FETUS in animals.
Infection with a fungus of the species CRYPTOCOCCUS NEOFORMANS.
Diseases of the domestic dog (Canis familiaris). This term does not include diseases of wild dogs, WOLVES; FOXES; and other Canidae for which the heading CARNIVORA is used.
Antibodies produced by a single clone of cells.
The attachment of PLATELETS to one another. This clumping together can be induced by a number of agents (e.g., THROMBIN; COLLAGEN) and is part of the mechanism leading to the formation of a THROMBUS.
The largest class of organic compounds, including STARCH; GLYCOGEN; CELLULOSE; POLYSACCHARIDES; and simple MONOSACCHARIDES. Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of Cn(H2O)n.
A high-molecular-weight plasma protein, produced by endothelial cells and megakaryocytes, that is part of the factor VIII/von Willebrand factor complex. The von Willebrand factor has receptors for collagen, platelets, and ristocetin activity as well as the immunologically distinct antigenic determinants. It functions in adhesion of platelets to collagen and hemostatic plug formation. The prolonged bleeding time in VON WILLEBRAND DISEASES is due to the deficiency of this factor.
A chelating agent that sequesters a variety of polyvalent cations such as CALCIUM. It is used in pharmaceutical manufacturing and as a food additive.
A milky, product excreted from the latex canals of a variety of plant species that contain cauotchouc. Latex is composed of 25-35% caoutchouc, 60-75% water, 2% protein, 2% resin, 1.5% sugar & 1% ash. RUBBER is made by the removal of water from latex.(From Concise Encyclopedia Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 3rd ed). Hevein proteins are responsible for LATEX HYPERSENSITIVITY. Latexes are used as inert vehicles to carry antibodies or antigens in LATEX FIXATION TESTS.
The processes triggered by interactions of ANTIBODIES with their ANTIGENS.
A bacterium which causes mastitis in cattle and occasionally in man.
A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria (GRAM-NEGATIVE FACULTATIVELY ANAEROBIC RODS) commonly found in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals. It is usually nonpathogenic, but some strains are known to produce DIARRHEA and pyogenic infections. Pathogenic strains (virotypes) are classified by their specific pathogenic mechanisms such as toxins (ENTEROTOXIGENIC ESCHERICHIA COLI), etc.
Immunoglobulins produced in a response to FUNGAL ANTIGENS.
Substances that are recognized by the immune system and induce an immune reaction.
The phenomenon by which dissociated cells intermixed in vitro tend to group themselves with cells of their own type.
Mannosides formed by the reaction of the hydroxyl group on the anomeric carbon atom of mannose with methyl alcohol. They include both alpha- and beta-methylmannosides.
A genus of gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic, coccoid bacteria. Its organisms occur singly, in pairs, and in tetrads and characteristically divide in more than one plane to form irregular clusters. Natural populations of Staphylococcus are found on the skin and mucous membranes of warm-blooded animals. Some species are opportunistic pathogens of humans and animals.
A fulminant infection of the meninges and subarachnoid fluid by the bacterium NEISSERIA MENINGITIDIS, producing diffuse inflammation and peri-meningeal venous thromboses. Clinical manifestations include FEVER, nuchal rigidity, SEIZURES, severe HEADACHE, petechial rash, stupor, focal neurologic deficits, HYDROCEPHALUS, and COMA. The organism is usually transmitted via nasopharyngeal secretions and is a leading cause of meningitis in children and young adults. Organisms from Neisseria meningitidis serogroups A, B, C, Y, and W-135 have been reported to cause meningitis. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp689-701; Curr Opin Pediatr 1998 Feb;10(1):13-8)
A genus of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that utilizes citrate as a sole carbon source. It is pathogenic for humans, causing enteric fevers, gastroenteritis, and bacteremia. Food poisoning is the most common clinical manifestation. Organisms within this genus are separated on the basis of antigenic characteristics, sugar fermentation patterns, and bacteriophage susceptibility.
A strong oxidizing agent.
An acute systemic febrile infection caused by SALMONELLA TYPHI, a serotype of SALMONELLA ENTERICA.
A species of gram-negative, aerobic BACTERIA. It is a commensal and pathogen only of humans, and can be carried asymptomatically in the NASOPHARYNX. When found in cerebrospinal fluid it is the causative agent of cerebrospinal meningitis (MENINGITIS, MENINGOCOCCAL). It is also found in venereal discharges and blood. There are at least 13 serogroups based on antigenic differences in the capsular polysaccharides; the ones causing most meningitis infections being A, B, C, Y, and W-135. Each serogroup can be further classified by serotype, serosubtype, and immunotype.
Acquired infection of non-human animals by organisms of the genus TOXOPLASMA.
Gram-negative aerobic rods, isolated from surface water or thermally polluted lakes or streams. Member are pathogenic for man. Legionella pneumophila is the causative agent for LEGIONNAIRES' DISEASE.
A gram-positive organism found in the upper respiratory tract, inflammatory exudates, and various body fluids of normal and/or diseased humans and, rarely, domestic animals.
A hexose or fermentable monosaccharide and isomer of glucose from manna, the ash Fraxinus ornus and related plants. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed & Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 2d ed)
A watery fluid that is continuously produced in the CHOROID PLEXUS and circulates around the surface of the BRAIN; SPINAL CORD; and in the CEREBRAL VENTRICLES.
The restriction of a characteristic behavior, anatomical structure or physical system, such as immune response; metabolic response, or gene or gene variant to the members of one species. It refers to that property which differentiates one species from another but it is also used for phylogenetic levels higher or lower than the species.
Immunoglobulin molecules having a specific amino acid sequence by virtue of which they interact only with the ANTIGEN (or a very similar shape) that induced their synthesis in cells of the lymphoid series (especially PLASMA CELLS).
A species of HAEMOPHILUS found on the mucous membranes of humans and a variety of animals. The species is further divided into biotypes I through VIII.
A species of the fungus CRYPTOCOCCUS. Its teleomorph is Filobasidiella neoformans.
A hemoflagellate subspecies of parasitic protozoa that causes Gambian or West African sleeping sickness in humans. The vector host is usually the tsetse fly (Glossina).
In screening and diagnostic tests, the probability that a person with a positive test is a true positive (i.e., has the disease), is referred to as the predictive value of a positive test; whereas, the predictive value of a negative test is the probability that the person with a negative test does not have the disease. Predictive value is related to the sensitivity and specificity of the test.
A serotype of SALMONELLA ENTERICA which is the etiologic agent of TYPHOID FEVER.
An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of alpha-2,3, alpha-2,6-, and alpha-2,8-glycosidic linkages (at a decreasing rate, respectively) of terminal sialic residues in oligosaccharides, glycoproteins, glycolipids, colominic acid, and synthetic substrate. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992)
Physicochemical property of fimbriated (FIMBRIAE, BACTERIAL) and non-fimbriated bacteria of attaching to cells, tissue, and nonbiological surfaces. It is a factor in bacterial colonization and pathogenicity.
Polysaccharides consisting of mannose units.
A species of bacteria present in man and many kinds of animals and birds, often causing infertility and/or abortion.
Any part or derivative of any protozoan that elicits immunity; malaria (Plasmodium) and trypanosome antigens are presently the most frequently encountered.
Immunoglobulins produced in response to VIRAL ANTIGENS.
Proteins found in any species of bacterium.
A blood group related to the ABO, Lewis and I systems. At least five different erythrocyte antigens are possible, some very rare, others almost universal. Multiple alleles are involved in this blood group.
Non-susceptibility of a microbe to the action of METHICILLIN, a semi-synthetic penicillin derivative.
The lipopolysaccharide-protein somatic antigens, usually from gram-negative bacteria, important in the serological classification of enteric bacilli. The O-specific chains determine the specificity of the O antigens of a given serotype. O antigens are the immunodominant part of the lipopolysaccharide molecule in the intact bacterial cell. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)
Techniques used to demonstrate or measure an immune response, and to identify or measure antigens using antibodies.
A species of the genus BRUCELLA whose natural hosts are sheep and goats. Other mammals, including humans, may be infected. In general, these organisms tend to be more virulent for laboratory animals than BRUCELLA ABORTUS and may cause fatal infections.
A type of affinity chromatography where ANTIBODIES are used in the affinity capture reaction on the solid support, in the mobile phase, or both.
An island in the Lesser Antilles in the West Indies. It is chiefly of coral formation with no good harbors and only small streams. It was probably discovered by the Portuguese in the sixteenth century. The name was given by 16th-century Spanish explorers from barbados, the plural for "bearded", with reference to the beard-like leaves or trails of moss on the trees that grew there in abundance. (From Webster's New Geographical Dictionary, 1988, p116 & Room, Brewer's Dictionary of Names, 1992, p49)
Erythrocyte isoantigens of the Rh (Rhesus) blood group system, the most complex of all human blood groups. The major antigen Rh or D is the most common cause of erythroblastosis fetalis.
The oldest recognized genus of the family PASTEURELLACEAE. It consists of several species. Its organisms occur most frequently as coccobacillus or rod-shaped and are gram-negative, nonmotile, facultative anaerobes. Species of this genus are found in both animals and humans.
In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.
A synthetic polymer which agglutinates red blood cells. It is used as a heparin antagonist.
Any liquid or solid preparation made specifically for the growth, storage, or transport of microorganisms or other types of cells. The variety of media that exist allow for the culturing of specific microorganisms and cell types, such as differential media, selective media, test media, and defined media. Solid media consist of liquid media that have been solidified with an agent such as AGAR or GELATIN.
Infections of the nervous system caused by bacteria of the genus HAEMOPHILUS, and marked by prominent inflammation of the MENINGES. HAEMOPHILUS INFLUENZAE TYPE B is the most common causative organism. The condition primarily affects children under 6 years of age but may occur in adults.
A species of gram-negative, aerobic bacteria that causes MELIOIDOSIS. It has been isolated from soil and water in tropical regions, particularly Southeast Asia.
A contagious venereal disease caused by the spirochete TREPONEMA PALLIDUM.
Electrophoresis in which a polyacrylamide gel is used as the diffusion medium.
Thin, filamentous protein structures, including proteinaceous capsular antigens (fimbrial antigens), that mediate adhesion of E. coli to surfaces and play a role in pathogenesis. They have a high affinity for various epithelial cells.
Inflammation of the lymph nodes.
Serum globulins that migrate to the gamma region (most positively charged) upon ELECTROPHORESIS. At one time, gamma-globulins came to be used as a synonym for immunoglobulins since most immunoglobulins are gamma globulins and conversely most gamma globulins are immunoglobulins. But since some immunoglobulins exhibit an alpha or beta electrophoretic mobility, that usage is in decline.
The causative agent of venereal and non-venereal syphilis as well as yaws.
Non-nucleated disk-shaped cells formed in the megakaryocyte and found in the blood of all mammals. They are mainly involved in blood coagulation.
An acute purulent infection of the meninges and subarachnoid space caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, most prevalent in children and adults over the age of 60. This illness may be associated with OTITIS MEDIA; MASTOIDITIS; SINUSITIS; RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTIONS; sickle cell disease (ANEMIA, SICKLE CELL); skull fractures; and other disorders. Clinical manifestations include FEVER; HEADACHE; neck stiffness; and somnolence followed by SEIZURES; focal neurologic deficits (notably DEAFNESS); and COMA. (From Miller et al., Merritt's Textbook of Neurology, 9th ed, p111)
Substances that are toxic to the intestinal tract causing vomiting, diarrhea, etc.; most common enterotoxins are produced by bacteria.
A serovar of the bacterial species LEPTOSPIRA INTERROGANS, whose primary host is RATS.
Sites on an antigen that interact with specific antibodies.
Acquired hemolytic anemia due to the presence of AUTOANTIBODIES which agglutinate or lyse the patient's own RED BLOOD CELLS.
A genus of PASTEURELLACEAE that consists of several species occurring in animals and humans. Its organisms are described as gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, coccobacillus or rod-shaped, and nonmotile.
A country in northeastern Africa. The capital is Khartoum.
Substances used for the detection, identification, analysis, etc. of chemical, biological, or pathologic processes or conditions. Indicators are substances that change in physical appearance, e.g., color, at or approaching the endpoint of a chemical titration, e.g., on the passage between acidity and alkalinity. Reagents are substances used for the detection or determination of another substance by chemical or microscopical means, especially analysis. Types of reagents are precipitants, solvents, oxidizers, reducers, fluxes, and colorimetric reagents. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed, p301, p499)
Antibodies elicited in a different species from which the antigen originated. These antibodies are directed against a wide variety of interspecies-specific antigens, the best known of which are Forssman, Hanganutziu-Deicher (H-D), and Paul-Bunnell (P-B). Incidence of antibodies to these antigens--i.e., the phenomenon of heterophile antibody response--is useful in the serodiagnosis, pathogenesis, and prognosis of infection and latent infectious states as well as in cancer classification.
Small uniformly-sized spherical particles, of micrometer dimensions, frequently labeled with radioisotopes or various reagents acting as tags or markers.
Infections with bacteria of the genus TREPONEMA.
A disease of humans and animals that resembles GLANDERS. It is caused by BURKHOLDERIA PSEUDOMALLEI and may range from a dormant infection to a condition that causes multiple abscesses, pneumonia, and bacteremia.
Interstitial pneumonia caused by extensive infection of the lungs (LUNG) and BRONCHI, particularly the lower lobes of the lungs, by MYCOPLASMA PNEUMONIAE in humans. In SHEEP, it is caused by MYCOPLASMA OVIPNEUMONIAE. In CATTLE, it may be caused by MYCOPLASMA DISPAR.
A complex sulfated polymer of galactose units, extracted from Gelidium cartilagineum, Gracilaria confervoides, and related red algae. It is used as a gel in the preparation of solid culture media for microorganisms, as a bulk laxative, in making emulsions, and as a supporting medium for immunodiffusion and immunoelectrophoresis.
Conjugated protein-carbohydrate compounds including mucins, mucoid, and amyloid glycoproteins.
Prenatal protozoal infection with TOXOPLASMA gondii which is associated with injury to the developing fetal nervous system. The severity of this condition is related to the stage of pregnancy during which the infection occurs; first trimester infections are associated with a greater degree of neurologic dysfunction. Clinical features include HYDROCEPHALUS; MICROCEPHALY; deafness; cerebral calcifications; SEIZURES; and psychomotor retardation. Signs of a systemic infection may also be present at birth, including fever, rash, and hepatosplenomegaly. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p735)
Antibodies which elicit IMMUNOPRECIPITATION when combined with antigen.
A disease endemic among people and animals in Central Africa. It is caused by various species of trypanosomes, particularly T. gambiense and T. rhodesiense. Its second host is the TSETSE FLY. Involvement of the central nervous system produces "African sleeping sickness." Nagana is a rapidly fatal trypanosomiasis of horses and other animals.
Any of the ruminant mammals with curved horns in the genus Ovis, family Bovidae. They possess lachrymal grooves and interdigital glands, which are absent in GOATS.
Protein exotoxins from Staphylococcus aureus, phage type II, which cause epidermal necrolysis. They are proteins with a molecular weight of 26,000 to 32,000. They cause a condition variously called scaled skin, Lyell or Ritter syndrome, epidermal exfoliative disease, toxic epidermal necrolysis, etc.
Cell surface receptors that bind to ACETYLGLUCOSAMINE.
Techniques used to carry out clinical investigative procedures in the diagnosis and therapy of disease.
A whiplike motility appendage present on the surface cells. Prokaryote flagella are composed of a protein called FLAGELLIN. Bacteria can have a single flagellum, a tuft at one pole, or multiple flagella covering the entire surface. In eukaryotes, flagella are threadlike protoplasmic extensions used to propel flagellates and sperm. Flagella have the same basic structure as CILIA but are longer in proportion to the cell bearing them and present in much smaller numbers. (From King & Stansfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)
A serine endopeptidase that is formed from TRYPSINOGEN in the pancreas. It is converted into its active form by ENTEROPEPTIDASE in the small intestine. It catalyzes hydrolysis of the carboxyl group of either arginine or lysine. EC 3.4.21.4.
An envelope of loose gel surrounding a bacterial cell which is associated with the virulence of pathogenic bacteria. Some capsules have a well-defined border, whereas others form a slime layer that trails off into the medium. Most capsules consist of relatively simple polysaccharides but there are some bacteria whose capsules are made of polypeptides.
Large, hoofed mammals of the family EQUIDAE. Horses are active day and night with most of the day spent seeking and consuming food. Feeding peaks occur in the early morning and late afternoon, and there are several daily periods of rest.
The lipid- and protein-containing, selectively permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Represents 15-20% of the human serum immunoglobulins, mostly as the 4-chain polymer in humans or dimer in other mammals. Secretory IgA (IMMUNOGLOBULIN A, SECRETORY) is the main immunoglobulin in secretions.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Incorrect diagnoses after clinical examination or technical diagnostic procedures.
Common name for the species Gallus gallus, the domestic fowl, in the family Phasianidae, order GALLIFORMES. It is descended from the red jungle fowl of SOUTHEAST ASIA.
A common name used for the genus Cavia. The most common species is Cavia porcellus which is the domesticated guinea pig used for pets and biomedical research.
Local surface sites on antibodies which react with antigen determinant sites on antigens (EPITOPES.) They are formed from parts of the variable regions of FAB FRAGMENTS.
The anterior portion of the spermatozoon (SPERMATOZOA) that contains mainly the nucleus with highly compact CHROMATIN material.
The property of objects that determines the direction of heat flow when they are placed in direct thermal contact. The temperature is the energy of microscopic motions (vibrational and translational) of the particles of atoms.
Mature male germ cells derived from SPERMATIDS. As spermatids move toward the lumen of the SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES, they undergo extensive structural changes including the loss of cytoplasm, condensation of CHROMATIN into the SPERM HEAD, formation of the ACROSOME cap, the SPERM MIDPIECE and the SPERM TAIL that provides motility.
Diseases of domestic swine and of the wild boar of the genus Sus.
Toxic substances formed in or elaborated by bacteria; they are usually proteins with high molecular weight and antigenicity; some are used as antibiotics and some to skin test for the presence of or susceptibility to certain diseases.
Surface glycoproteins on platelets which have a key role in hemostasis and thrombosis such as platelet adhesion and aggregation. Many of these are receptors.
The etiologic agent of CHOLERA.
A genus of gram-negative, mostly facultatively anaerobic bacteria in the family MYCOPLASMATACEAE. The cells are bounded by a PLASMA MEMBRANE and lack a true CELL WALL. Its organisms are pathogens found on the MUCOUS MEMBRANES of humans, ANIMALS, and BIRDS.
A febrile disease caused by STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE.
Inflammation of the lung parenchyma that is associated with PLEURISY, inflammation of the PLEURA.
Any of numerous agile, hollow-horned RUMINANTS of the genus Capra, in the family Bovidae, closely related to the SHEEP.
The classic form of typhus, caused by RICKETTSIA PROWAZEKII, which is transmitted from man to man by the louse Pediculus humanus corporis. This disease is characterized by the sudden onset of intense headache, malaise, and generalized myalgia followed by the formation of a macular skin eruption and vascular and neurologic disturbances.
Immunoelectrophoresis in which a second electrophoretic transport is performed on the initially separated antigen fragments into an antibody-containing medium in a direction perpendicular to the first electrophoresis.
A copper-containing dye used as a gelling agent for lubricants, for staining of bacteria and for the dyeing of histiocytes and fibroblasts in vivo.
An increased liquidity or decreased consistency of FECES, such as running stool. Fecal consistency is related to the ratio of water-holding capacity of insoluble solids to total water, rather than the amount of water present. Diarrhea is not hyperdefecation or increased fecal weight.
Glycoprotein molecules on the surface of B- and T-lymphocytes, that react with molecules of antilymphocyte sera, lectins, and other agents which induce blast transformation of lymphocytes.
A genus of REOVIRIDAE, causing acute gastroenteritis in BIRDS and MAMMALS, including humans. Transmission is horizontal and by environmental contamination. Seven species (Rotaviruses A thru G) are recognized.
Infection with protozoa of the genus TRYPANOSOMA.

Regulated exopolysaccharide production in Myxococcus xanthus. (1/592)

Myxococcus xanthus fibrils are cell surface-associated structures composed of roughly equal amounts of polysaccharide and protein. The level of M. xanthus polysaccharide production under different conditions in the wild type and in several mutants known to have alterations in fibril production was investigated. Wild-type exopolysaccharide increased significantly as cells entered the stationary phase of growth or upon addition of Ca2+ to growing cells, and the polysaccharide-induced cells exhibited an enhanced capacity for cell-cell agglutination. The activity of the key gluconeogenic pathway enzyme phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (Pck) also increased under these conditions. Most fibril-deficient mutants failed to produce polysaccharide in a stationary-phase- or Ca2+-dependent fashion. However, regulation of Pck activity was generally unimpaired in these mutant strains. In an stk mutant, which overproduces fibrils, polysaccharide production and Pck activity were constitutively high under the conditions tested. Polysaccharide production increased in most fibril-deficient strains when an stk mutant allele was present, indicating that these fibril-deficient mutants retained the basic cellular components required for fibril polysaccharide production. In contrast to other divalent cations tested, Sr2+ effectively replaced Ca2+ in stimulating polysaccharide production, and either Ca2+ or Sr2+ was required for fruiting-body formation by wild-type cells. By using transmission electron microscopy of freeze-substituted log-phase wild-type cells, fibril material was observed as a cell surface-associated layer of uniform thickness composed of filaments with an ordered structure.  (+info)

Differential expression of nonagglutinating fimbriae and MR/P pili in swarming colonies of Proteus mirabilis. (2/592)

The expression of nonagglutinating fimbriae (NAF) and mannose-resistant/Proteus-like (MR/P) pili in swarming colonies of Proteus mirabilis was investigated. Elongated swarmer cells do not express pili, and the relative number of bacteria expressing NAF during swarming and early consolidation phases was very low (<5%). Relative expression of NAF in a terrace increased to approximately 30% at 48 h. We also determined the expression of NAF and MR/P pili in two phenotypically distinguishable regions of each terrace. The expression of both NAF and MR/P pili was always higher in the region closer (proximal) to the middle of the colony than in the distal region of the terrace. The relative numbers of bacteria expressing NAF or MR/P pili in the proximal region were between 39.1 and 63% and between 5.9 and 7.7%, respectively. In the distal region, expression levels were between 20.8 and 27.3% and between 3.7 and 5. 6%, respectively. A time course experiment testing NAF expression in both the proximal and distal regions of a terrace indicated that NAF expression in the proximal regions was always higher than in the distal regions and increased to a plateau 40 to 50 h after the start of the swarming phase for any given terrace. These results indicate that expression of NAF or MR/P pili in swarming colonies of P. mirabilis is highly organized, spatially and temporally. The significance of this controlled differentiation remains to be uncovered.  (+info)

Surfactant protein D binds to Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacilli and lipoarabinomannan via carbohydrate-lectin interactions resulting in reduced phagocytosis of the bacteria by macrophages. (3/592)

Surfactant protein-D (SP-D) is a collectin produced in the distal lung airspaces that is believed to play an important role in innate pulmonary immunity. Naive immunologic responses to Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb) are especially important in the lung, since entry of this inhaled pathogen into the alveolar macrophage is a pivotal event in disease pathogenesis. Here we investigated SP-D binding to M.tb and the effect of this binding on the adherence of M. tb to human macrophages. These studies demonstrate specific binding of SP-D to M.tb that is saturable, calcium dependent, and carbohydrate inhibitable. In addition to purified SP-D, SP-D in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids from healthy donors and patients with alveolar proteinosis also binds to M.tb. Incubation of M.tb with SP-D results in agglutination of the bacteria. In contrast to its binding to M.tb, SP-D binds minimally to the avirulent Mycobacterium smegmatis. SP-D binds predominantly to lipoarabinomannan from the virulent Erdman strain of M.tb, but not the lipoarabinomannan from M. smegmatis. The binding of SP-D to Erdman lipoarabinomannan is mediated by the terminal mannosyl oligosaccharides of this lipoglycan. Incubation of M.tb with subagglutinating concentrations of SP-D leads to reduced adherence of the bacteria to macrophages (62.7% of control adherence +/- 3.3% SEM, n = 8), whereas incubation of bacteria with surfactant protein A leads to significantly increased adherence to monocyte-derived macrophages. These data provide evidence for specific binding of SP-D to M. tuberculosis and indicate that SP-D and surfactant protein A serve different roles in the innate host response to this pathogen in the lung.  (+info)

Binding of [125I] wheat germ agglutinin to Chinese hamster ovary cells under conditions which affect the mobility of membrane components. (4/592)

The binding of [125I]wheat germ agglutinin ([125I]WGA) of high specific activity to Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells has been examined over a millionfold range of WGA concentrations and correlated with the phenomena of agglutination and capping by WGA. Analysis of the binding data by the method of Scatchard gives a complex curve indicative of positive cooperativity amongst high-affinity binding sites. Binding assays performed under conditions which inhibit capping and/or agglutination, such as low temperature or glutaraldehyde fixation, give similarly complex binding curves. Thus, the gross mobility of WGA receptors in the membrane does not appear to be responsible for the cooperative binding of WGA to CHO cells.  (+info)

Natural polyreactive immunoglobulin A antibodies produced in mouse Peyer's patches. (5/592)

To understand the biological function of natural immunoglobulin A (IgA) antibodies in Peyer's patches (PP), we generated IgA monoclonal antibody (mAb) clones from the PP of normal, unimmunized, specific pathogen-free BALB/c mice and examined their reactivities by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Many of these antibodies reacted with more than one antigen examined, suggesting that they were polyreactive Abs. Two mAbs agglutinated several different strains of commensal bacteria isolated from mice. To examine the genetic features of these polyreactive mAbs, the VH genes of seven different IgA mAbs were sequenced. The VH genes from the VGAM, J558 and 7183 families were compared with sequence from the mAbs with distinct VDJ rearrangements. One of the mAbs that agglutinated bacteria was encoded by a germline VH gene, but the VH region of the other polyreactive mAbs contained between seven and 11 mutated sites. No indication of antigenic selection was observed in the pattern of these mutated sites. Our results show that polyreactive IgA Abs are present in PP as a part of the normal B-cell repertoire. These polyreactive Abs may establish a natural immune homeostasis, and function as a polyreactive sensor to detect pathogenic invasion and to control immune response in the gut.  (+info)

Development of antibodies against chondroitin sulfate A-adherent Plasmodium falciparum in pregnant women. (6/592)

In areas where Plasmodium falciparum is endemic, pregnant women are at increased risk for malaria, and this risk is greatest during the first pregnancy. The placenta sequesters parasites that are able to cytoadhere to chondroitin sulfate A (CSA), a molecule expressed by the placental syncytiotrophoblast, while parasites from a nonpregnant host do not bind to CSA. Cytoadherence is mediated by the expression of variants of the P. falciparum-erythrocyte membrane protein 1 family. Each member of this molecule family induces antibodies that specifically agglutinate infected erythrocytes and inhibit their cytoadherence ability. We investigated whether the higher susceptibility of primigravidae was related to the lack of immune response towards CSA-binding parasites. In a cross-sectional study, primigravidae delivering with a noninfected placenta were less likely to have antibodies agglutinating CSA-binding parasites than multigravidae (P < 0.01). In contrast, parasites from nonpregnant hosts were as likely to be recognized by the sera from women of various parities. In a longitudinal study, at 6 months of pregnancy, antibodies against CSA-binding parasites were present in 31.8% of primigravidae and in 76.9% of secundigravidae (P = 0.02). The antibodies against CSA-binding parasites inhibited the cytoadherence of a CSA-adherent parasite strain to the human placental trophoblast. Our data support the idea that the higher susceptibility of primiparae is related to a lack of a specific immune response to placental parasites.  (+info)

Concanavalin A receptors on the surface membrane of lymphocytes from patient's with Hodgkin's disease and other malignant lymphomas. (7/592)

Concanavalin A (Con A) induces movement of its receptors on the cell surface membrane. This induction results in a concentration of Con A site complexes on one pole of the cell to form a cap. A marked difference was found in the mobility of Con A receptor between lymphocytes from normal persons and lymphocytes from patients with Hodgkin's disease and other malignant lymphomas. Lymphocytes isolated from tonsils of patients undergoing tonsillectomy and from axillary lymph nodes of breast cancer patients exhibited approximately 30% of cells with caps, which is identical with the cap formation ability of normal lymphocytes. In biopsy material from patients with Hodgkin's disease and other malignant lymphomas, a significant decrease in the ability of the lymphocytes to form caps was observed. This difference in the mobility of Con A sites was even more pronounced in lymphocytes isolated from the peripheral blood. In 123 patients with Hodgkin's disease and other malignant lymphomas, cap formation ranged between 3 and 12%. The ability of cells, from a normal donor or a lymphoma patient, to form caps was independent of the source from which the lymphocytes were isolated, e.g., lymph node, spleen, or blood. Lymphocytes from patients with lymphoma were also agglutinated by Con A to a higher degree than normal lymphocytes. These findings are discussed in relation to the association of the lymphocytes with these malignancies and as a possible aid in their differential diagnosis.  (+info)

Membrane difference in peripheral blood lymphocytes from patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia and Hodgkin's disease. (8/592)

Lymphocytes were isolated from the peripheral blood of 21 normal persons and 66 patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), CLL in remission, Hodgkin's disease, Hodgkin's disease in remission, various other tumors, or cardiovascular diseases; The lymphocytes were studied for cap formation and agglutinability by concanavalin A, and for cell attachment to the surface of a petri dish. The frequency of cap formation was lowest in lymphocytes from patients with untreated Hodgkin's disease (2.1 plus or minus 0.8%), next lowest in lymphocytes from patients with CLL who were or were not under treatment (7,0 plus or minus 1;3%), and also low in Hodgkin's disease in remission (10.6 plus or minus 1.2%). The frequencies of cap formation by lymphocytes from patients with various other tumors (19.1 plus or minus 2.5%), with CLL in remission (24.0 plus or minus 0.9%), and with nonmalignant diseases (26.0 plus or minus 2.2%) were more similar to the frequency found in lymphocytes from normal persons (29.4 plus or minus 2.8%). Lymphocytes from all the patients, including those in remission, showed a higher degree of agglutinability by concanavalin A than lymphocytes from normal persons. Cell attachment to a petri dish was highest with CLL, next highest with CLL in remission, and low for normal persons and all the other patients. Lymphocytes from normal persons that consisted predominantly of thymus-derived cells gave similar results to isolated normal bone marrow-derived cells. The results indicate that there were different changes in the surface membrane of lymphocytes from patients with CLL, CLL in remission, Hodgkin's disease, and Hodgkin's disease in remission, and that the patients in clinical remission still showed abnormalities in their lymphocytes.  (+info)

The diagnosis of leptospirosis is based on a combination of clinical symptoms, laboratory tests, and the patient's exposure history. The most common diagnostic test is a blood test that detects antibodies against Leptospira. Treatment typically involves antibiotics and supportive care to manage symptoms.

Prevention of leptospirosis includes avoiding exposure to contaminated water, soil, or food, wearing protective clothing when working with animals or in areas where the bacteria may be present, and vaccinating animals that are at risk of infection. The disease is more common in tropical and subtropical regions, and it affects people who work outdoors or engage in activities that expose them to contaminated water, such as farmers, veterinarians, and sewer workers.

In medical terminology, leptospirosis is classified as a zoonotic disease, meaning it can be transmitted between animals and humans. The bacteria that cause the infection are gram-negative, aerobic, and helical shaped, and they belong to the family Leptospiraceae.

In summary, leptospirosis is a bacterial infection that can affect both humans and animals, and it is spread through contact with contaminated water, soil, or food. It can cause a wide range of symptoms, from mild to severe, and can lead to serious complications if left untreated. Prevention measures include avoiding exposure to contaminated sources, wearing protective clothing, and vaccinating animals at risk.

There are several types of brucellosis, including:

1. Brucella abortus: This type is primarily found in cattle and is the most common form of the disease in humans.
2. Brucella suis: This type is found in pigs and is less common in humans.
3. Brucella melitensis: This type is found in sheep, goats, and other animals, and is more virulent than B. abortus.
4. Brucella canis: This type is found in dogs and is rare in humans.

The symptoms of brucellosis can vary depending on the severity of the infection and the individual's overall health. Common symptoms include:

1. Fever
2. Headache
3. Joint pain
4. Muscle pain
5. Swelling of the lymph nodes and spleen
6. Fatigue
7. Loss of appetite
8. Weight loss

In severe cases, brucellosis can cause complications such as:

1. Endocarditis (infection of the heart valves)
2. Meningitis (inflammation of the lining around the brain and spinal cord)
3. Osteomyelitis (infection of the bone)
4. Testicular inflammation in men
5. Epididymitis (inflammation of the epididymis, a tube that carries sperm from the testicle to the penis)
6. Inflammation of the heart muscle and valves
7. Pneumonia
8. Inflammation of the liver and spleen

Brucellosis is diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Treatment typically involves antibiotics, and early treatment can help prevent complications. Prevention measures include avoiding contact with infected animals and ensuring proper hygiene practices when handling livestock or wild game.

Symptoms of Weil disease can vary widely, but typically include fever, headache, muscle aches, and vomiting. In severe cases, the infection can spread to the kidneys, liver, and other organs, leading to life-threatening complications.

Diagnosis of Weil disease is typically made through a combination of physical examination, laboratory tests, and medical imaging. Treatment typically involves antibiotics, and in severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary. Prevention is key, and measures such as avoiding contact with contaminated water and soil, wearing protective clothing when working with animals or in areas where the bacteria may be present, and vaccination of animals can help reduce the risk of infection.

Weil disease was first described by the French physician Charles-Jean-Marie Philoteaux Weil in 1886. It is most commonly found in tropical and subtropical regions of the world, where it is often associated with flooding and poor sanitation. Outbreaks of Weil disease have been reported in many parts of the world, including Asia, Africa, and the Americas.

In conclusion, Weil disease is a serious bacterial infection that can be transmitted between animals and humans. While it is preventable and treatable with antibiotics, it can lead to life-threatening complications if left untreated. Therefore, it is important to be aware of the risks of infection and take appropriate precautions when working with animals or in areas where the bacteria may be present.

Once infected, humans can experience a range of symptoms including fever, headache, muscle pain, and fatigue. In severe cases, the infection can spread to the bones and joints, causing swelling and pain. Brucellosis can also lead to complications such as endocarditis (inflammation of the heart valves) and meningitis (inflammation of the lining around the brain and spinal cord).

Brucellosis in cows is typically diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, laboratory tests, and blood samples. Treatment typically involves antibiotics, but it is important to detect and treat the infection early to prevent complications. Prevention measures include vaccination of animals, proper handling and disposal of animal products, and avoiding contact with infected animals or their products.

In addition to its medical significance, brucellosis has also been associated with significant economic losses in the livestock industry due to reduced milk production and fertility issues in infected animals.

The symptoms of toxoplasmosis can vary depending on the severity of the infection and the individual's overall health. In some cases, it may cause mild flu-like symptoms or no symptoms at all. However, in severe cases, it can lead to complications such as brain inflammation, eye infections, and pneumonia.

Toxoplasmosis is a significant public health concern due to its potential to affect anyone and its ability to cause serious complications, especially in certain populations such as pregnant women, people with weakened immune systems, and the elderly. It is important for individuals who may be at risk of contracting the disease to take preventive measures such as avoiding undercooked meat, washing hands frequently, and avoiding contact with cat feces.

Diagnosis of toxoplasmosis typically involves a combination of physical examination, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Laboratory tests may include blood tests or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to detect the parasite's DNA in the body. Imaging studies such as ultrasound or computerized tomography (CT) scans may be used to evaluate any complications of the disease.

Treatment for toxoplasmosis typically involves antibiotics to control the infection and manage symptoms. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to monitor and treat any complications. Prevention is key to avoiding this disease, as there is no vaccine available to protect against it.

The symptoms of visceral leishmaniasis can vary depending on the severity of the infection, but may include:

* Fever
* Fatigue
* Loss of appetite
* Weight loss
* Enlargement of the liver and spleen
* Pain in the abdomen
* Anemia
* Low blood platelet count
* Low white blood cell count

If left untreated, visceral leishmaniasis can be fatal. Treatment is typically with antiparasitic drugs, such as miltefosine or amphotericin B, and supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

It is important to note that visceral leishmaniasis is a serious and potentially life-threatening condition, and prompt medical attention is necessary for effective treatment and management.

Symptoms of meningitis may include fever, headache, stiff neck, confusion, nausea and vomiting, and sensitivity to light. In severe cases, it can lead to seizures, brain damage, and even death.

There are several types of meningitis, including:

1. Viral meningitis: This is the most common form of the infection and is usually caused by enteroviruses or herpesviruses. It is typically less severe than bacterial meningitis and resolves on its own with supportive care.
2. Bacterial meningitis: This is a more serious form of the infection and can be caused by a variety of bacteria, such as Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis, and Haemophilus influenzae. It requires prompt antibiotic treatment to prevent long-term complications and death.
3. Fungal meningitis: This type of meningitis is more common in people with weakened immune systems and is caused by fungi that are commonly found in the environment. It can be treated with antifungal medications.
4. Parasitic meningitis: This type of meningitis is rare and is caused by parasites that are typically found in tropical regions. It can be treated with antiparasitic medications.

Diagnosis of meningitis is based on a combination of clinical findings, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Laboratory tests may include blood cultures, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis. Imaging studies, such as CT or MRI scans, may be used to rule out other conditions and to evaluate the extent of brain damage.

Treatment of meningitis depends on the cause of the infection and may include antibiotics, antiviral medications, antifungal medications, or supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications. Supportive care may include intravenous fluids, oxygen therapy, and pain management. In severe cases, meningitis may require hospitalization in an intensive care unit (ICU) and may result in long-term consequences such as hearing loss, learning disabilities, or cognitive impairment.

Prevention of meningitis includes vaccination against the bacteria or viruses that can cause the infection, good hygiene practices, and avoiding close contact with people who are sick. Vaccines are available for certain types of meningitis, such as the meningococcal conjugate vaccine (MenACWY) and the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV). Good hygiene practices include washing hands frequently, covering the mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing, and avoiding sharing food, drinks, or personal items.

In conclusion, meningitis is a serious and potentially life-threatening infection that can affect people of all ages. Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial to prevent long-term consequences and improve outcomes. Prevention includes vaccination, good hygiene practices, and avoiding close contact with people who are sick.



Cattle diseases refer to any health issues that affect cattle, including bacterial, viral, and parasitic infections, as well as genetic disorders and environmental factors. These diseases can have a significant impact on the health and productivity of cattle, as well as the livelihoods of farmers and ranchers who rely on them for their livelihood.

Types of Cattle Diseases

There are many different types of cattle diseases, including:

1. Bacterial diseases, such as brucellosis, anthrax, and botulism.
2. Viral diseases, such as bovine viral diarrhea (BVD) and bluetongue.
3. Parasitic diseases, such as heartwater and gapeworm.
4. Genetic disorders, such as polledness and cleft palate.
5. Environmental factors, such as heat stress and nutritional deficiencies.

Symptoms of Cattle Diseases

The symptoms of cattle diseases can vary depending on the specific disease, but may include:

1. Fever and respiratory problems
2. Diarrhea and vomiting
3. Weight loss and depression
4. Swelling and pain in joints or limbs
5. Discharge from the eyes or nose
6. Coughing or difficulty breathing
7. Lameness or reluctance to move
8. Changes in behavior, such as aggression or lethargy

Diagnosis and Treatment of Cattle Diseases

Diagnosing cattle diseases can be challenging, as the symptoms may be similar for different conditions. However, veterinarians use a combination of physical examination, laboratory tests, and medical history to make a diagnosis. Treatment options vary depending on the specific disease and may include antibiotics, vaccines, anti-inflammatory drugs, and supportive care such as fluids and nutritional supplements.

Prevention of Cattle Diseases

Preventing cattle diseases is essential for maintaining the health and productivity of your herd. Some preventative measures include:

1. Proper nutrition and hydration
2. Regular vaccinations and parasite control
3. Sanitary living conditions and frequent cleaning
4. Monitoring for signs of illness and seeking prompt veterinary care if symptoms arise
5. Implementing biosecurity measures such as isolating sick animals and quarantining new animals before introduction to the herd.

It is important to work closely with a veterinarian to develop a comprehensive health plan for your cattle herd, as they can provide guidance on vaccination schedules, parasite control methods, and disease prevention strategies tailored to your specific needs.

Conclusion
Cattle diseases can have a significant impact on the productivity and profitability of your herd, as well as the overall health of your animals. It is essential to be aware of the common cattle diseases, their symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention methods to ensure the health and well-being of your herd.

By working closely with a veterinarian and implementing preventative measures such as proper nutrition and sanitary living conditions, you can help protect your cattle from disease and maintain a productive and profitable herd. Remember, prevention is key when it comes to managing cattle diseases.

Some common types of streptococcal infections include:

1. Strep throat (pharyngitis): an infection of the throat and tonsils that can cause fever, sore throat, and swollen lymph nodes.
2. Sinusitis: an infection of the sinuses (air-filled cavities in the skull) that can cause headache, facial pain, and nasal congestion.
3. Pneumonia: an infection of the lungs that can cause cough, fever, chills, and shortness of breath.
4. Cellulitis: an infection of the skin and underlying tissue that can cause redness, swelling, and warmth over the affected area.
5. Endocarditis: an infection of the heart valves, which can cause fever, fatigue, and swelling in the legs and abdomen.
6. Meningitis: an infection of the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord that can cause fever, headache, stiff neck, and confusion.
7. Septicemia (blood poisoning): an infection of the bloodstream that can cause fever, chills, rapid heart rate, and low blood pressure.

Streptococcal infections are usually treated with antibiotics, which can help clear the infection and prevent complications. In some cases, hospitalization may be necessary to monitor and treat the infection.

Prevention measures for streptococcal infections include:

1. Good hygiene practices, such as washing hands frequently, especially after contact with someone who is sick.
2. Avoiding close contact with people who have streptococcal infections.
3. Keeping wounds and cuts clean and covered to prevent bacterial entry.
4. Practicing safe sex to prevent the spread of streptococcal infections through sexual contact.
5. Getting vaccinated against streptococcus pneumoniae, which can help prevent pneumonia and other infections caused by this bacterium.

It is important to seek medical attention if you suspect you or someone else may have a streptococcal infection, as early diagnosis and treatment can help prevent complications and improve outcomes.

Definition:

Veterinary abortion refers to the intentional termination of a pregnancy in an animal, typically a farm or domesticated animal such as a dog, cat, horse, cow, or pig. The procedure is performed by a veterinarian and is usually done for reasons such as unwanted breeding, disease or genetic disorders in the fetus, or to prevent overpopulation of certain species.

Types of Veterinary Abortion:

1. Spontaneous Abortion (Miscarriage): This occurs naturally when the pregnancy is terminated by natural causes such as infection or trauma.
2. Induced Abortion: This is performed by a veterinarian using various methods such as injection of drugs or surgical procedures to terminate the pregnancy.

Methods of Veterinary Abortion:

1. Drug-induced abortion: This method involves administering medication to the animal to cause uterine contractions and expulsion of the fetus.
2. Surgical abortion: This method involves surgical intervention to remove the fetus from the uterus, usually through a small incision in the abdomen.
3. Non-surgical abortion: This method uses a device to remove the fetus from the uterus without making an incision.

Complications and Risks of Veterinary Abortion:

1. Infection: As with any surgical procedure, there is a risk of infection.
2. Hemorrhage: Excessive bleeding can occur during or after the procedure.
3. Uterine rupture: In rare cases, the uterus may rupture during the procedure.
4. Incomplete abortion: In some cases, not all of the fetus may be removed, leading to complications later on.
5. Scarring: Scars may form in the uterus or abdomen after the procedure, which can lead to reproductive problems in the future.

Prevention of Unwanted Pregnancies in Animals:

1. Spaying/neutering: This is the most effective way to prevent unwanted pregnancies in animals.
2. Breeding management: Proper breeding management, including selecting healthy and fertile breeding animals, can help reduce the risk of unwanted pregnancies.
3. Use of contraceptives: Hormonal contraceptives, such as injection or implants, can be used in some species to prevent pregnancy.
4. Behavioral management: In some cases, behavioral management techniques, such as separation or rehoming of animals, may be necessary to prevent unwanted breeding.

Ethical Considerations of Veterinary Abortion:

1. Animal welfare: The procedure should only be performed when necessary and with the intention of improving the animal's welfare.
2. Owner consent: Owners must provide informed consent before the procedure can be performed.
3. Veterinarian expertise: The procedure should only be performed by a licensed veterinarian with experience in the procedure.
4. Alternative options: All alternative options, such as spaying/neutering or rehoming, should be considered before performing an abortion.

Conclusion:

Veterinary abortion is a complex issue that requires careful consideration of ethical and practical factors. While it may be necessary in some cases to prevent the suffering of unwanted litters, it is important to approach the procedure with caution and respect for animal welfare. Owners must provide informed consent, and the procedure should only be performed by a licensed veterinarian with experience in the procedure. Alternative options, such as spaying/neutering or rehoming, should also be considered before performing an abortion. Ultimately, the decision to perform a veterinary abortion should be made with the intention of improving the animal's welfare and quality of life.

The symptoms of cryptococcosis vary depending on the location and severity of the infection. In lung infections, patients may experience fever, cough, chest pain, and difficulty breathing. In CNS infections, patients may experience headaches, confusion, seizures, and loss of coordination. Skin infections can cause skin lesions, and eye infections can cause vision problems.

Cryptococcosis is diagnosed by culturing the fungus from body fluids or tissue samples. Treatment typically involves antifungal medications, such as amphotericin B or fluconazole, which may be given intravenously or orally, depending on the severity and location of the infection. In severe cases, surgery may be required to remove infected tissue or repair damaged organs.

Preventive measures for cryptococcosis include avoiding exposure to fungal spores, practicing good hygiene, and maintaining a healthy immune system. For individuals with HIV/AIDS, antiretroviral therapy can help reduce the risk of developing cryptococcosis.

Overall, while rare, cryptococcosis is a serious opportunistic infection that can affect individuals with compromised immune systems. Early diagnosis and prompt treatment are essential to prevent complications and improve outcomes.

1. Parvovirus (Parvo): A highly contagious viral disease that affects dogs of all ages and breeds, causing symptoms such as vomiting, diarrhea, and severe dehydration.
2. Distemper: A serious viral disease that can affect dogs of all ages and breeds, causing symptoms such as fever, coughing, and seizures.
3. Rabies: A deadly viral disease that affects dogs and other animals, transmitted through the saliva of infected animals, and causing symptoms such as aggression, confusion, and paralysis.
4. Heartworms: A common condition caused by a parasitic worm that infects the heart and lungs of dogs, leading to symptoms such as coughing, fatigue, and difficulty breathing.
5. Ticks and fleas: These external parasites can cause skin irritation, infection, and disease in dogs, including Lyme disease and tick-borne encephalitis.
6. Canine hip dysplasia (CHD): A genetic condition that affects the hip joint of dogs, causing symptoms such as arthritis, pain, and mobility issues.
7. Osteosarcoma: A type of bone cancer that affects dogs, often diagnosed in older dogs and causing symptoms such as lameness, swelling, and pain.
8. Allergies: Dog allergies can cause skin irritation, ear infections, and other health issues, and may be triggered by environmental factors or specific ingredients in their diet.
9. Gastric dilatation-volvulus (GDV): A life-threatening condition that occurs when a dog's stomach twists and fills with gas, causing symptoms such as vomiting, pain, and difficulty breathing.
10. Cruciate ligament injuries: Common in active dogs, these injuries can cause joint instability, pain, and mobility issues.

It is important to monitor your dog's health regularly and seek veterinary care if you notice any changes or abnormalities in their behavior, appetite, or physical condition.

Symptoms of meningococcal meningitis typically develop within 3-7 days after exposure and may include fever, headache, stiff neck, confusion, nausea and vomiting, sensitivity to light, and seizures. In severe cases, the infection can lead to shock, organ failure, and death within hours of the onset of symptoms.

Diagnosis is typically made by a combination of physical examination, laboratory tests (such as blood cultures and PCR), and imaging studies (such as CT or MRI scans). Treatment typically involves antibiotics, intravenous fluids, and supportive care to manage fever, pain, and other symptoms. In severe cases, hospitalization in an intensive care unit may be necessary.

Prevention of meningococcal meningitis includes the use of vaccines, good hygiene practices (such as frequent handwashing), and avoidance of close contact with people who are sick. A vaccine is available for children and teens, and some colleges and universities require students to be vaccinated before moving into dorms.

Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial in preventing long-term complications and reducing the risk of death from meningococcal meningitis. If you suspect that you or someone else may have meningococcal meningitis, it is important to seek medical attention immediately.

The diagnosis of typhoid fever is based on clinical symptoms, laboratory tests such as blood cultures, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays. Treatment typically involves antibiotics, which can significantly reduce the duration of illness and the risk of complications. Prevention measures include vaccination against typhoid fever, proper sanitation and hygiene practices, and avoiding consumption of contaminated food and water.

Symptoms:

* High fever
* Headache
* Fatigue
* Abdominal pain
* Diarrhea or constipation
* Vomiting
* Rash
* Delirium
* Intestinal hemorrhage
* Multi-organ failure

Causes:

* Salmonella Typhi bacteria
* Contaminated food or water
* Poor sanitation and hygiene practices
* International travel or contaminated food imports

Treatment:

* Antibiotics
* Supportive care (fluids, electrolytes, pain management)

Prevention:

* Vaccination against typhoid fever
* Proper sanitation and hygiene practices
* Avoiding consumption of contaminated food and water.

In animals, toxoplasmosis can cause a variety of clinical signs depending on the severity of the infection and the immune status of the host. Some common symptoms include diarrhea, lethargy, loss of appetite, weight loss, fever, and enlargement of the liver and spleen. In severe cases, toxoplasmosis can lead to respiratory failure, neurological disorders, and death.

Toxoplasmosis is typically diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, laboratory tests such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or serology, and imaging studies such as radiography or ultrasonography. Treatment for toxoplasmosis in animals is largely supportive, aimed at managing symptoms and preventing complications.

Prevention of toxoplasmosis in animals involves good hygiene practices, such as avoiding contact with cat feces and contaminated food or water, and vaccination of cats against toxoplasmosis to reduce the risk of oocyst shedding. In some cases, antibiotics may be used to treat secondary bacterial infections that arise from the immunosuppression caused by the parasite.

In conclusion, toxoplasmosis is a common and widespread infectious disease that affects many animal species, including humans. It can cause a range of clinical signs and symptoms, and diagnosis requires a combination of physical examination, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Prevention involves good hygiene practices and vaccination of cats against toxoplasmosis.

There are three stages of syphilis:

1. Primary stage: A small, painless sore or ulcer (called a chancre) appears at the site of infection, usually on the genitals, rectum, or mouth. This sore heals on its own within 2-6 weeks, but the infection remains in the body.
2. Secondary stage: A rash and other symptoms can appear weeks to months after the primary stage. The rash can be accompanied by fever, fatigue, and swollen lymph nodes.
3. Latent stage: After the secondary stage, the infection can enter a latent (hidden) phase, during which there are no visible symptoms but the infection remains in the body. If left untreated, syphilis can progress to the tertiary stage, which can cause serious complications such as damage to the heart, brain, and other organs.

Syphilis is diagnosed through a physical examination, blood tests, and/or a lumbar puncture (spinal tap). Treatment typically involves antibiotics, and early treatment can cure the infection and prevent long-term complications.

Prevention measures include safe sex practices such as using condoms and dental dams, avoiding sexual contact with someone who has syphilis, and getting regularly tested for STIs. It is important to seek medical attention if symptoms of syphilis are present, as early treatment can prevent long-term complications.

Symptoms of lymphadenitis may include swelling and tenderness of the affected lymph nodes, fever, fatigue, and general illness. In some cases, the lymph nodes may become abscessed, which is a collection of pus that forms within the node.

Treatment of lymphadenitis depends on the underlying cause of the condition. If the infection is caused by bacteria, antibiotics may be prescribed to treat the infection and help to reduce the swelling and tenderness. In some cases, surgical drainage of the abscess may be necessary to help to resolve the infection.

Prevention of lymphadenitis includes good hygiene practices such as frequent handwashing, avoiding close contact with people who are sick, and avoiding sharing personal items such as toothbrushes or razors. Vaccination against certain infections, such as H. pylori, can also help to prevent lymphadenitis.

Definition: Meningitis, pneumococcal, is an inflammatory disease caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) that affects the protective membranes (meninges) covering the brain and spinal cord, leading to a range of symptoms including fever, headache, vomiting, and altered mental status. It can be a severe and potentially life-threatening infection, particularly in certain patient populations such as children under 5 years old, older adults, and those with underlying medical conditions.

Epidemiology: Pneumococcal meningitis is relatively uncommon, but it remains an important public health concern, particularly in developed countries. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), there are approximately 350 cases of pneumococcal meningitis reported each year in the United States, resulting in about 10% of all cases of bacterial meningitis.

Risk Factors: Several risk factors have been identified for developing pneumococcal meningitis, including:

1. Age: Children under 5 years old and older adults are at increased risk.
2. Underlying medical conditions: Patients with conditions such as sickle cell disease, HIV/AIDS, and chronic lung disease are more likely to develop pneumococcal meningitis.
3. Weakened immune system: Those with compromised immune systems, such as those taking immunosuppressive medications or who have undergone organ transplants, are at higher risk.
4. Recent exposure to someone with pneumococcal disease: Close contact with someone who has recently been diagnosed with pneumococcal disease can increase the risk of developing the infection.

Clinical Presentation: Symptoms of pneumococcal meningitis can vary depending on the age of the patient, but common presentations include:

1. Fever
2. Headache
3. Vomiting
4. Altered mental status (in infants and young children) or confusion (in older adults)
5. Stiff neck
6. Sensitivity to light (photophobia)
7. Bulging of the soft spots on the skull in infants (in infants)

Diagnosis: The diagnosis of pneumococcal meningitis is based on a combination of clinical findings, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Laboratory tests may include blood cultures, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) cultures, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to detect the presence of S. pneumoniae. Imaging studies, such as CT or MRI scans, may be used to evaluate the brain and identify any signs of inflammation or abscesses.

Treatment: Pneumococcal meningitis is typically treated with antibiotics, which are usually given intravenously. The choice of antibiotic depends on the severity of the infection and the patient's age and medical history. In addition to antibiotics, supportive care may be provided to manage symptoms such as fever, headache, and muscle aches. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to monitor and treat the infection.

Complications: Pneumococcal meningitis can lead to serious complications, including:

1. Hearing loss
2. Learning disabilities
3. Behavioral changes
4. Seizures
5. Brain damage
6. Death

Prevention: Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) is recommended for children under the age of 2 years and for certain high-risk groups, such as adults over the age of 65 and people with certain medical conditions. The vaccine can help prevent pneumococcal meningitis and other serious infections caused by S. pneumoniae. Good hygiene practices, such as frequent handwashing, can also help prevent the spread of the bacteria.

Prognosis: With prompt and appropriate treatment, the prognosis for pneumococcal meningitis is generally good. However, in severe cases or those with complications, the prognosis may be poorer. In some cases, long-term sequelae such as hearing loss, learning disabilities, and behavioral changes may occur.

Incubation period: The incubation period for pneumococcal meningitis is typically between 2 and 4 days, but it can range from 1 to 10 days.

Diagnosis: Pneumococcal meningitis is diagnosed based on a combination of clinical symptoms, physical examination findings, laboratory tests, and imaging studies such as CT or MRI scans. Laboratory tests may include blood cultures, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis, and PCR testing to identify the presence of S. pneumoniae.

Treatment: Treatment for pneumococcal meningitis typically involves antibiotics and supportive care to manage symptoms such as fever, headache, and muscle aches. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to monitor and treat the infection.

In conclusion, pneumococcal meningitis is a serious infection that can cause significant morbidity and mortality. Prompt diagnosis and appropriate treatment are essential to prevent long-term sequelae and improve outcomes for affected individuals.

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) is a specific type of hemolytic anemia that occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys red blood cells. This can happen due to various underlying causes such as infections, certain medications, and some types of cancer.

In autoimmune hemolytic anemia, the immune system produces antibodies that coat the surface of red blood cells and mark them for destruction by other immune cells called complement proteins. This leads to the premature destruction of red blood cells in the spleen, liver, and other organs.

Symptoms of autoimmune hemolytic anemia can include fatigue, weakness, shortness of breath, jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), dark urine, and a pale or yellowish complexion. Treatment options for AIHA depend on the underlying cause of the disorder, but may include medications to suppress the immune system, plasmapheresis to remove antibodies from the blood, and in severe cases, splenectomy (removal of the spleen) or bone marrow transplantation.

In summary, autoimmune hemolytic anemia is a type of hemolytic anemia that occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys red blood cells, leading to premature destruction of red blood cells and various symptoms such as fatigue, weakness, and jaundice. Treatment options depend on the underlying cause of the disorder and may include medications, plasmapheresis, and in severe cases, splenectomy or bone marrow transplantation.

Treponemal infections are a group of bacterial infections caused by the bacterium Treponema. These infections are typically transmitted through contact with infected bodily fluids, such as blood or semen, and can affect various parts of the body, including the skin, eyes, and internal organs.

The most common types of treponemal infections include:

1. Syphilis: A sexually transmitted infection (STI) that can cause a range of symptoms, including sores on the genitals, rashes, and fever. If left untreated, syphilis can progress to more advanced stages and cause serious complications, such as damage to the heart, brain, and other organs.
2. Yaws: A bacterial infection that is commonly found in tropical and subtropical regions, yaws can cause skin sores, joint pain, and swollen lymph nodes. It is typically transmitted through contact with infected people or animals.
3. Pinta: A mild form of treponemal infection that is common in South America, pinta can cause skin sores and rashes. It is typically transmitted through contact with infected people.
4. Enchootic treponematosis: A rare form of treponemal infection that can affect the eyes, causing inflammation and vision loss.

Treponemal infections are typically diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, laboratory tests, and medical imaging studies. Treatment usually involves antibiotics to eliminate the bacteria from the body. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to remove infected tissue or repair damaged organs.

Prevention measures for treponemal infections include:

1. Safe sex practices: Using condoms and other barrier methods can help prevent the transmission of syphilis and other treponemal infections during sexual activity.
2. Avoiding contact with infected people or animals: In areas where treponemal infections are common, avoiding contact with people or animals that may be infected can help reduce the risk of infection.
3. Good hygiene practices: Keeping wounds and cuts clean and covered can help prevent the transmission of infection.
4. Vaccination: In some cases, vaccination against treponemal infections may be recommended, particularly for individuals who are at high risk of infection.

Overall, treponemal infections can have serious consequences if left untreated, but with prompt and appropriate treatment, many of these infections can be effectively managed and cured.

Melioidosis is typically acquired through contact with contaminated soil or water in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia and Africa. The bacteria can enter the body through open wounds, cuts, or through the eyes, nose, or mouth. Once inside the body, the bacteria can multiply and cause a wide range of symptoms including fever, chills, headache, muscle and joint pain, and skin lesions.

If left untreated, melioidosis can lead to serious complications such as sepsis, meningitis, and pneumonia, which can be fatal. The disease is diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Treatment typically involves antibiotics, and early treatment is essential for effective management of the disease.

In addition to being an important medical condition, melioidosis is also of interest to researchers studying the bacteria that cause the disease. Burkholderia pseudomallei has been found to have a unique ability to survive in a variety of environments, including soil and water, and has been studied for its potential as a bioterrorism agent.

In summary, melioidosis is a serious bacterial infection caused by Burkholderia pseudomallei that can affect multiple organ systems and cause severe illness if left untreated. It is typically acquired through contact with contaminated soil or water in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia and Africa and is diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Early treatment is essential for effective management of the disease.

Symptoms:

* Fever
* Cough
* Chest pain or tightness
* Shortness of breath
* Headache
* Muscle aches
* Fatigue

Diagnosis:

* Physical examination
* Complete blood count (CBC)
* Blood cultures
* Chest X-ray
* Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

Treatment:

* Antibiotics (macrolides, fluoroquinolones, and aminoglycosides)
* Supportive care (fluids, oxygen therapy, pain management)

Prevention:

* Vaccination (not available in the US)
* Good hand hygiene
* Avoiding close contact with people who are sick

Prognosis:

* Most cases of Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia are mild and resolve quickly with antibiotic treatment.
* In severe cases, the infection can spread to other parts of the body and cause serious complications such as respiratory failure, sepsis, and meningitis.

Epidemiology:

* Mycoplasma pneumoniae is a common cause of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) worldwide.
* It is more common in children than adults.
* The incidence of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection varies by age, with the highest incidence in children under 5 years old.

Congenital toxoplasmosis is caused by the transmission of the Toxoplasma gondii parasite from the mother's bloodstream to the developing fetus during pregnancy. This can occur if the mother becomes infected with the parasite for the first time during pregnancy, or if she has a prior infection that reactivates during pregnancy.

The symptoms of congenital toxoplasmosis can vary depending on the severity of the infection and the organs affected. In some cases, the infection may be asymptomatic, while in others, it can cause a range of symptoms, including:

* Seizures
* Developmental delays
* Intellectual disability
* Vision loss or blindness
* Hearing loss or deafness
* Congenital anomalies such as heart defects or facial abnormalities

Congenital toxoplasmosis can be diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests, such as blood tests or amniocentesis. Treatment for congenital toxoplasmosis typically involves antibiotics and supportive care, and the prognosis varies depending on the severity of the infection and the organs affected.

Prevention of congenital toxoplasmosis primarily involves avoiding exposure to the Toxoplasma gondii parasite during pregnancy. This can be achieved by avoiding contact with cat feces, not eating undercooked meat, and taking appropriate hygiene measures when handling raw meat or gardening. Pregnant women who are exposed to the parasite should seek medical attention immediately to reduce the risk of infection.

There are two main forms of the disease, depending on the species of parasite and the location where the infection is acquired:

* T. b. rhodesiense infection is found primarily in East and Southern Africa, and is characterized by a more severe form of the disease. Symptoms can include fever, headache, joint pain, and skin rashes, as well as swelling of the lymph nodes and spleen. If left untreated, the disease can progress to a more advanced stage, characterized by neurological symptoms such as confusion, seizures, and coma.
* T. b. gambiense infection is found primarily in West and Central Africa, and is characterized by a milder form of the disease. Symptoms can include fever, joint pain, and skin rashes, as well as swelling of the lymph nodes and spleen.

Both forms of the disease are treatable with antiparasitic drugs, but if left untreated, they can be fatal. Diagnosis is typically made through a combination of physical examination, laboratory tests, and imaging studies such as ultrasound or CT scans. Treatment is usually with melarsoprol or eflornithine, and in some cases, surgery may be necessary to remove affected tissue or organs.

Prevention of trypanosomiasis involves controlling the population of tsetse flies through the use of insecticides, traps, and other methods, as well as educating people about how to avoid being bitten by infected flies. There is also ongoing research into the development of a vaccine against trypanosomiasis.

A disease that affects pigs, including viral, bacterial, and parasitic infections, as well as genetic disorders and nutritional deficiencies. Some common swine diseases include:

1. Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome (PRRS): A highly contagious viral disease that can cause reproductive failure, respiratory problems, and death.
2. Swine Influenza: A viral infection similar to human influenza, which can cause fever, coughing, and pneumonia in pigs.
3. Erysipelas: A bacterial infection that causes high fever, loss of appetite, and skin lesions in pigs.
4. Actinobacillosis: A bacterial infection that can cause pneumonia, arthritis, and abscesses in pigs.
5. Parasitic infections: Such as gastrointestinal parasites like roundworms and tapeworms, which can cause diarrhea, anemia, and weight loss in pigs.
6. Scrapie: A degenerative neurological disorder that affects pigs and other animals, causing confusion, aggression, and eventually death.
7. Nutritional deficiencies: Such as a lack of vitamin E or selenium, which can cause a range of health problems in pigs, including muscular dystrophy and anemia.
8. Genetic disorders: Such as achondroplasia, a condition that causes dwarfism and deformities in pigs.
9. Environmental diseases: Such as heat stress, which can cause a range of health problems in pigs, including respiratory distress and death.

It's important to note that many swine diseases have similar symptoms, making accurate diagnosis by a veterinarian essential for effective treatment and control.

Symptoms of pneumococcal pneumonia can include fever, cough, chest pain, shortness of breath, and difficulty breathing. In severe cases, the infection can spread to the bloodstream and cause sepsis, a life-threatening condition that requires immediate medical attention.

Pneumococcal pneumonia is most commonly seen in young children, older adults, and people with weakened immune systems, such as those with cancer, HIV/AIDS, or taking immunosuppressive medications. It is usually diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and diagnostic tests such as chest X-rays and blood cultures.

Treatment of pneumococcal pneumonia typically involves antibiotics to eliminate the bacterial infection. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to provide oxygen therapy, fluid replacement, and other supportive care. Vaccines are also available to prevent Streptococcus pneumoniae infections, particularly in children and older adults.

Prevention measures for pneumococcal pneumonia include:

* Vaccination: The pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) is recommended for children under the age of 2 and older adults over the age of 65, as well as for people with certain medical conditions.
* Good hygiene: Regular handwashing and avoiding close contact with people who are sick can help prevent the spread of the infection.
* Avoiding smoking: Smoking can damage the lungs and increase the risk of infection.
* Keeping up-to-date on recommended vaccinations: Staying current on recommended vaccinations, such as the flu shot, can help prevent secondary bacterial infections like pneumococcal pneumonia.
* Managing underlying conditions: People with certain medical conditions, such as diabetes or chronic lung disease, should work with their healthcare provider to manage their condition and reduce their risk of developing pneumococcal pneumonia.

It's important to seek medical attention right away if you or someone you know is experiencing symptoms of pneumococcal pneumonia, as early treatment can help prevent complications and improve outcomes.

Pleuropneumonia is typically diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests such as chest radiographs and bacterial cultures. Treatment usually involves antibiotics and supportive care, such as fluids and oxygen therapy. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to ensure proper care and monitoring.

Prevention of pleuropneumonia is key to minimizing the risk of infection. Vaccination programs are available for sheep and goats, and good husbandry practices such as providing clean water and adequate ventilation can help reduce the risk of transmission. Early detection and treatment are also critical to preventing the spread of the disease and minimizing its impact on animal health and productivity.

In summary, pleuropneumonia is a serious respiratory disease that affects sheep and goats, caused by Pasteurella haemolytica bacteria. It can be diagnosed through physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests, and treated with antibiotics and supportive care. Prevention through vaccination programs and good husbandry practices is key to minimizing the risk of infection and its impact on animal health and productivity.

A group of infectious diseases caused by Rickettsia prowazekii and transmitted to humans through the bite of infected body lice. The three forms of epidemic typhus are:

1. Classic typhus fever, which is characterized by a sudden onset of fever, headache, myalgia, and a rash that appears on the fourth or fifth day of illness.
2. Brilliant's disease, which is similar to classic typhus fever but with a more rapid onset and a higher mortality rate.
3. Endemic typhus, which is a mild form of the disease that occurs in areas where the disease is constantly present.

Epidemic louse-borne typhus has been known to occur in areas of poverty, poor hygiene, and overcrowding, such as refugee camps, homeless shelters, and prisons. The disease is typically treated with antibiotics, and prevention measures include using insecticides to kill body lice and improving living conditions to reduce the risk of transmission.

There are several types of diarrhea, including:

1. Acute diarrhea: This type of diarrhea is short-term and usually resolves on its own within a few days. It can be caused by a viral or bacterial infection, food poisoning, or medication side effects.
2. Chronic diarrhea: This type of diarrhea persists for more than 4 weeks and can be caused by a variety of conditions, such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), or celiac disease.
3. Diarrhea-predominant IBS: This type of diarrhea is characterized by frequent, loose stools and abdominal pain or discomfort. It can be caused by a variety of factors, including stress, hormonal changes, and certain foods.
4. Infectious diarrhea: This type of diarrhea is caused by a bacterial, viral, or parasitic infection and can be spread through contaminated food and water, close contact with an infected person, or by consuming contaminated food.

Symptoms of diarrhea may include:

* Frequent, loose, and watery stools
* Abdominal cramps and pain
* Bloating and gas
* Nausea and vomiting
* Fever and chills
* Headache
* Fatigue and weakness

Diagnosis of diarrhea is typically made through a physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests to rule out other potential causes of the symptoms. Treatment for diarrhea depends on the underlying cause and may include antibiotics, anti-diarrheal medications, fluid replacement, and dietary changes. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to monitor and treat any complications.

Prevention of diarrhea includes:

* Practicing good hygiene, such as washing hands frequently and thoroughly, especially after using the bathroom or before preparing food
* Avoiding close contact with people who are sick
* Properly storing and cooking food to prevent contamination
* Drinking safe water and avoiding contaminated water sources
* Avoiding raw or undercooked meat, poultry, and seafood
* Getting vaccinated against infections that can cause diarrhea

Complications of diarrhea can include:

* Dehydration: Diarrhea can lead to a loss of fluids and electrolytes, which can cause dehydration. Severe dehydration can be life-threatening and requires immediate medical attention.
* Electrolyte imbalance: Diarrhea can also cause an imbalance of electrolytes in the body, which can lead to serious complications.
* Inflammation of the intestines: Prolonged diarrhea can cause inflammation of the intestines, which can lead to abdominal pain and other complications.
* Infections: Diarrhea can be a symptom of an infection, such as a bacterial or viral infection. If left untreated, these infections can lead to serious complications.
* Malnutrition: Prolonged diarrhea can lead to malnutrition and weight loss, which can have long-term effects on health and development.

Treatment of diarrhea will depend on the underlying cause, but may include:

* Fluid replacement: Drinking plenty of fluids to prevent dehydration and replace lost electrolytes.
* Anti-diarrheal medications: Over-the-counter or prescription medications to slow down bowel movements and reduce diarrhea.
* Antibiotics: If the diarrhea is caused by a bacterial infection, antibiotics may be prescribed to treat the infection.
* Rest: Getting plenty of rest to allow the body to recover from the illness.
* Dietary changes: Avoiding certain foods or making dietary changes to help manage symptoms and prevent future episodes of diarrhea.

It is important to seek medical attention if you experience any of the following:

* Severe diarrhea that lasts for more than 3 days
* Diarrhea that is accompanied by fever, blood in the stool, or abdominal pain
* Diarrhea that is severe enough to cause dehydration or electrolyte imbalances
* Diarrhea that is not responding to treatment

Prevention of diarrhea includes:

* Good hand hygiene: Washing your hands frequently, especially after using the bathroom or before preparing food.
* Safe food handling: Cooking and storing food properly to prevent contamination.
* Avoiding close contact with people who are sick.
* Getting vaccinated against infections that can cause diarrhea, such as rotavirus.

Overall, while diarrhea can be uncomfortable and disruptive, it is usually a minor illness that can be treated at home with over-the-counter medications and plenty of fluids. However, if you experience severe or persistent diarrhea, it is important to seek medical attention to rule out any underlying conditions that may require more formal treatment.

There are two forms of trypanosomiasis, depending on the stage of the parasite:

1. Acute trypanosomiasis: This form of the disease occurs in the early stages of infection and is characterized by fever, headache, muscle pain, and joint swelling.
2. Chronic trypanosomiasis: This form of the disease occurs in the later stages of infection and is characterized by progressive neurological symptoms, including confusion, slurred speech, and difficulty walking.

If left untreated, trypanosomiasis can be fatal. Treatment typically involves the use of antiparasitic drugs, such as melarsoprol or eflornithine.

In addition to its medical significance, trypanosomiasis has also had significant social and economic impacts on affected communities, particularly in rural areas where the disease is more common. The stigma associated with the disease can lead to social isolation and marginalization of infected individuals and their families, while the financial burden of treatment can be a significant source of poverty.

Overall, trypanosomiasis is a serious and potentially deadly disease that requires prompt diagnosis and treatment to prevent complications and improve outcomes for affected individuals.

The symptoms of rotavirus infection can range from mild to severe and may include:

* Diarrhea
* Vomiting
* Fever
* Abdominal pain
* Dehydration
* Loss of appetite
* Weight loss

In severe cases, rotavirus infection can lead to complications such as:

* Dehydration
* Malnutrition
* Electrolyte imbalance
* Acute kidney injury
* Septicemia
* Death (rare)

The diagnosis of rotavirus infection is based on a combination of clinical symptoms, laboratory tests, and medical imaging. Laboratory tests may include:

* Stool testing for the presence of rotavirus antigens or genetic material
* Blood testing for signs of dehydration or electrolyte imbalance

There is no specific treatment for rotavirus infection, but rather supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications. This may include:

* Fluid replacement therapy to prevent dehydration
* Anti-diarrheal medications to slow down bowel movements
* Pain management with medication
* Rest and hydration

Prevention is key in managing rotavirus infections. Vaccines are available to protect against rotavirus infection, and good hygiene practices such as frequent handwashing and avoiding close contact with people who are sick can also help prevent the spread of the virus.

Overall, while rotavirus infections can be severe and potentially life-threatening, with proper supportive care and prevention measures, most children recover fully within a few days to a week.

Symptoms of bacterial meningitis may include sudden onset of fever, headache, stiff neck, nausea, vomiting, and sensitivity to light. In severe cases, the infection can cause seizures, coma, and even death.

Bacterial meningitis can be diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, laboratory tests, and imaging studies such as CT or MRI scans. Treatment typically involves antibiotics to eradicate the infection, and supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Early diagnosis and treatment are critical to prevent long-term damage and improve outcomes for patients with bacterial meningitis. The disease is more common in certain groups, such as infants, young children, and people with weakened immune systems, and it can be more severe in these populations.

Prevention of bacterial meningitis includes vaccination against the bacteria that most commonly cause the disease, good hand hygiene, and avoiding close contact with people who are sick.

There are two main types of hemolysis:

1. Intravascular hemolysis: This type occurs within the blood vessels and is caused by factors such as mechanical injury, oxidative stress, and certain infections.
2. Extravascular hemolysis: This type occurs outside the blood vessels and is caused by factors such as bone marrow disorders, splenic rupture, and certain medications.

Hemolytic anemia is a condition that occurs when there is excessive hemolysis of RBCs, leading to a decrease in the number of healthy red blood cells in the body. This can cause symptoms such as fatigue, weakness, pale skin, and shortness of breath.

Some common causes of hemolysis include:

1. Genetic disorders such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.
2. Autoimmune disorders such as autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA).
3. Infections such as malaria, babesiosis, and toxoplasmosis.
4. Medications such as antibiotics, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and blood thinners.
5. Bone marrow disorders such as aplastic anemia and myelofibrosis.
6. Splenic rupture or surgical removal of the spleen.
7. Mechanical injury to the blood vessels.

Diagnosis of hemolysis is based on a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests such as complete blood count (CBC), blood smear examination, and direct Coombs test. Treatment depends on the underlying cause and may include supportive care, blood transfusions, and medications to suppress the immune system or prevent infection.

Staphylococcal infections can be classified into two categories:

1. Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) - This type of infection is resistant to many antibiotics and can cause severe skin infections, pneumonia, bloodstream infections and surgical site infections.

2. Methicillin-Sensitive Staphylococcus Aureus (MSSA) - This type of infection is not resistant to antibiotics and can cause milder skin infections, respiratory tract infections, sinusitis and food poisoning.

Staphylococcal infections are caused by the Staphylococcus bacteria which can enter the body through various means such as:

1. Skin cuts or open wounds
2. Respiratory tract infections
3. Contaminated food and water
4. Healthcare-associated infections
5. Surgical site infections

Symptoms of Staphylococcal infections may vary depending on the type of infection and severity, but they can include:

1. Skin redness and swelling
2. Increased pain or tenderness
3. Warmth or redness in the affected area
4. Pus or discharge
5. Fever and chills
6. Swollen lymph nodes
7. Shortness of breath

Diagnosis of Staphylococcal infections is based on physical examination, medical history, laboratory tests such as blood cultures, and imaging studies such as X-rays or CT scans.

Treatment of Staphylococcal infections depends on the type of infection and severity, but may include:

1. Antibiotics to fight the infection
2. Drainage of abscesses or pus collection
3. Wound care and debridement
4. Supportive care such as intravenous fluids, oxygen therapy, and pain management
5. Surgical intervention in severe cases.

Preventive measures for Staphylococcal infections include:

1. Good hand hygiene practices
2. Proper cleaning and disinfection of surfaces and equipment
3. Avoiding close contact with people who have Staphylococcal infections
4. Covering wounds and open sores
5. Proper sterilization and disinfection of medical equipment.

It is important to note that MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) is a type of Staphylococcal infection that is resistant to many antibiotics, and can be difficult to treat. Therefore, early diagnosis and aggressive treatment are crucial to prevent complications and improve outcomes.

Here are some common types of E. coli infections:

1. Urinary tract infections (UTIs): E. coli is a leading cause of UTIs, which occur when bacteria enter the urinary tract and cause inflammation. Symptoms include frequent urination, burning during urination, and cloudy or strong-smelling urine.
2. Diarrheal infections: E. coli can cause diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and fever if consumed through contaminated food or water. In severe cases, this type of infection can lead to dehydration and even death, particularly in young children and the elderly.
3. Septicemia (bloodstream infections): If E. coli bacteria enter the bloodstream, they can cause septicemia, a life-threatening condition that requires immediate medical attention. Symptoms include fever, chills, rapid heart rate, and low blood pressure.
4. Meningitis: In rare cases, E. coli infections can spread to the meninges, the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, causing meningitis. This is a serious condition that requires prompt treatment with antibiotics and supportive care.
5. Hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS): E. coli infections can sometimes cause HUS, a condition where the bacteria destroy red blood cells, leading to anemia, kidney failure, and other complications. HUS is most common in young children and can be fatal if not treated promptly.

Preventing E. coli infections primarily involves practicing good hygiene, such as washing hands regularly, especially after using the bathroom or before handling food. It's also essential to cook meat thoroughly, especially ground beef, to avoid cross-contamination with other foods. Avoiding unpasteurized dairy products and drinking contaminated water can also help prevent E. coli infections.

If you suspect an E. coli infection, seek medical attention immediately. Your healthcare provider may perform a urine test or a stool culture to confirm the diagnosis and determine the appropriate treatment. In mild cases, symptoms may resolve on their own within a few days, but antibiotics may be necessary for more severe infections. It's essential to stay hydrated and follow your healthcare provider's recommendations to ensure a full recovery.

Epidemiology of Haemophilus Infections:

* Incidence: Hib disease was once a major cause of childhood meningitis and sepsis, but the introduction of Hib vaccines in the 1980s has significantly reduced the incidence of invasive Hib disease. Non-invasive Hib disease, such as otitis media, is still common.
* Prevalence: Hib is the leading cause of bacterial meningitis in children under the age of 5 worldwide. In developed countries, the prevalence of invasive Hib disease has decreased significantly since the introduction of vaccines, but it remains a significant public health problem in developing countries.
* Risk factors: young age, poverty, lack of access to healthcare, and poor sanitation and hygiene are risk factors for Hib disease. Children under the age of 5, especially those under the age of 2, are at highest risk for invasive Hib disease.

Pathophysiology of Haemophilus Infections:

* Mechanisms of infection: H. influenzae can cause both respiratory and non-respiratory infections by colonizing the nasopharynx and other mucosal surfaces. The bacteria can then disseminate to other parts of the body, causing invasive disease.
* Immune response: the immune response to Hib infection involves both humoral and cell-mediated immunity. Antibodies play a crucial role in protecting against reinfection, while T cells and macrophages help to clear the bacteria from the body.

Clinical Presentation of Haemophilus Infections:

* Respiratory infections: H. influenzae can cause various respiratory tract infections, including bronchitis, pneumonia, and sinusitis. Symptoms may include fever, cough, sore throat, and difficulty breathing.
* Non-respiratory infections: Hib can cause a range of non-respiratory infections, including meningitis, epiglottitis, and septic arthritis. These infections can have more severe symptoms and may require prompt medical attention.

Diagnosis of Haemophilus Infections:

* Diagnostic tests: diagnosis of Hib disease is based on a combination of clinical findings, laboratory tests, and radiologic studies. Blood cultures, lumbar puncture, and chest x-rays may be used to confirm the presence of the bacteria and assess the extent of infection.
* Laboratory testing: identification of Hib is based on its distinctive gram stain appearance and biochemical characteristics. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing are also used to confirm the diagnosis.

Treatment and Prevention of Haemophilus Infections:

* Antibiotics: Hib infections are treated with antibiotics, such as amoxicillin or ceftriaxone. The choice of antibiotic depends on the severity and location of the infection.
* Vaccination: the Hib vaccine is recommended for children under 5 years old to prevent Hib disease. The vaccine is given in a series of 3-4 doses, with the first dose given at 2 months of age.
* Good hygiene practices: good hygiene practices, such as frequent handwashing and proper cleaning and disinfection, can help prevent the spread of Hib bacteria.

Complications of Haemophilus Infections:

* Meningitis: Hib meningitis can have serious complications, including hearing loss, learning disabilities, and seizures.
* Permanent brain damage: Hib infections can cause permanent brain damage, including cognitive and behavioral impairments.
* Respiratory failure: severe Hib pneumonia can lead to respiratory failure, which may require mechanical ventilation.
* Death: Hib infections can be life-threatening, especially in young children and those with underlying medical conditions.

In conclusion, Haemophilus infections are a serious public health concern, particularly for young children and those with underlying medical conditions. Prevention through vaccination and good hygiene practices is essential to reduce the risk of infection. Early diagnosis and treatment are critical to prevent complications and improve outcomes.

For Greenberg, agglutination means that the morphs are joined only with slight or no modification. A morpheme is said to be ... The index of agglutination is equal to the average ratio of the number of agglutinative junctures to the number of morph ... Hungarian uses extensive agglutination in almost every part of it. The suffixes follow each other in special order based on the ... Agglutination...) consists of the welding together of two or more terms constantly occurring as a syntagmatic group into a ...
Agglutination is the clumping of particles. The word agglutination comes from the Latin agglutinare (glueing to). Agglutination ... Landsteiner's agglutination tests and his discovery of ABO blood groups was the start of the science of blood transfusion and ... Agglutination is commonly used as a method of identifying specific bacterial antigens and the identity of such bacteria, and ... If agglutination occurs, this indicates that the donor and recipient blood types are incompatible. When a person produces ...
... (ADAP) is an ultrasensitive solution-phase method for detecting antibodies. Antibodies bind to and ... "Ultrasensitive Antibody Detection by Agglutination-PCR (ADAP)". ACS Central Science. 2 (3): 139-147. doi:10.1021/acscentsci. ...
... is an Italian metal festival held annually in Basilicata, among the towns of Senise, Chiaromonte ... "XXIV AGGLUTINATION METAL FESTIVAL: il programma completo del festival". metalpit.it (in Italian). 12 June 2018. Retrieved 2 ... Vader were scheduled to perform before Virgin Steele, but they missed their plane "Agglutination 2003: i Vader si giustificano ... Among the Italian bands that performed at the Agglutination are Rhapsody of Fire, Bulldozer, Necrodeath, Stormlord, Labyrinth ...
... is an important cause of ABO typing and genotype discrepancies. The cause of mixed field ... By far the most common cause of mixed-field agglutination is false chimerism. There are several causes of false chimerism; 1) ... In transfusion medicine, mixed-field agglutination refers to mixed reactions during cell typing where two distinct cell ... a blood group B individual who has received a transfusion of group O donor red cells may show mixed field agglutination with ...
A direct agglutination test (DAT) is any test that uses whole organisms as a means of looking for serum antibodies. The ... 2006). "Serological diagnosis of Indian visceral leishmaniasis: direct agglutination test versus rK39 strip test". Trans R Soc ...
... which rely on agglutination reactions. People with red cell agglutination may exhibit spontaneous agglutination reactions ... In hematology, red cell agglutination or autoagglutination is a phenomenon in which red blood cells clump together, forming ... the agglutination can be reversed by heating the blood sample to 37 °C (99 °F). People with warm autoimmune hemolytic anemia ... Red cell agglutination can also occur in paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria: 13 and warm autoimmune hemolytic anemia.: 88 In ...
The Treponema pallidum particle agglutination assay (also called TPPA test) is an indirect agglutination assay used for ... the relative sensitivities of the venereal disease research laboratory test and the Treponema Pallidum particle agglutination ...
But since agglutination can arise in languages that previously had a non-agglutinative typology and it can be lost in languages ... Agglutination is a typological feature and does not imply a linguistic relation, but there are some families of agglutinative ... "agglutination". Online Etymology Dictionary. K. Alexander Adelaar; Nikolaus Himmelmann (2005). The Austronesian Languages of ... An agglutinative language is a type of synthetic language with morphology that primarily uses agglutination. Words may contain ...
Carcass performed at 70000 Tons of Metal in January 2014 and headlined the Agglutination Festival on 23 August that year. In a ... "XX Edizione con CARCASS headliner's !!". Agglutination.it. Archived from the original on 16 July 2014. Retrieved 24 August 2014 ...
Conversely, agglutination can also be used to identify new bacteria or cells with a specific antigen by exposing them to serum ... Agglutination, using blood agglutinins known as hemagglutinins, is used diagnostically to identify blood types of human beings ... This phenomenon known as agglutination is of great importance in medicine, as it serves as a diagnostic tool. Reaction of ... "Agglutination test definition, Types, Uses, Advantages, Disadvantages". Microbiology Note. 2020-06-29. Retrieved 2021-02-21. " ...
Tunnicliff, Ruth (1919-01-01). "Agglutination in Measles". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 24 (1): 76-77. doi:10.1093/ ...
Serum agglutination with a titer > 1:160 in the presence of a compatible illness supports the diagnosis of brucellosis. ... In several Brucella-endemic regions, the Febrile Antigen Brucella Agglutination Test (FBAT) is primarily used for diagnostics. ... developed the agglutination test, diagnostic of the disease. In 1905, Zammit, a Maltese physician, identified goats as the ... five patients with positive ELISA had a negative tube agglutination test. ...
... then centrifuging the sample and observing for agglutination or hemolysis. A lack of agglutination or hemolysis indicates a ... Presence of agglutination indicates incompatibility. Occasionally a light microscope may be needed. If laboratory services are ... This method depends on the presence or absence of agglutination (clumping of red blood cells), which can usually be visualized ...
For "L'ivet" with article agglutination. (Northern) French if (Yew-tree) and suffixe -etu(m) > -ey / -oy /-ay > -aie, used to ...
ISBN 978-0-618-25210-7. Conference on Differential Agglutination of Erythorocytes. National Research Council, 1952. ASIN ...
"An unusual case of intragroup agglutination". JAMA. 113 (2): 126-7. doi:10.1001/jama.1939.72800270002007a. Clifton J., Philips ...
mo 1SG.SUBJ k-ale PRES-go mo k-ale 1SG.SUBJ PRES-go "I'm going." Morphophonemic reanalysis produces agglutination in KFC. ... Morpheme reanalysis and agglutination of this variety is common in creole languages, especially French-lexified creoles. ... The KFC lexicon on the whole is greatly derived from French and has undergone a process more morphological agglutination and " ... Hagemeijer, Tjerk (2009). "Initial vowel agglutination in the Gulf of Guinea creoles". In Aboh, Enoch O.; Smith, Norval (eds ...
Saslaw, Samuel; Campbell, Charlotte C. (1949). "A Collodion Agglutination Test for Histoplasmosis". Public Health Reports. 64 ( ... "A Comparison between Histoplasmin and Blastomycin by the Collodion Agglutination Technique". Public Health Reports. 64 (9): 290 ...
Martin, Christopher J.; Williams, Fannie E. (June 1918). "Agglutination in the diagnosis of dysentery". British Medical Journal ...
As a bacteriologist he discovered specific agglutination in 1896 with his English colleague Herbert Durham (Gruber-Widal- ... Geschichte der Entdeckung der spezifischen Agglutination. In Rudolf Kraus (1868-1932) and Constantin Levaditi (1874-1953), ... discovered the agglutination which gained him international fame. Gruber eventually left Vienna in 1902, and in October that ...
Levine P, Stetson RE (1939). "An unusual case of intragroup agglutination". JAMA. 113 (2): 126-7. doi:10.1001/jama. ...
Evaluation of a latex agglutination test". American Journal of Clinical Pathology. 86 (2): 208-11. doi:10.1093/ajcp/86.2.208. ...
Landsteiner, Karl (1961) [1901]. "On Agglutination of Normal Human Blood". Transfusion. 1 (1): 5-8. doi:10.1111/j.1537- ...
If agglutination is not obvious by direct vision, blood bank technologist usually check for agglutination with a microscope. If ... The presence of an antigen on the surface of the blood cells is indicated by agglutination. In addition to the current practice ... Landsteiner, Karl (1961) [1901]. "On Agglutination of Normal Human Blood". Transfusion. 1 (1): 5-8. doi:10.1111/j.1537- ... with both antibody A and B There is an agglutination reaction between similar antigen and antibody (for example, antigen A ...
Her thesis work Certain Monilias Parasitic on Man, their Identification by Morphology and by Agglutination was first in the ... their Identification by Morphology and by Agglutination," for her Ph.D. in Botany in 1931. This particular work was the first ... their identification by morphology and by agglutination. Jour. Infect. Dis. 49: 183-215. 1931. Phonma condiogcna, an excitant ...
Levine P, Stetson RE (8 July 1939). "An unusual case of intra-group agglutination". Journal of the American Medical Association ...
Daniels G (2013-01-28). "I and i Antigens, and Cold Agglutination". Human Blood Groups. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 469- ... are able to cause agglutination of red blood cells and activate complement to cause hemolysis, leading to anemia. Rarely, ...
Levine, Philip; Stetson, Rufus E. (1939). "An Unusual Case of Intra-Group Agglutination". Journal of the American Medical ...
"Reportage/VIII Agglutination Metal Festival" (in Italian). Metallo Italiano. Archived from the original on January 2, 2014. ... On August 12, the band performed live for the first time at the Agglutination Metal Festival in Chiaromonte. The same year, ...
The latex agglutination test is a test done in a lab to check for certain antibodies or antigens in body fluids including ... The latex agglutination test is a test done in a lab to check for certain antibodies or antigens in body fluids including ...
JavaScript is disabled for your browser. Some features of this site may not work without it ...
... detect capsular antigen from Streptococcus pneumoniae isolated from culture plates and blood culture by latex agglutination. ... Use this dry latex agglutination test for the identification of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Blue latex particles sensitised with ... These react with recognised serological types of pneumococci to form agglutination and provide the test reaction area. Blue ... The Oxoid DrySpot™ Pneumo Test is a latex agglutination test for the detection of capsular antigen from Streptococcus ...
LBXTO4 - Toxoplasma Differential Agglutination. Variable Name: LBXTO4. SAS Label: Toxoplasma Differential Agglutination. ... Toxoplasma Differential Agglutination and Toxoplasma Differential Agglutination Interpretation The presence and quantity of ... Toxoplasma Differential Agglutination. Target: Both males and females 6 YEARS - 49 YEARS. Code or Value. Value Description. ... Agglutination titers are reported for both types of fixed organisms and the combined results are interpreted by comparison of ...
False positive reactions with rotavirus latex agglutination test. Message subject: (Your Name) has forwarded a page to you from ...
Slide agglutination test. With serogrouping, polysaccharide antigens on the capsule are identified by a slide agglutination ... The latex agglutination test has 50-100% sensitivity and high specificity. However, it has a high rate of false-negative ... meningitidis capsular polysaccharide antigen in CSF and urine with rapid serologic tests based on latex particle agglutination ...
In this study we developed a latex agglutination test based on monoclonal antibody 3015, which is specific for this ... showed a strong and specific agglutination. B. pseudomallei-like organisms and a variety of other bacteria did not react. In ... In this study we developed a latex agglutination test based on monoclonal antibody 3015, which is specific for this ... Rapid identification of Burkholderia pseudomallei by latex agglutination based on an exopolysaccharide-specific monoclonal ...
Agglutination Archival Collection: The Michael Heidelberger Papers (Profiles in Science) 3. Letter from William C. Boyd, Boston ... Agglutination Archival Collection: The Michael Heidelberger Papers (Profiles in Science) 2. Chemical Studies on Bacterial ... Agglutination. Antigen-Antibody Reactions. Allergy and Immunology Archival Collection: The Michael Heidelberger Papers ( ... Agglutination. Antigen-Antibody Reactions. Allergy and Immunology Archival Collection: The Michael Heidelberger Papers ( ...
Detection of polysaccharide antigen by latex agglutination, PCR, or immunohistochemistry in cerebrospinal fluid. OR. Clinically ... Bacterial culture is the criterion standard for diagnostic confirmation of meningococcal disease; however, latex agglutination ... and latex agglutination in seven (12.5%). The diagnosis of meningococcal disease in four (7%) was based on clinical suspicion ...
Agglutination: Is the representation of different part-of-speech POS elements in the same word. ...
Direct agglutination test. The direct agglutination test (DAT) antigen for this study was prepared in the parasitology ... Evaluation of direct agglutination test (DAT) as an immunodiagnostic tool for diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis in Nepal. ... Application of direct agglutination test (DAT) for the diagnosis and seroepidemiological studies of visceral leishmaniasis in ... Anti-Leishmania antibody was detected in 50 out of 1628 children (3.1%) by direct agglutination test (antibody titre ≥ 1:3200 ...
agglutination. Solid phase "dipstick". Dengue. Ebola. HIV. Influenza. Malaria. SARS-CoV-2 ...
18F-FDG-PET-facilitated diagnosis of lymphoma presenting with fever of unknown origin and cold agglutination [2]. Leukemia and ... 18F-FDG-PET-facilitated diagnosis of lymphoma presenting with fever of unknown origin and cold agglutination [2]. / Krem, ... 18F-FDG-PET-facilitated diagnosis of lymphoma presenting with fever of unknown origin and cold agglutination [2]. ... title = "18F-FDG-PET-facilitated diagnosis of lymphoma presenting with fever of unknown origin and cold agglutination [2]", ...
Latex agglutination and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for cytomegalovirus serologic screening of transplant donors and ... Latex agglutination and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for cytomegalovirus serologic screening of transplant donors and ... Latex agglutination and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for cytomegalovirus serologic screening of transplant donors and ... T1 - Latex agglutination and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for cytomegalovirus serologic screening of transplant donors ...
Latex agglutination was the least complex, required the least amount of apparatus and provided a result within a short time. It ... Comparison of latex agglutination and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis with enzyme linked immunosorbent assay for detecting ... Chakravarti A, Kumar S, Mittal SK, Broor S. Comparison of latex agglutination and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis with ... The sensitivity of latex agglutination (LA) and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) was 91.4% (32/35) and 80% (28/35), ...
... pallidum particle agglutination assay, TPPA); the enzyme immunoassay (EIA);… ...
Examples of antigen detection tests are: latex agglutination test and ELISA. Latex agglutination uses antibodies coated on ... Latex agglutination is useful in screening for suspected B. pseudomallei colonies.[1] IgG and IgM ELISAs has been used to ... "Accuracy of Burkholderia pseudomallei identification using the API 20NE system and a latex agglutination test". Journal of ...
Chemical Studies on Bacterial Agglutination: II. The Identity of Precipitin and Agglutinin ...
Plate Agglutination Test Products. Confirmatory Testing Reagents. Market Segment by Applications, can be divided into. Drug ...
The direct agglutination test (DAT) is accurate and inexpensive, and differentiates visceral leishmaniasis from malaria, which ... The cholera strains were then typed by the agglutination method. Rabbits were used to produce the specific agglutinating sera. ...
Larchiviazione tecnica o laccesso che viene utilizzato esclusivamente per scopi statistici. Larchiviazione tecnica o laccesso che viene utilizzato esclusivamente per scopi statistici anonimi. Senza un mandato di comparizione, una conformità volontaria da parte del vostro Fornitore di Servizi Internet, o ulteriori registrazioni da parte di terzi, le informazioni memorizzate o recuperate per questo scopo da sole non possono di solito essere utilizzate per lidentificazione. ...
... latex-agglutination tests, elementary-body agglutination (EBA) tests, and microimmunofluorescence tests. A single testing ... Latex Agglutination Antigen currently is not available. As a result, other methods are recommended for testing for antibody for ... Elementary-Body Agglutination EBA is commercially available and can detect early infection. Titers greater than or equal to 10 ... Direct CF is more sensitive to antibody activity than are agglutination methods. No commercial antigen is available. False- ...
A capillary tube agglutination test for malaria.  Kortmann, H. F.; Lelijveld, J.; Ross, J. P.; Löhr, K. F. (‎World Health ...
Flocculation is one of the basic serologic reactions, along with agglutination, hemagglutination and precipitation. ...
Plant protoplast agglutination and immobilization. P.J. Larkin. Recovery of glycoproteins from plant tissues. R.G. Brown, W.C. ...
Modified red cells called C19-kodecytes can be used as reagent cells in any manual or automated column agglutination assay. The ... COVID-19 Antibody Detection and Assay Performance Using Red Cell Agglutination. Published in: medRxiv (June 2021) ...
  • The latex agglutination test is a test done in a lab to check for certain antibodies or antigens in body fluids including saliva, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, or blood. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The Oxoid DrySpot™ Pneumo Test is a latex agglutination test for the detection of capsular antigen from Streptococcus pneumoniae to provide rapid identification of Strep. (thermofisher.com)
  • Use this dry latex agglutination test for the identification of Streptococcus pneumoniae . (thermofisher.com)
  • False positive reactions with rotavirus latex agglutination test. (bmj.com)
  • The latex agglutination test has 50-100% sensitivity and high specificity. (medscape.com)
  • In this study we developed a latex agglutination test based on monoclonal antibody 3015, which is specific for this exopolysaccharide, and evaluated this test for rapid identification of B. pseudomallei grown on agar plates. (ox.ac.uk)
  • One hundred and forty five stool samples from children below 2 years of age, hospitalized with diarrhea were tested for rotavirus antigen by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), latex agglutination test using commercially available kit Rotastat (Ranbaxy Diagnostic, India) and by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. (who.int)
  • If there is an antigen-antibody match, agglutination will occur. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Flocculation is one of the basic serologic reactions, along with agglutination, hemagglutination and precipitation. (dadamo.com)
  • Agglutination reactions and opsonic index determinations are of no value. (cirp.org)
  • The effectiveness of three serologic assays (two enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays [ELISAs] and latex agglutination) for cytomegalovirus (CMV) serologic matching of donors and recipients was assessed over a 2-year period in a major organ transplant program. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Chou, S & Scott, KM 1988, ' Latex agglutination and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for cytomegalovirus serologic screening of transplant donors and recipients ', Journal of Clinical Microbiology , vol. 26, no. 10, pp. 2116-2119. (elsevierpure.com)
  • 6 - 9 Newer, less sensitive, whole blood, qualitative agglutination assays, particularly the SimpliRED D-dimer test (Agen Biomedical, Brisbane, Australia), and more highly sensitive, quantitative, enzyme linked inmmunosorbent assays (ELISAs) are sufficiently rapid for use in outpatients. (bmj.com)
  • Serologic diagnostic methods used to identify antibodies to C. psittaci include complement-fixation (CF) tests, modified-direct CF tests, latex-agglutination tests, elementary-body agglutination (EBA) tests, and microimmunofluorescence tests. (cdc.gov)
  • IMSEAR at SEARO: Comparison of latex agglutination and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis with enzyme linked immunosorbent assay for detecting human rotavirus in stool specimens. (who.int)
  • A capillary tube agglutination test for malaria. (who.int)
  • Rapid identification of Burkholderia pseudomallei by latex agglutination based on an exopolysaccharide-specific monoclonal antibody. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Anti-Leishmania antibody was detected in 50 out of 1628 children (3.1%) by direct agglutination test (antibody titre ≥ 1:3200). (who.int)
  • Direct CF is more sensitive to antibody activity than are agglutination methods. (cdc.gov)
  • Krem, MM, Pan, L & Blinder, MA 2007, ' 18 F-FDG-PET-facilitated diagnosis of lymphoma presenting with fever of unknown origin and cold agglutination [2] ', Leukemia and Lymphoma , vol. 48, no. 3, pp. 619-622. (wustl.edu)
  • 10. Concanavalin A-induced agglutination of human leukemic and lymphoma cells. (nih.gov)
  • The presence and quantity of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in the test sample were determined by performing the Differential Agglutination Test with Toxoplasma organisms. (cdc.gov)
  • Rapid and accurate agglutination-based testing for SARS-CoV-2 antibodies. (nih.gov)
  • Detection of anti-laminin antibodies in sera by latex agglutination. (aacc.org)
  • These react with recognised serological types of pneumococci to form agglutination and provide the test reaction area. (thermofisher.com)
  • Agglutination titers are reported for both types of fixed organisms and the combined results are interpreted by comparison of titers. (cdc.gov)
  • however, latex agglutination, Gram stain, specific clinical criteria, and detection of N. meningitidis DNA by PCR all are used for diagnosis. (cdc.gov)
  • All 74 environmental and clinical B. pseudomallei strains tested, originating from different areas of Southeast Asia, northern Australia, and Africa, showed a strong and specific agglutination. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Latex agglutination results take about 15 minutes to an hour. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The cholera strains were then typed by the agglutination method. (nih.gov)
  • Modified red cells called C19-kodecytes can be used as reagent cells in any manual or automated column agglutination assay. (nih.gov)
  • Antileptospire antibodies in these samples are detected using the microscopic agglutination test (MAT). (medscape.com)
  • Latex agglutination for cryptococcal antigen detection was found to be more sensitive compared to India ink staining and CSF culture. (nih.gov)
  • Antigen detection by latex agglutination proved to be both sensitive and specific method for the diagnosis of cryptococcal meningitis. (nih.gov)
  • Rapid, early diagnosis of infection by detection of cryptococcal antigen by latex agglutination may alter the prognosis for these patients. (nih.gov)
  • Comparison of latex agglutination and co-agglutination for the diagnosis and prognosis of cryptococcal meningitis. (nih.gov)
  • Diagnosis was made using a new latex agglutination kit ( Newvagin C-Kure , La Habana, Cuba). (medscape.com)
  • Latex agglutination results take about 15 minutes to an hour. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Serologic diagnostic methods used to identify antibodies to C. psittaci include complement-fixation (CF) tests, modified-direct CF tests, latex-agglutination tests, elementary-body agglutination (EBA) tests, and microimmunofluorescence tests. (cdc.gov)
  • Chemical Studies on Bacterial Agglutination: II. (nih.gov)