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FAQGuanethidine: An antihypertensive agent that acts by inhibiting selectively transmission in post-ganglionic adrenergic nerves. It is believed to act mainly by preventing the release of norepinephrine at nerve endings and causes depletion of norepinephrine in peripheral sympathetic nerve terminals as well as in tissues.Sympatholytics: Drugs that inhibit the actions of the sympathetic nervous system by any mechanism. The most common of these are the ADRENERGIC ANTAGONISTS and drugs that deplete norepinephrine or reduce the release of transmitters from adrenergic postganglionic terminals (see ADRENERGIC AGENTS). Drugs that act in the central nervous system to reduce sympathetic activity (e.g., centrally acting alpha-2 adrenergic agonists, see ADRENERGIC ALPHA-AGONISTS) are included here.Bretylium CompoundsNeurons: The basic cellular units of nervous tissue. Each neuron consists of a body, an axon, and dendrites. Their purpose is to receive, conduct, and transmit impulses in the NERVOUS SYSTEM.Adrenergic Fibers: Nerve fibers liberating catecholamines at a synapse after an impulse.Norepinephrine: Precursor of epinephrine that is secreted by the adrenal medulla and is a widespread central and autonomic neurotransmitter. Norepinephrine is the principal transmitter of most postganglionic sympathetic fibers and of the diffuse projection system in the brain arising from the locus ceruleus. It is also found in plants and is used pharmacologically as a sympathomimetic.Organomercury Compounds: Organic compounds which contain mercury as an integral part of the molecule.Nictitating Membrane: A fold of the mucous membrane of the CONJUNCTIVA in many animals. At rest, it is hidden in the medial canthus. It can extend to cover part or all of the cornea to help clean the CORNEA.Hydroxydopamines: Dopamines with a hydroxy group substituted in one or more positions.Sympathetic Nervous System: The thoracolumbar division of the autonomic nervous system. Sympathetic preganglionic fibers originate in neurons of the intermediolateral column of the spinal cord and project to the paravertebral and prevertebral ganglia, which in turn project to target organs. The sympathetic nervous system mediates the body's response to stressful situations, i.e., the fight or flight reactions. It often acts reciprocally to the parasympathetic system.Neurons, Afferent: Neurons which conduct NERVE IMPULSES to the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.Dopamine beta-HydroxylaseIodobenzenesAdrenergic Neurons: Neurons whose primary neurotransmitter is EPINEPHRINE.Reserpine: An alkaloid found in the roots of Rauwolfia serpentina and R. vomitoria. Reserpine inhibits the uptake of norepinephrine into storage vesicles resulting in depletion of catecholamines and serotonin from central and peripheral axon terminals. It has been used as an antihypertensive and an antipsychotic as well as a research tool, but its adverse effects limit its clinical use.Phenoxybenzamine: An alpha-adrenergic antagonist with long duration of action. It has been used to treat hypertension and as a peripheral vasodilator.Tyramine: An indirect sympathomimetic. Tyramine does not directly activate adrenergic receptors, but it can serve as a substrate for adrenergic uptake systems and monoamine oxidase so it prolongs the actions of adrenergic transmitters. It also provokes transmitter release from adrenergic terminals. Tyramine may be a neurotransmitter in some invertebrate nervous systems.Motor Neurons: Neurons which activate MUSCLE CELLS.Amino Alcohols: Compounds possessing both a hydroxyl (-OH) and an amino group (-NH2).Tyrosine 3-Monooxygenase: An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of L-tyrosine, tetrahydrobiopterin, and oxygen to 3,4-dihydroxy-L-phenylalanine, dihydrobiopterin, and water. EC 1.14.16.2.3-Iodobenzylguanidine: A guanidine analog with specific affinity for tissues of the sympathetic nervous system and related tumors. The radiolabeled forms are used as antineoplastic agents and radioactive imaging agents. (Merck Index, 12th ed) MIBG serves as a neuron-blocking agent which has a strong affinity for, and retention in, the adrenal medulla and also inhibits ADP-ribosyltransferase.Vas Deferens: The excretory duct of the testes that carries SPERMATOZOA. It rises from the SCROTUM and joins the SEMINAL VESICLES to form the ejaculatory duct.Desipramine: A tricyclic dibenzazepine compound that potentiates neurotransmission. Desipramine selectively blocks reuptake of norepinephrine from the neural synapse, and also appears to impair serotonin transport. This compound also possesses minor anticholinergic activity, through its affinity to muscarinic receptors.Guanidines: A family of iminourea derivatives. The parent compound has been isolated from mushrooms, corn germ, rice hulls, mussels, earthworms, and turnip juice. Derivatives may have antiviral and antifungal properties.Electric Stimulation: Use of electric potential or currents to elicit biological responses.Amphetamine: A powerful central nervous system stimulant and sympathomimetic. Amphetamine has multiple mechanisms of action including blocking uptake of adrenergics and dopamine, stimulation of release of monamines, and inhibiting monoamine oxidase. Amphetamine is also a drug of abuse and a psychotomimetic. The l- and the d,l-forms are included here. The l-form has less central nervous system activity but stronger cardiovascular effects. The d-form is DEXTROAMPHETAMINE.Phentolamine: A nonselective alpha-adrenergic antagonist. It is used in the treatment of hypertension and hypertensive emergencies, pheochromocytoma, vasospasm of RAYNAUD DISEASE and frostbite, clonidine withdrawal syndrome, impotence, and peripheral vascular disease.Propranolol: A widely used non-cardioselective beta-adrenergic antagonist. Propranolol has been used for MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION; ARRHYTHMIA; ANGINA PECTORIS; HYPERTENSION; HYPERTHYROIDISM; MIGRAINE; PHEOCHROMOCYTOMA; and ANXIETY but adverse effects instigate replacement by newer drugs.Guinea Pigs: A common name used for the genus Cavia. The most common species is Cavia porcellus which is the domesticated guinea pig used for pets and biomedical research.Tetrodotoxin: An aminoperhydroquinazoline poison found mainly in the liver and ovaries of fishes in the order TETRAODONTIFORMES, which are eaten. The toxin causes paresthesia and paralysis through interference with neuromuscular conduction.Cats: The domestic cat, Felis catus, of the carnivore family FELIDAE, comprising over 30 different breeds. The domestic cat is descended primarily from the wild cat of Africa and extreme southwestern Asia. Though probably present in towns in Palestine as long ago as 7000 years, actual domestication occurred in Egypt about 4000 years ago. (From Walker's Mammals of the World, 6th ed, p801)Catecholamines: A general class of ortho-dihydroxyphenylalkylamines derived from tyrosine.Action Potentials: Abrupt changes in the membrane potential that sweep along the CELL MEMBRANE of excitable cells in response to excitation stimuli.Heart: The hollow, muscular organ that maintains the circulation of the blood.Epinephrine: The active sympathomimetic hormone from the ADRENAL MEDULLA. It stimulates both the alpha- and beta- adrenergic systems, causes systemic VASOCONSTRICTION and gastrointestinal relaxation, stimulates the HEART, and dilates BRONCHI and cerebral vessels. It is used in ASTHMA and CARDIAC FAILURE and to delay absorption of local ANESTHETICS.Dopaminergic Neurons: Neurons whose primary neurotransmitter is DOPAMINE.Rabbits: The species Oryctolagus cuniculus, in the family Leporidae, order LAGOMORPHA. Rabbits are born in burrows, furless, and with eyes and ears closed. In contrast with HARES, rabbits have 22 chromosome pairs.GABAergic Neurons: Neurons whose primary neurotransmitter is GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID.Muscle Contraction: A process leading to shortening and/or development of tension in muscle tissue. Muscle contraction occurs by a sliding filament mechanism whereby actin filaments slide inward among the myosin filaments.Patch-Clamp Techniques: An electrophysiologic technique for studying cells, cell membranes, and occasionally isolated organelles. All patch-clamp methods rely on a very high-resistance seal between a micropipette and a membrane; the seal is usually attained by gentle suction. The four most common variants include on-cell patch, inside-out patch, outside-out patch, and whole-cell clamp. Patch-clamp methods are commonly used to voltage clamp, that is control the voltage across the membrane and measure current flow, but current-clamp methods, in which the current is controlled and the voltage is measured, are also used.Electrophysiology: The study of the generation and behavior of electrical charges in living organisms particularly the nervous system and the effects of electricity on living organisms.Hippocampus: A curved elevation of GRAY MATTER extending the entire length of the floor of the TEMPORAL HORN of the LATERAL VENTRICLE (see also TEMPORAL LOBE). The hippocampus proper, subiculum, and DENTATE GYRUS constitute the hippocampal formation. Sometimes authors include the ENTORHINAL CORTEX in the hippocampal formation.Synapses: Specialized junctions at which a neuron communicates with a target cell. At classical synapses, a neuron's presynaptic terminal releases a chemical transmitter stored in synaptic vesicles which diffuses across a narrow synaptic cleft and activates receptors on the postsynaptic membrane of the target cell. The target may be a dendrite, cell body, or axon of another neuron, or a specialized region of a muscle or secretory cell. Neurons may also communicate via direct electrical coupling with ELECTRICAL SYNAPSES. Several other non-synaptic chemical or electric signal transmitting processes occur via extracellular mediated interactions.Ganglia, Spinal: Sensory ganglia located on the dorsal spinal roots within the vertebral column. The spinal ganglion cells are pseudounipolar. The single primary branch bifurcates sending a peripheral process to carry sensory information from the periphery and a central branch which relays that information to the spinal cord or brain.Axons: Nerve fibers that are capable of rapidly conducting impulses away from the neuron cell body.Cells, Cultured: Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.Blood Pressure: PRESSURE of the BLOOD on the ARTERIES and other BLOOD VESSELS.Synaptic Transmission: The communication from a NEURON to a target (neuron, muscle, or secretory cell) across a SYNAPSE. In chemical synaptic transmission, the presynaptic neuron releases a NEUROTRANSMITTER that diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to specific synaptic receptors, activating them. The activated receptors modulate specific ion channels and/or second-messenger systems in the postsynaptic cell. In electrical synaptic transmission, electrical signals are communicated as an ionic current flow across ELECTRICAL SYNAPSES.Dendrites: Extensions of the nerve cell body. They are short and branched and receive stimuli from other NEURONS.Sensory Receptor Cells: Specialized afferent neurons capable of transducing sensory stimuli into NERVE IMPULSES to be transmitted to the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. Sometimes sensory receptors for external stimuli are called exteroceptors; for internal stimuli are called interoceptors and proprioceptors.Olfactory Receptor Neurons: Neurons in the OLFACTORY EPITHELIUM with proteins (RECEPTORS, ODORANT) that bind, and thus detect, odorants. These neurons send their DENDRITES to the surface of the epithelium with the odorant receptors residing in the apical non-motile cilia. Their unmyelinated AXONS synapse in the OLFACTORY BULB of the BRAIN.Nerve Tissue ProteinsCholinergic Neurons: Neurons whose primary neurotransmitter is ACETYLCHOLINE.Spinal Cord: A cylindrical column of tissue that lies within the vertebral canal. It is composed of WHITE MATTER and GRAY MATTER.Cerebral Cortex: The thin layer of GRAY MATTER on the surface of the CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES that develops from the TELENCEPHALON and folds into gyri and sulchi. It reaches its highest development in humans and is responsible for intellectual faculties and higher mental functions.gamma-Aminobutyric Acid: The most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system.Membrane Potentials: The voltage differences across a membrane. For cellular membranes they are computed by subtracting the voltage measured outside the membrane from the voltage measured inside the membrane. They result from differences of inside versus outside concentration of potassium, sodium, chloride, and other ions across cells' or ORGANELLES membranes. For excitable cells, the resting membrane potentials range between -30 and -100 millivolts. Physical, chemical, or electrical stimuli can make a membrane potential more negative (hyperpolarization), or less negative (depolarization).Neural Inhibition: The function of opposing or restraining the excitation of neurons or their target excitable cells.Neurons, Efferent: Neurons which send impulses peripherally to activate muscles or secretory cells.Motor Neuron Disease: Diseases characterized by a selective degeneration of the motor neurons of the spinal cord, brainstem, or motor cortex. Clinical subtypes are distinguished by the major site of degeneration. In AMYOTROPHIC LATERAL SCLEROSIS there is involvement of upper, lower, and brainstem motor neurons. In progressive muscular atrophy and related syndromes (see MUSCULAR ATROPHY, SPINAL) the motor neurons in the spinal cord are primarily affected. With progressive bulbar palsy (BULBAR PALSY, PROGRESSIVE), the initial degeneration occurs in the brainstem. In primary lateral sclerosis, the cortical neurons are affected in isolation. (Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p1089)Models, Neurological: Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of the neurological system, processes or phenomena; includes the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.Animals, Newborn: Refers to animals in the period of time just after birth.Pyramidal Cells: Projection neurons in the CEREBRAL CORTEX and the HIPPOCAMPUS. Pyramidal cells have a pyramid-shaped soma with the apex and an apical dendrite pointed toward the pial surface and other dendrites and an axon emerging from the base. The axons may have local collaterals but also project outside their cortical region.Immunohistochemistry: Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.Medulla Oblongata: The lower portion of the BRAIN STEM. It is inferior to the PONS and anterior to the CEREBELLUM. Medulla oblongata serves as a relay station between the brain and the spinal cord, and contains centers for regulating respiratory, vasomotor, cardiac, and reflex activities.Dopamine: One of the catecholamine NEUROTRANSMITTERS in the brain. It is derived from TYROSINE and is the precursor to NOREPINEPHRINE and EPINEPHRINE. Dopamine is a major transmitter in the extrapyramidal system of the brain, and important in regulating movement. A family of receptors (RECEPTORS, DOPAMINE) mediate its action.Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials: Depolarization of membrane potentials at the SYNAPTIC MEMBRANES of target neurons during neurotransmission. Excitatory postsynaptic potentials can singly or in summation reach the trigger threshold for ACTION POTENTIALS.Interneurons: Most generally any NEURONS which are not motor or sensory. Interneurons may also refer to neurons whose AXONS remain within a particular brain region in contrast to projection neurons, which have axons projecting to other brain regions.Mesencephalon: The middle of the three primitive cerebral vesicles of the embryonic brain. Without further subdivision, midbrain develops into a short, constricted portion connecting the PONS and the DIENCEPHALON. Midbrain contains two major parts, the dorsal TECTUM MESENCEPHALI and the ventral TEGMENTUM MESENCEPHALI, housing components of auditory, visual, and other sensorimoter systems.Brain: The part of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM that is contained within the skull (CRANIUM). Arising from the NEURAL TUBE, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including PROSENCEPHALON (the forebrain); MESENCEPHALON (the midbrain); and RHOMBENCEPHALON (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of CEREBRUM; CEREBELLUM; and other structures in the BRAIN STEM.Neuropeptides: Peptides released by NEURONS as intercellular messengers. Many neuropeptides are also hormones released by non-neuronal cells.Serotonergic Neurons: Neurons whose primary neurotransmitter is SEROTONIN.Rats, Wistar: A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.Glutamic Acid: A non-essential amino acid naturally occurring in the L-form. Glutamic acid is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.Time Factors: Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.Brain Stem: The part of the brain that connects the CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES with the SPINAL CORD. It consists of the MESENCEPHALON; PONS; and MEDULLA OBLONGATA.Ganglia, Invertebrate: Clusters of neuronal cell bodies in invertebrates. Invertebrate ganglia may also contain neuronal processes and non-neuronal supporting cells. Many invertebrate ganglia are favorable subjects for research because they have small numbers of functional neuronal types which can be identified from one animal to another.Nerve Net: A meshlike structure composed of interconnecting nerve cells that are separated at the synaptic junction or joined to one another by cytoplasmic processes. In invertebrates, for example, the nerve net allows nerve impulses to spread over a wide area of the net because synapses can pass information in any direction.Afferent Pathways: Nerve structures through which impulses are conducted from a peripheral part toward a nerve center.Mice, Inbred C57BLMice, Transgenic: Laboratory mice that have been produced from a genetically manipulated EGG or EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN.Neurites: In tissue culture, hairlike projections of neurons stimulated by growth factors and other molecules. These projections may go on to form a branched tree of dendrites or a single axon or they may be reabsorbed at a later stage of development. "Neurite" may refer to any filamentous or pointed outgrowth of an embryonal or tissue-culture neural cell.Nitrergic Neurons: Nerve cells where transmission is mediated by NITRIC OXIDE.Cell Count: The number of CELLS of a specific kind, usually measured per unit volume or area of sample.Ganglia: Clusters of multipolar neurons surrounded by a capsule of loosely organized CONNECTIVE TISSUE located outside the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.Calcium: A basic element found in nearly all organized tissues. It is a member of the alkaline earth family of metals with the atomic symbol Ca, atomic number 20, and atomic weight 40. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and combines with phosphorus to form calcium phosphate in the bones and teeth. It is essential for the normal functioning of nerves and muscles and plays a role in blood coagulation (as factor IV) and in many enzymatic processes.Neurogenesis: Formation of NEURONS which involves the differentiation and division of STEM CELLS in which one or both of the daughter cells become neurons.Neuronal Plasticity: The capacity of the NERVOUS SYSTEM to change its reactivity as the result of successive activations.Substantia Nigra: The black substance in the ventral midbrain or the nucleus of cells containing the black substance. These cells produce DOPAMINE, an important neurotransmitter in regulation of the sensorimotor system and mood. The dark colored MELANIN is a by-product of dopamine synthesis.Neuroglia: The non-neuronal cells of the nervous system. They not only provide physical support, but also respond to injury, regulate the ionic and chemical composition of the extracellular milieu, participate in the BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER and BLOOD-RETINAL BARRIER, form the myelin insulation of nervous pathways, guide neuronal migration during development, and exchange metabolites with neurons. Neuroglia have high-affinity transmitter uptake systems, voltage-dependent and transmitter-gated ion channels, and can release transmitters, but their role in signaling (as in many other functions) is unclear.Ganglia, Sympathetic: Ganglia of the sympathetic nervous system including the paravertebral and the prevertebral ganglia. Among these are the sympathetic chain ganglia, the superior, middle, and inferior cervical ganglia, and the aorticorenal, celiac, and stellate ganglia.Thalamus: Paired bodies containing mostly GRAY MATTER and forming part of the lateral wall of the THIRD VENTRICLE of the brain.Cerebellum: The part of brain that lies behind the BRAIN STEM in the posterior base of skull (CRANIAL FOSSA, POSTERIOR). It is also known as the "little brain" with convolutions similar to those of CEREBRAL CORTEX, inner white matter, and deep cerebellar nuclei. Its function is to coordinate voluntary movements, maintain balance, and learn motor skills.Evoked Potentials: Electrical responses recorded from nerve, muscle, SENSORY RECEPTOR, or area of the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM following stimulation. They range from less than a microvolt to several microvolts. The evoked potential can be auditory (EVOKED POTENTIALS, AUDITORY), somatosensory (EVOKED POTENTIALS, SOMATOSENSORY), visual (EVOKED POTENTIALS, VISUAL), or motor (EVOKED POTENTIALS, MOTOR), or other modalities that have been reported.Physical Stimulation: Act of eliciting a response from a person or organism through physical contact.Nerve Degeneration: Loss of functional activity and trophic degeneration of nerve axons and their terminal arborizations following the destruction of their cells of origin or interruption of their continuity with these cells. The pathology is characteristic of neurodegenerative diseases. Often the process of nerve degeneration is studied in research on neuroanatomical localization and correlation of the neurophysiology of neural pathways.Nerve Growth Factors: Factors which enhance the growth potentialities of sensory and sympathetic nerve cells.Nociceptors: Peripheral AFFERENT NEURONS which are sensitive to injuries or pain, usually caused by extreme thermal exposures, mechanical forces, or other noxious stimuli. Their cell bodies reside in the DORSAL ROOT GANGLIA. Their peripheral terminals (NERVE ENDINGS) innervate target tissues and transduce noxious stimuli via axons to the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.Behavior, Animal: The observable response an animal makes to any situation.Green Fluorescent Proteins: Protein analogs and derivatives of the Aequorea victoria green fluorescent protein that emit light (FLUORESCENCE) when excited with ULTRAVIOLET RAYS. They are used in REPORTER GENES in doing GENETIC TECHNIQUES. Numerous mutants have been made to emit other colors or be sensitive to pH.Prosencephalon: The anterior of the three primitive cerebral vesicles of the embryonic brain arising from the NEURAL TUBE. It subdivides to form DIENCEPHALON and TELENCEPHALON. (Stedmans Medical Dictionary, 27th ed)Serotonin: A biochemical messenger and regulator, synthesized from the essential amino acid L-TRYPTOPHAN. In humans it is found primarily in the central nervous system, gastrointestinal tract, and blood platelets. Serotonin mediates several important physiological functions including neurotransmission, gastrointestinal motility, hemostasis, and cardiovascular integrity. Multiple receptor families (RECEPTORS, SEROTONIN) explain the broad physiological actions and distribution of this biochemical mediator.Choline O-Acetyltransferase: An enzyme that catalyzes the formation of acetylcholine from acetyl-CoA and choline. EC 2.3.1.6.Neocortex: The largest portion of the CEREBRAL CORTEX in which the NEURONS are arranged in six layers in the mammalian brain: molecular, external granular, external pyramidal, internal granular, internal pyramidal and multiform layers.Superior Cervical Ganglion: The largest and uppermost of the paravertebral sympathetic ganglia.Receptors, N-Methyl-D-Aspartate: A class of ionotropic glutamate receptors characterized by affinity for N-methyl-D-aspartate. NMDA receptors have an allosteric binding site for glycine which must be occupied for the channel to open efficiently and a site within the channel itself to which magnesium ions bind in a voltage-dependent manner. The positive voltage dependence of channel conductance and the high permeability of the conducting channel to calcium ions (as well as to monovalent cations) are important in excitotoxicity and neuronal plasticity.GABA Antagonists: Drugs that bind to but do not activate GABA RECEPTORS, thereby blocking the actions of endogenous GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID and GABA RECEPTOR AGONISTS.Aplysia: An opisthobranch mollusk of the order Anaspidea. It is used frequently in studies of nervous system development because of its large identifiable neurons. Aplysiatoxin and its derivatives are not biosynthesized by Aplysia, but acquired by ingestion of Lyngbya (seaweed) species.Macaca mulatta: A species of the genus MACACA inhabiting India, China, and other parts of Asia. The species is used extensively in biomedical research and adapts very well to living with humans.Corpus Striatum: Striped GRAY MATTER and WHITE MATTER consisting of the NEOSTRIATUM and paleostriatum (GLOBUS PALLIDUS). It is located in front of and lateral to the THALAMUS in each cerebral hemisphere. The gray substance is made up of the CAUDATE NUCLEUS and the lentiform nucleus (the latter consisting of the GLOBUS PALLIDUS and PUTAMEN). The WHITE MATTER is the INTERNAL CAPSULE.Excitatory Amino Acid Antagonists: Drugs that bind to but do not activate excitatory amino acid receptors, thereby blocking the actions of agonists.Nodose Ganglion: The inferior (caudal) ganglion of the vagus (10th cranial) nerve. The unipolar nodose ganglion cells are sensory cells with central projections to the medulla and peripheral processes traveling in various branches of the vagus nerve.Mice, Knockout: Strains of mice in which certain GENES of their GENOMES have been disrupted, or "knocked-out". To produce knockouts, using RECOMBINANT DNA technology, the normal DNA sequence of the gene being studied is altered to prevent synthesis of a normal gene product. Cloned cells in which this DNA alteration is successful are then injected into mouse EMBRYOS to produce chimeric mice. The chimeric mice are then bred to yield a strain in which all the cells of the mouse contain the disrupted gene. Knockout mice are used as EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL MODELS for diseases (DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL) and to clarify the functions of the genes.N-Methylaspartate: An amino acid that, as the D-isomer, is the defining agonist for the NMDA receptor subtype of glutamate receptors (RECEPTORS, NMDA).Rats, Sprague-Dawley: A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.Reaction Time: The time from the onset of a stimulus until a response is observed.Vestibular Nuclei: The four cellular masses in the floor of the fourth ventricle giving rise to a widely dispersed special sensory system. Included is the superior, medial, inferior, and LATERAL VESTIBULAR NUCLEUS. (From Dorland, 27th ed)Stilbamidines: STILBENES with AMIDINES attached.Microelectrodes: Electrodes with an extremely small tip, used in a voltage clamp or other apparatus to stimulate or record bioelectric potentials of single cells intracellularly or extracellularly. (Dorland, 28th ed)Presynaptic Terminals: The distal terminations of axons which are specialized for the release of neurotransmitters. Also included are varicosities along the course of axons which have similar specializations and also release transmitters. Presynaptic terminals in both the central and peripheral nervous systems are included.Visual Cortex: Area of the OCCIPITAL LOBE concerned with the processing of visual information relayed via VISUAL PATHWAYS.Neurotransmitter Agents: Substances used for their pharmacological actions on any aspect of neurotransmitter systems. Neurotransmitter agents include agonists, antagonists, degradation inhibitors, uptake inhibitors, depleters, precursors, and modulators of receptor function.Raphe Nuclei: Collections of small neurons centrally scattered among many fibers from the level of the TROCHLEAR NUCLEUS in the midbrain to the hypoglossal area in the MEDULLA OBLONGATA.Posterior Horn Cells: Neurons in the SPINAL CORD DORSAL HORN whose cell bodies and processes are confined entirely to the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. They receive collateral or direct terminations of dorsal root fibers. They send their axons either directly to ANTERIOR HORN CELLS or to the WHITE MATTER ascending and descending longitudinal fibers.Retinal Neurons: Nerve cells of the RETINA in the pathway of transmitting light signals to the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. They include the outer layer of PHOTORECEPTOR CELLS, the intermediate layer of RETINAL BIPOLAR CELLS and AMACRINE CELLS, and the internal layer of RETINAL GANGLION CELLS.Signal Transduction: The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.Photic Stimulation: Investigative technique commonly used during ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY in which a series of bright light flashes or visual patterns are used to elicit brain activity.Astrocytes: A class of large neuroglial (macroglial) cells in the central nervous system - the largest and most numerous neuroglial cells in the brain and spinal cord. Astrocytes (from "star" cells) are irregularly shaped with many long processes, including those with "end feet" which form the glial (limiting) membrane and directly and indirectly contribute to the BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER. They regulate the extracellular ionic and chemical environment, and "reactive astrocytes" (along with MICROGLIA) respond to injury.Locus Coeruleus: Bluish-colored region in the superior angle of the FOURTH VENTRICLE floor, corresponding to melanin-like pigmented nerve cells which lie lateral to the PERIAQUEDUCTAL GRAY.Pons: The front part of the hindbrain (RHOMBENCEPHALON) that lies between the MEDULLA and the midbrain (MESENCEPHALON) ventral to the cerebellum. It is composed of two parts, the dorsal and the ventral. The pons serves as a relay station for neural pathways between the CEREBELLUM to the CEREBRUM.Bicuculline: An isoquinoline alkaloid obtained from Dicentra cucullaria and other plants. It is a competitive antagonist for GABA-A receptors.Central Nervous System: The main information-processing organs of the nervous system, consisting of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges.Survival of Motor Neuron 1 Protein: A SMN complex protein that is essential for the function of the SMN protein complex. In humans the protein is encoded by a single gene found near the inversion telomere of a large inverted region of CHROMOSOME 5. Mutations in the gene coding for survival of motor neuron 1 protein may result in SPINAL MUSCULAR ATROPHIES OF CHILDHOOD.Myenteric Plexus: One of two ganglionated neural networks which together form the ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM. The myenteric (Auerbach's) plexus is located between the longitudinal and circular muscle layers of the gut. Its neurons project to the circular muscle, to other myenteric ganglia, to submucosal ganglia, or directly to the epithelium, and play an important role in regulating and patterning gut motility. (From FASEB J 1989;3:127-38)Trigeminal Ganglion: The semilunar-shaped ganglion containing the cells of origin of most of the sensory fibers of the trigeminal nerve. It is situated within the dural cleft on the cerebral surface of the petrous portion of the temporal bone and gives off the ophthalmic, maxillary, and part of the mandibular nerves.Cell Differentiation: Progressive restriction of the developmental potential and increasing specialization of function that leads to the formation of specialized cells, tissues, and organs.Glutamate Decarboxylase: A pyridoxal-phosphate protein that catalyzes the alpha-decarboxylation of L-glutamic acid to form gamma-aminobutyric acid and carbon dioxide. The enzyme is found in bacteria and in invertebrate and vertebrate nervous systems. It is the rate-limiting enzyme in determining GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID levels in normal nervous tissues. The brain enzyme also acts on L-cysteate, L-cysteine sulfinate, and L-aspartate. EC 4.1.1.15.Ganglia, Parasympathetic: Ganglia of the parasympathetic nervous system, including the ciliary, pterygopalatine, submandibular, and otic ganglia in the cranial region and intrinsic (terminal) ganglia associated with target organs in the thorax and abdomen.Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials: Hyperpolarization of membrane potentials at the SYNAPTIC MEMBRANES of target neurons during NEUROTRANSMISSION. They are local changes which diminish responsiveness to excitatory signals.Gene Expression Regulation, Developmental: Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action during the developmental stages of an organism.In Situ Hybridization: A technique that localizes specific nucleic acid sequences within intact chromosomes, eukaryotic cells, or bacterial cells through the use of specific nucleic acid-labeled probes.Axonal Transport: The directed transport of ORGANELLES and molecules along nerve cell AXONS. Transport can be anterograde (from the cell body) or retrograde (toward the cell body). (Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 3d ed, pG3)Periodicity: The tendency of a phenomenon to recur at regular intervals; in biological systems, the recurrence of certain activities (including hormonal, cellular, neural) may be annual, seasonal, monthly, daily, or more frequently (ultradian).Reticular Formation: A region extending from the PONS & MEDULLA OBLONGATA through the MESENCEPHALON, characterized by a diversity of neurons of various sizes and shapes, arranged in different aggregations and enmeshed in a complicated fiber network.Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor: A member of the nerve growth factor family of trophic factors. In the brain BDNF has a trophic action on retinal, cholinergic, and dopaminergic neurons, and in the peripheral nervous system it acts on both motor and sensory neurons. (From Kendrew, The Encyclopedia of Molecular Biology, 1994)Analysis of Variance: A statistical technique that isolates and assesses the contributions of categorical independent variables to variation in the mean of a continuous dependent variable.Sodium Channels: Ion channels that specifically allow the passage of SODIUM ions. A variety of specific sodium channel subtypes are involved in serving specialized functions such as neuronal signaling, CARDIAC MUSCLE contraction, and KIDNEY function.Cell Survival: The span of viability of a cell characterized by the capacity to perform certain functions such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, some form of responsiveness, and adaptability.Animals, Genetically Modified: ANIMALS whose GENOME has been altered by GENETIC ENGINEERING, or their offspring.Organ Culture Techniques: A technique for maintenance or growth of animal organs in vitro. It refers to three-dimensional cultures of undisaggregated tissue retaining some or all of the histological features of the tissue in vivo. (Freshney, Culture of Animal Cells, 3d ed, p1)Receptors, GABA-A: Cell surface proteins which bind GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID and contain an integral membrane chloride channel. Each receptor is assembled as a pentamer from a pool of at least 19 different possible subunits. The receptors belong to a superfamily that share a common CYSTEINE loop.Cell Death: The termination of the cell's ability to carry out vital functions such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, responsiveness, and adaptability.Ventral Tegmental Area: A region in the MESENCEPHALON which is dorsomedial to the SUBSTANTIA NIGRA and ventral to the RED NUCLEUS. The mesocortical and mesolimbic dopaminergic systems originate here, including an important projection to the NUCLEUS ACCUMBENS. Overactivity of the cells in this area has been suspected to contribute to the positive symptoms of SCHIZOPHRENIA.Dose-Response Relationship, Drug: The relationship between the dose of an administered drug and the response of the organism to the drug.Electrophysiological Phenomena: The electrical properties, characteristics of living organisms, and the processes of organisms or their parts that are involved in generating and responding to electrical charges.Capsaicin: An alkylamide found in CAPSICUM that acts at TRPV CATION CHANNELS.Olfactory Bulb: Ovoid body resting on the CRIBRIFORM PLATE of the ethmoid bone where the OLFACTORY NERVE terminates. The olfactory bulb contains several types of nerve cells including the mitral cells, on whose DENDRITES the olfactory nerve synapses, forming the olfactory glomeruli. The accessory olfactory bulb, which receives the projection from the VOMERONASAL ORGAN via the vomeronasal nerve, is also included here.6-Cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione: A potent excitatory amino acid antagonist with a preference for non-NMDA iontropic receptors. It is used primarily as a research tool.Receptors, AMPA: A class of ionotropic glutamate receptors characterized by their affinity for the agonist AMPA (alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid).Arcuate Nucleus: A nucleus located in the middle hypothalamus in the most ventral part of the third ventricle near the entrance of the infundibular recess. Its small cells are in close contact with the ependyma.Iontophoresis: Therapeutic introduction of ions of soluble salts into tissues by means of electric current. In medical literature it is commonly used to indicate the process of increasing the penetration of drugs into surface tissues by the application of electric current. It has nothing to do with ION EXCHANGE; AIR IONIZATION nor PHONOPHORESIS, none of which requires current.Mechanoreceptors: Cells specialized to transduce mechanical stimuli and relay that information centrally in the nervous system. Mechanoreceptor cells include the INNER EAR hair cells, which mediate hearing and balance, and the various somatosensory receptors, often with non-neural accessory structures.Disease Models, Animal: Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.RNA, Messenger: RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.Embryo, Mammalian: The entity of a developing mammal (MAMMALS), generally from the cleavage of a ZYGOTE to the end of embryonic differentiation of basic structures. For the human embryo, this represents the first two months of intrauterine development preceding the stages of the FETUS.Visual Pathways: Set of cell bodies and nerve fibers conducting impulses from the eyes to the cerebral cortex. It includes the RETINA; OPTIC NERVE; optic tract; and geniculocalcarine tract.S100 Calcium Binding Protein G: A calbindin protein found in many mammalian tissues, including the UTERUS, PLACENTA, BONE, PITUITARY GLAND, and KIDNEYS. In intestinal ENTEROCYTES it mediates intracellular calcium transport from apical to basolateral membranes via calcium binding at two EF-HAND MOTIFS. Expression is regulated in some tissues by VITAMIN D.Thalamic Nuclei: Several groups of nuclei in the thalamus that serve as the major relay centers for sensory impulses in the brain.Auditory Pathways: NEURAL PATHWAYS and connections within the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, beginning at the hair cells of the ORGAN OF CORTI, continuing along the eighth cranial nerve, and terminating at the AUDITORY CORTEX.Leeches: Annelids of the class Hirudinea. Some species, the bloodsuckers, may become temporarily parasitic upon animals, including man. Medicinal leeches (HIRUDO MEDICINALIS) have been used therapeutically for drawing blood since ancient times.Excitatory Amino Acid Agonists: Drugs that bind to and activate excitatory amino acid receptors.Supraoptic Nucleus: Hypothalamic nucleus overlying the beginning of the OPTIC TRACT.Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-fos: Cellular DNA-binding proteins encoded by the c-fos genes (GENES, FOS). They are involved in growth-related transcriptional control. c-fos combines with c-jun (PROTO-ONCOGENE PROTEINS C-JUN) to form a c-fos/c-jun heterodimer (TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR AP-1) that binds to the TRE (TPA-responsive element) in promoters of certain genes.Neurotoxins: Toxic substances from microorganisms, plants or animals that interfere with the functions of the nervous system. Most venoms contain neurotoxic substances. Myotoxins are included in this concept.Rats, Long-Evans: An outbred strain of rats developed in 1915 by crossing several Wistar Institute white females with a wild gray male. Inbred strains have been derived from this original outbred strain, including Long-Evans cinnamon rats (RATS, INBRED LEC) and Otsuka-Long-Evans-Tokushima Fatty rats (RATS, INBRED OLETF), which are models for Wilson's disease and non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus, respectively.Potassium Channels: Cell membrane glycoproteins that are selectively permeable to potassium ions. At least eight major groups of K channels exist and they are made up of dozens of different subunits.Parvalbumins: Low molecular weight, calcium binding muscle proteins. Their physiological function is possibly related to the contractile process.Paraventricular Hypothalamic Nucleus: Nucleus in the anterior part of the HYPOTHALAMUS.Electric Conductivity: The ability of a substrate to allow the passage of ELECTRONS.Acoustic Stimulation: Use of sound to elicit a response in the nervous system.Sodium Channel Blockers: A class of drugs that act by inhibition of sodium influx through cell membranes. Blockade of sodium channels slows the rate and amplitude of initial rapid depolarization, reduces cell excitability, and reduces conduction velocity.Vesicular Glutamate Transport Protein 2: A vesicular glutamate transporter protein that is predominately expressed in the DIENCEPHALON and lower brainstem regions of the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.Axotomy: Transection or severing of an axon. This type of denervation is used often in experimental studies on neuronal physiology and neuronal death or survival, toward an understanding of nervous system disease.Substance P: An eleven-amino acid neurotransmitter that appears in both the central and peripheral nervous systems. It is involved in transmission of PAIN, causes rapid contractions of the gastrointestinal smooth muscle, and modulates inflammatory and immune responses.Hypothalamic Area, Lateral: Area in the hypothalamus bounded medially by the mammillothalamic tract and the anterior column of the FORNIX (BRAIN). The medial edge of the INTERNAL CAPSULE and the subthalamic region form its lateral boundary. It contains the lateral hypothalamic nucleus, tuberomammillary nucleus, lateral tuberal nuclei, and fibers of the MEDIAL FOREBRAIN BUNDLE.Calbindins: Calcium-binding proteins that are found in DISTAL KIDNEY TUBULES, INTESTINES, BRAIN, and other tissues where they bind, buffer and transport cytoplasmic calcium. Calbindins possess a variable number of EF-HAND MOTIFS which contain calcium-binding sites. Some isoforms are regulated by VITAMIN D.Neuroprotective Agents: Drugs intended to prevent damage to the brain or spinal cord from ischemia, stroke, convulsions, or trauma. Some must be administered before the event, but others may be effective for some time after. They act by a variety of mechanisms, but often directly or indirectly minimize the damage produced by endogenous excitatory amino acids.Calbindin 2: A calbindin protein that is differentially expressed in distinct populations of NEURONS throughout the vertebrate and invertebrate NERVOUS SYSTEM, and modulates intrinsic neuronal excitability and influences LONG-TERM POTENTIATION. It is also found in LUNG, TESTIS, OVARY, KIDNEY, and BREAST, and is expressed in many tumor types found in these tissues. It is often used as an immunohistochemical marker for MESOTHELIOMA.Neural Conduction: The propagation of the NERVE IMPULSE along the nerve away from the site of an excitation stimulus.Somatosensory Cortex: Area of the parietal lobe concerned with receiving sensations such as movement, pain, pressure, position, temperature, touch, and vibration. It lies posterior to the central sulcus.Dendritic Spines: Spiny processes on DENDRITES, each of which receives excitatory input from one nerve ending (NERVE ENDINGS). They are commonly found on PURKINJE CELLS and PYRAMIDAL CELLS.Calcium Channels: Voltage-dependent cell membrane glycoproteins selectively permeable to calcium ions. They are categorized as L-, T-, N-, P-, Q-, and R-types based on the activation and inactivation kinetics, ion specificity, and sensitivity to drugs and toxins. The L- and T-types are present throughout the cardiovascular and central nervous systems and the N-, P-, Q-, & R-types are located in neuronal tissue.Vagus Nerve: The 10th cranial nerve. The vagus is a mixed nerve which contains somatic afferents (from skin in back of the ear and the external auditory meatus), visceral afferents (from the pharynx, larynx, thorax, and abdomen), parasympathetic efferents (to the thorax and abdomen), and efferents to striated muscle (of the larynx and pharynx).Respiratory Center: Part of the brain located in the MEDULLA OBLONGATA and PONS. It receives neural, chemical and hormonal signals, and controls the rate and depth of respiratory movements of the DIAPHRAGM and other respiratory muscles.Macaca fascicularis: A species of the genus MACACA which typically lives near the coast in tidal creeks and mangrove swamps primarily on the islands of the Malay peninsula.Chick Embryo: The developmental entity of a fertilized chicken egg (ZYGOTE). The developmental process begins about 24 h before the egg is laid at the BLASTODISC, a small whitish spot on the surface of the EGG YOLK. After 21 days of incubation, the embryo is fully developed before hatching.Ganglia, Sensory: Clusters of neurons in the somatic peripheral nervous system which contain the cell bodies of sensory nerve axons. Sensory ganglia may also have intrinsic interneurons and non-neuronal supporting cells.Enteric Nervous System: Two ganglionated neural plexuses in the gut wall which form one of the three major divisions of the autonomic nervous system. The enteric nervous system innervates the gastrointestinal tract, the pancreas, and the gallbladder. It contains sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons. Thus the circuitry can autonomously sense the tension and the chemical environment in the gut and regulate blood vessel tone, motility, secretions, and fluid transport. The system is itself governed by the central nervous system and receives both parasympathetic and sympathetic innervation. (From Kandel, Schwartz, and Jessel, Principles of Neural Science, 3d ed, p766)Cholinergic Fibers: Nerve fibers liberating acetylcholine at the synapse after an impulse.Macaca: A genus of the subfamily CERCOPITHECINAE, family CERCOPITHECIDAE, consisting of 16 species inhabiting forests of Africa, Asia, and the islands of Borneo, Philippines, and Celebes.Kainic Acid: (2S-(2 alpha,3 beta,4 beta))-2-Carboxy-4-(1-methylethenyl)-3-pyrrolidineacetic acid. Ascaricide obtained from the red alga Digenea simplex. It is a potent excitatory amino acid agonist at some types of excitatory amino acid receptors and has been used to discriminate among receptor types. Like many excitatory amino acid agonists it can cause neurotoxicity and has been used experimentally for that purpose.
(1/73) Chronic desipramine treatment alters tyrosine hydroxylase but not norepinephrine transporter immunoreactivity in norepinephrine axons in the rat prefrontal cortex.
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(2/73) The role of the central noradrenergic system in behavioral inhibition.
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(3/73) Control of sympathetic vasomotor tone by catecholaminergic C1 neurones of the rostral ventrolateral medulla oblongata.
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(4/73) alpha-Adrenergic effects on low-frequency oscillations in blood pressure and R-R intervals during sympathetic activation.
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(5/73) Impaired adrenergic- and corticotropic-axis outflow during exercise in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
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(6/73) Noradrenergic neurons of the locus coeruleus are phase locked to cortical up-down states during sleep.
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(7/73) The noradrenaline precursor L-DOPS reduces pathology in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.
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(8/73) Central chemoreceptors and neural mechanisms of cardiorespiratory control.
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(2/73) The role of the central noradrenergic system in behavioral inhibition.
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(3/73) Control of sympathetic vasomotor tone by catecholaminergic C1 neurones of the rostral ventrolateral medulla oblongata.
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(4/73) alpha-Adrenergic effects on low-frequency oscillations in blood pressure and R-R intervals during sympathetic activation.
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(5/73) Impaired adrenergic- and corticotropic-axis outflow during exercise in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
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(6/73) Noradrenergic neurons of the locus coeruleus are phase locked to cortical up-down states during sleep.
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(7/73) The noradrenaline precursor L-DOPS reduces pathology in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.
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(8/73) Central chemoreceptors and neural mechanisms of cardiorespiratory control.
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Sympatholytic
They are primarily postsynaptic adrenergic receptor antagonists (alpha and beta adrenergic receptor antagonists, or "blockers ... Other drugs are preferentially toxic to sympathetic neurons. One method of obtaining such specificity is to exploit drugs that ... preventing postsynaptic adrenergic receptor activation and downstream signaling. Another way to inhibit adrenergic receptor ... Alpha2 adrenergic agonist can also be used to treat anxiety and panic, such as Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Panic Disorder or ...
Norepinephrine
Noradrenergic neurons (i.e., neurons whose primary neurotransmitter is norepinephrine) are comparatively few in number, and ... ISBN 1-4684-3171-4. Griffith RK (2013). "Chapter 10: Adrenergic Receptors and Drugs Affecting Adrenergic Neurotransmission". In ... The noradrenergic neurons in the brain form a neurotransmitter system, that, when activated, exerts effects on large areas of ... doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2012.09.011. PMID 23040811. Berridge CW, Schmeichel BE, España RA (2012). "Noradrenergic modulation of ...
Perspiration
Sympathetic postganglionic neurons typically secrete norepinephrine and are named sympathetic adrenergic neurons; however, the ... Sweat glands, piloerector muscles, and some blood vessels are innervated by sympathetic cholinergic neurons. Diaphoresis may be ... The vast majority of sweat glands in the body are innervated by sympathetic cholinergic neurons. ... postganglionic neurons that innervate sweat glands secrete acetylcholine and hence are termed sympathetic cholinergic neurons. ...
Basal electrical rhythm
These efferent motor neuronns of the enteric nervous system are cholinergic and adrenergic neurons. The inner circular layer is ... The physical contractions of the smooth muscle cells can be caused by action potentials in efferent motor neurons of the ... while the outer longitudinal layer is innervated by mainly excitatory neurons. These action potentials cause the smooth muscle ... innervated by both excitatory and inhibitory motor neurons, ...
Adrenergic nerve fibre
Neurons in the central nervous system contain α1- and α2-adrenergic receptors and β1- and β2-adrenergic receptors. All four ... Adrenergic nerve terminals are found in the secondary neurons of the sympathetic nervous system, one of two deviations of the ... Adrenergic neurons, in particular the α2 autorecptors found in the brain, are also involved in sexual behavior and in the ... Peripheral adrenergic neurons integrate signals from other nerves of the central nervous system and peripheral sense organs. An ...
Dosulepin
Guanethidine and other adrenergic neuron blocking drugs can have their antihypertensive effects blocked by dosulepin. ... It is also an antagonist of the histamine H1 receptor, α1-adrenergic receptor, serotonin 5-HT2 receptors, and muscarinic ... reported relatively high Ki values of 12 and 15 nM for dosulepin and northiaden at the rat α2-adrenergic receptor and suggested ...
Benzoctamine
A possible treatment for hypertension is blocking peripheral vascular seretonergic neurons or alpha-adrenergic neurons on ... Other animal studies also point to the drug as a possible mechanism by which to reduce blood pressure through the adrenergic ... One study showed that benzoctamine, a serotonin and alpha-adrenergic antagonist, does not reduce blood pressure through a ... seretonin mechanism but does reduce blood pressure by antagonizing alpha-adrenergic receptors in rats. Rats were given 10 mg of ...
Adrenergic receptor
There are also α2 receptors on the nerve terminal membrane of the post-synaptic adrenergic neuron. There are 3 highly ... Beta adrenergic receptor kinase Beta adrenergic receptor kinase-2 Cannon WB, Rosenbluth A (31 May 1933). "Studies On Conditions ... The adrenergic receptors (or adrenoceptors) are a class of G protein-coupled receptors that are targets of the catecholamines, ... There are two main groups of adrenergic receptors, α and β, with several subtypes. α receptors have the subtypes α1 (a Gq ...
Alpha-2B adrenergic receptor
These receptors have a critical role in regulating neurotransmitter release from sympathetic nerves and from adrenergic neurons ... The alpha-2B adrenergic receptor (α2B adrenoceptor), is a G-protein coupled receptor. It is a subtype of the adrenergic ... "Expansion of the alpha 2-adrenergic receptor family: cloning and characterization of a human alpha 2-adrenergic receptor ... A deletion variant of the α2B adrenergic receptor has been shown to be related to emotional memory in Europeans and Africans. ...
Alpha-2C adrenergic receptor
These receptors have a critical role in regulating neurotransmitter release from sympathetic nerves and from adrenergic neurons ... The alpha-2C adrenergic receptor (α2C adrenoceptor), also known as ADRA2C, is an alpha-2 adrenergic receptor, and also denotes ... Park JS, Zhang SY, Jo SH, Seo JB, Li L, Park KW, Oh BH, Park YB, Kim HS (2006). "Common adrenergic receptor polymorphisms as ... Klein U, Ramirez MT, Kobilka BK, von Zastrow M (1997). "A novel interaction between adrenergic receptors and the alpha-subunit ...
Alpha-2A adrenergic receptor
These receptors have a critical role in regulating neurotransmitter release from sympathetic nerves and from adrenergic neurons ... The alpha-2A adrenergic receptor (α2A adrenoceptor), also known as ADRA2A, is an α2 adrenergic receptor, and also denotes the ... Handy DE, Gavras H (Nov 1992). "Promoter region of the human alpha 2A adrenergic receptor gene". The Journal of Biological ... Shilo L, Sakaue M, Thomas JM, Philip M, Hoffman BB (Jan 1994). "Enhanced transcription of the human alpha 2A-adrenergic ...
Sialoadhesin
Sialaodhesin (CD169) positive macrophages, along with mesenchymal stem cells and beta-adrenergic neurons, form the ...
Idiopathic hypersomnia
Destruction of noradrenergic neurons has produced hypersomnia in experimental animal studies, and injury to adrenergic neurons ... is an adrenergic reuptake inhibitor which increases wakefulness (generally less strongly than the medications which act on ... autoimmune destruction of hypocretin-producing neurons), the cause of idiopathic hypersomnia has, until recently, been largely ...
Catecholamine
"Adrenergic neurons in human brain demonstrated by immunohistochemistry with antibodies to phenylethanolamine-N- ... In neurons that use DA as the transmitter, the decarboxylation of l-DOPA to DA is the final step in transmitter, However, in ... In still other neurons in which epinephrine is the transmitter, a third enzyme phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase, PNMT) ... Thus, a cell that uses Epi as its transmitter contains four enzymes (TH, AADC, DBH, and PNMT), whereas NE neurons contain only ...
Phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase
Kitahama K, Pearson J, Denoroy L, Kopp N, Ulrich J, Maeda T, Jouvet M (1985). "Adrenergic neurons in human brain demonstrated ... Epinephrine is produced in small groups of neurons in the human brain which express PNMT; these neurons project from a nucleus ... It is also expressed in small groups of neurons in the human brain. PNMT is a protein whose encoding gene is found on ... "Phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase-containing neurons in rat retina: immunohistochemistry, immunochemistry, and molecular ...
William Alexander Bain
The work of Bain and his department gave rise to the adrenergic-neurone blocking drugs which now play an important role in the ...
Pharmaceutical drug
General: adrenergic neurone blocker, astringent, ocular lubricant Diagnostic: topical anesthetics, sympathomimetics, ... Beta2-adrenergic agonists, anticholinergics, Mast cell stabilizers. Leukotriene antagonists androgens, antiandrogens, estrogens ... adrenergic agonists, beta-blockers, carbonic anhydrase inhibitors/hyperosmotics, cholinergics, miotics, parasympathomimetics, ...
JacSue Kehoe
After many tests using a setup of her own design Kehoe discovered that methyl-xylocholine, an Adrenergic neuron blocker, ... In a nearby lab Felix Strumwasser was using neurons from Aplysia Californica, a species of sea slug, to study circadian rhythms ... From this data Kehoe determined that both the adrenergic and cholinergic responses she observed involved the same receptor. She ... She has spent decades working with the neurons of Aplysia californica, studying post-synaptic nerve response. She discovered ...
Chlordiazepoxide
ACE inhibitors, Adrenergic neurone blockers, Angiotensin II receptor antagonists, Beta blockers, Calcium channel blockers, ...
Andreas Kjær (scientist)
Involvement of histaminergic neurons and beta-adrenergic receptors. University of Copenhagen. pp. 1-100. Kjær, Andreas ( ...
Neuromodulation
... neurons in the locus coeruleus tend to be melanin-pigmented. Noradrenaline is released from the neurons, and acts on adrenergic ... This is diminutive compared to the more than 100 billion neurons in the brain. As with dopaminergic neurons in the substantia ... primarily the melanin-pigmented neurons in the substantia nigra but secondarily the noradrenergic neurons of the locus ... A neuromodulator can be conceptualized as a neurotransmitter that is not reabsorbed by the pre-synaptic neuron or broken down ...
Postganglionic nerve fibers
... neurons are mostly adrenergic (that is, epinephrine and norepinephrine function as the primary neurotransmitters). Notable ... postganglionic neurons express nicotinic acetylcholine receptors to receive signals from preganglionic neurons. Preganglionic ... The neurotransmitters of postganglionic fibers differ: In the parasympathetic division, neurons are cholinergic (that is, ...
Metabotropic glutamate receptor 1
... as mGluR1 antagonists block adrenergic receptor activation in neurons. Mice lacking functional glutamate receptor 1 were ... Neuron. 21 (4): 707-16. doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(00)80588-7. PMID 9808458. Tu JC, Xiao B, Yuan JP, Lanahan AA, Leoffert K, Li M, ... Neuron. 21 (4): 717-26. doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(00)80589-9. PMID 9808459. Ciruela F, Robbins MJ, Willis AC, McIlhinney RA (1999 ...
Index of anatomy articles
... acoustic nerve acromion adenohypophysis adenoids adipose aditus aditus ad antrum adrenal gland adrenergic afferent neuron agger ... prefrontal cortex preganglionic preganglionic neurons preganglionic parasympathetic neurons preganglionic sympathetic neurons ... Terminal sulcus of tongue terminal vein tertiary sensory neuron testicle testis thalamic fasciculus thalamogeniculate artery ... process of ethmoid bone Uncinate process of pancreas Uncinate process of vertebra Uncinate processes of ribs upper motor neuron ...
Locus coeruleus
Bondareff W, Mountjoy CQ, Roth M (February 1982). "Loss of neurons of origin of the adrenergic projection to cerebral cortex ( ... It is composed of mostly medium-size neurons. Melanin granules inside the neurons of the LC contribute to its blue colour. Thus ... since no apoptotic neurons in the pons were detected. Researchers have concluded that, "Because these neurons are a pivotal ... These neurons project largely within the brainstem and spinal cord. NE, along with 5HT, ACh, histamine, and orexin, is a ...
Sigma-1 receptor
... α1A and α2 adrenergic, and NMDA receptors NE-100 Positive allosteric modulators (PAMs): Methylphenylpiracetam[better source ... "sigma Receptor activation blocks potassium channels and depresses neuroexcitability in rat intracardiac neurons". The Journal ...
Heteroreceptor
Norepinephrine can influence the release of acetylcholine from parasympathetic neurons by acting on α2 adrenergic (α2A, α2B, ... Glutamate released from an excitatory neuron escapes from the synaptic cleft and preferentially affects mGluR III receptors on ... Acetylcholine can influence the release of norepinephrine from sympathetic neurons by acting on muscarinic-2 and muscarinic-4 ... Neuron. 25 (3): 663-72. doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(00)81068-5. PMID 10774733. Kullmann, D. M.; Semyanov, A (2002). "Glutamatergic ...
Iodine-123 Metaiodobenzylguanidine Scintigraphic Assessment of Myocardial Sympathetic Innervation in Patients With Familial...
1980) Radiolabeled adrenergic neuron-blocking agents: adrenomedullary imaging with [131I] iodobenzylguanidine. J Nucl Med 21: ... 1987) Metaiodobenzylguanidine as an index of the adrenergic nervous system integrity and function. J Nucl Med 28:1620-1624. ... 1987) Metaiodobenzylguanidine to map scintigraphically the adrenergic nervous system in man. J Nucl Med 28:1625-1636. ... No patient had any other disease, such as diabetes mellitus, that could contribute to a cardiac adrenergic neuropathy, and none ...
http://www.onlinejacc.org/content/29/1/168?ijkey=9a8be767e80a1d5593434dd1d6c9a5b7f270958f&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha
ORBi: Browsing ORBi
... and in primary sensory neurons and their central processes. Also, Hsp27 immunoreactivity was present in neurons of the arcuate ... Dopaminergic and adrenergic receptors are G-protein-coupled receptors considered to be different based on their pharmacology ... and only a small proportion of general visceral efferent neurons, i.e., parasympathetic and sympathetic preganglionic neurons, ... Dopaminergic and adrenergic receptors are G-protein-coupled receptors considered to be different based on their pharmacology ...
http://orbi.ulg.ac.be/browse?type=journal&value=Journal+of+Comparative+Neurology+
Adrenergic neuron-blocking agent - definition of adrenergic neuron-blocking agent by The Free Dictionary
adrenergic neuron-blocking agent synonyms, adrenergic neuron-blocking agent pronunciation, adrenergic neuron-blocking agent ... English dictionary definition of adrenergic neuron-blocking agent. n. 1. One that acts or has the power or authority to act. 2 ... Adrenergic neuron-blocking agent - definition of adrenergic neuron-blocking agent by The Free Dictionary https://www. ... redirected from adrenergic neuron-blocking agent). Also found in: Thesaurus, Medical, Legal, Financial, Encyclopedia. a·gent. ( ...
https://www.thefreedictionary.com/adrenergic+neuron-blocking+agent
The Release of Catecholamines from Adrenergic Neurons ISBN 9780080237558 PDF epub | David M. Paton ebook | eBookMall
The Release of Catecholamines from Adrenergic Neurons focuses on the processes involved in determining the release of ... The Release of Catecholamines from Adrenergic Neurons PDF (Adobe DRM) can be read on any device that can open PDF (Adobe DRM) ... The Release of Catecholamines from Adrenergic Neurons focuses on the processes involved in determining the release of ... is a dependable reference for readers interested in the study of the release of catecholamines from adrenergic neurons. ...
https://www.ebookmall.com/ebook/the-release-of-catecholamines-from-adrenergic-neurons/david-m-paton/9780080237558
The sympathetic adrenergic neuron. Some characteristics revealed by histochemical studies on the intraneuronal distribution of...
The sympathetic adrenergic neuron. Some characteristics revealed by histochemical studies on the intraneuronal distribution of ... The sympathetic adrenergic neuron. Some characteristics revealed by histochemical studies on the intraneuronal distribution of ... The sympathetic adrenergic neuron. Some characteristics revealed by histochemical studies on the intraneuronal distribution of ... Add tags for "The sympathetic adrenergic neuron. Some characteristics revealed by histochemical studies on the intraneuronal ...
http://www.worldcat.org/title/sympathetic-adrenergic-neuron-some-characteristics-revealed-by-histochemical-studies-on-the-intraneuronal-distribution-of-the-transmitter/oclc/15599627 Adrenergic neuron blocking agent | Article about adrenergic neuron blocking agent by The Free Dictionary
The agent's duties include the... Explanation of adrenergic neuron blocking agent ... Find out information about adrenergic neuron blocking agent. a person representing a business concern, esp a travelling ... Adrenergic neuron blocking agent , Article about adrenergic neuron blocking agent by The Free Dictionary https://encyclopedia2. ... redirected from adrenergic neuron blocking agent). Also found in: Dictionary, Thesaurus, Medical, Legal, Financial. agent. a ...
https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/adrenergic+neuron+blocking+agent
Assessment of the functional role of brain adrenergic neurons: chronic effects of phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase...
Assessment of the functional role of brain adrenergic neurons: chronic effects of phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase ... Assessment of the functional role of brain adrenergic neurons: chronic effects of phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase ... Assessment of the functional role of brain adrenergic neurons: chronic effects of phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase ... Assessment of the functional role of brain adrenergic neurons: chronic effects of phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase ...
http://jpet.aspetjournals.org/content/230/3/577/tab-article-info
NMDA-R inhibition affects cellular process formation in Tilapia Melanocytes; a model for pigmented adrenergic neurons in...
Although most studies have focused on dopaminergic neurons, it is... ... The Melanocytes share specific features with the pigmented adrenergic neurons as both cells are pigmented, contain adrenergic ... NMDA-R inhibition affects cellular process formation in Tilapia Melanocytes; a model for pigmented adrenergic neurons in ... NMDA-R Glutamate Melanocytes Neurons Parkinson's disease and Cell Models This is a preview of subscription content, log in to ...
https://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11011-013-9447-6
Adrenergic neurone blocking agents. 3. Heterocyclic analogs of guanoxan. - Semantic Scholar
Adrenergic neurone blocking agents. 3. Heterocyclic analogs of guanoxan.' by Joachim Augstein et al. ... Adrenergic neurone blocking agents. 3. Heterocyclic analogs of guanoxan.. *. Joachim Augstein, Andrew Monro, Glenn Potter, ...
https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Adrenergic-neurone-blocking-agents.-3.-Heterocyclic-Augstein-Monro/a15110cabd050d0e43ea1e7e1f4de7a04a7761bb
Adrenergic Neuron Blocking Agents - Sympatholytic Drug Cardiovascular Poison
Adrenergic Neuron Blocking Agents. Guanethidine and guanedrel interfere with the action poten- tial that triggers the release ... Home , , Modern Medical Toxicology , Adrenergic Neuron Blocking Agents - Sympatholytic Drug Cardiovascular Poison ...
https://www.brainkart.com/article/Adrenergic-Neuron-Blocking-Agents---Sympatholytic-Drug-Cardiovascular-Poison_31165/ tyrosine hydroxylase has a key role in the physiology of adrenergic neurons. - NF-κB signaling in inflammation and cancer
Tag: tyrosine hydroxylase has a key role in the physiology of adrenergic neurons. ... The results show that QA-induced lack of striatal neurons were inhibited by Z-FF-FMK […] ... activation and excitotoxicity in rats striatal neurons. degradation and phosphorylation, adjustments in the degrees of IKK, p- ...
http://healthcarecoremeasures.com/tag/tyrosine-hydroxylase-has-a-key-role-in-the-physiology-of-adrenergic-neurons/
ICD-10 Diagnosis Code T44.8X6S Underdosing of centrally-acting and adrenergic-neuron-blocking agents, sequela
Long Description: Underdosing of centrally-acting and adrenergic-neuron-blocking agents, sequela This is the 2019 version of ...
https://icdlist.com/icd-10/T44.8X6S
Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript peptide-immunoreactivity in adrenergic C1 neurons projecting to the...
The results indicate that CART peptide-immunoreactivity is expressed in C1 adrenergic neurons, some of which project to the ... The presence of this novel peptide in C1 adrenergic neurons underscores the multiplicity of putative transmitters that may be ... Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript peptide-immunoreactivity in adrenergic C1 neurons projecting to the ... and amphetamine-regulated transcript peptide-immunoreactivity in adrenergic C1 neurons projecting to the intermediolateral cell ...
http://scholarbank.nus.edu.sg/handle/10635/33470
Sleep-deprivation regulates α-2 adrenergic responses of rat hypocretin/orexin neurons.
... neurons was changed to an inhibition following sleep deprivation (SD). Here we describe that in control condition (CC), i.e ... Regulation of adrenergic receptors could represent a homeostatic response to the continuous discharge by the hcrt/orx neurons ... Sleep-Deprivation Regulates α-2 Adrenergic Responses of Rat Hypocretin/Orexin Neurons Alternate Title:Hcrt/orx Cells and Sleep ... adrenergic receptor (α(2)-AR) agonist, clonidine, had no effect on hcrt/orx neurons, whereas following 2 hours of SD (SDC), it ...
http://www.biomedsearch.com/nih/Sleep-Deprivation-Regulates-2-Adrenergic/21347440.html
Phentermine Capsules - FDA prescribing information, side effects and uses
Adrenergic Neuron Blocking Drugs. Phentermine may decrease the hypotensive effect of adrenergic neuron blocking drugs. ...
https://www.drugs.com/pro/phentermine-capsules.html Suprenza - FDA prescribing information, side effects and uses
7.4 Adrenergic Neuron Blocking Drugs. Suprenza may decrease the hypotensive effect of adrenergic neuron blocking drugs. ...
https://www.drugs.com/pro/suprenza.html
DailyMed - PHENTERMINE HYDROCHLORIDE tablet
PHENTERMINE HYDROCHLORIDE capsule
7.4 Adrenergic Neuron Blocking Drugs Phentermine may decrease the hypotensive effect of adrenergic neuron blocking drugs. ... Adrenergic neuron blocking drugs: Hypotensive effect may be decreased by phentermine. ( 7.4) ...
https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=3b44d104-a7d0-4366-9d42-63f784f3cb22 DailyMed - PHENTERMINE HYDROCHLORIDE - phentermine hydrochloride capsule
7.4 Adrenergic Neuron Blocking Drugs. Phentermine may decrease the hypotensive effect of adrenergic neuron blocking drugs. ... 7.4 Adrenergic Neuron Blocking Drugs 8 USE IN SPECIFIC POPULATIONS 8.1 Pregnancy 8.3 Nursing Mothers 8.4 Pediatric Use 8.5 ... Adrenergic neuron blocking drugs: Hypotensive effect may be decreased by phentermine. (7.4) ...
https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=2acb0c69-0089-4817-86ad-6df592c0356e
The Autonomic Nervous System Flashcards by Kiara Kembel | Brainscape
Study The Autonomic Nervous System flashcards from Kiara Kembel
https://www.brainscape.com/flashcards/the-autonomic-nervous-system-4459635/packs/6647317
Autonomic | Acetylcholine | Epinephrine
a. MAO COMT → → chiefly the outer surface of mitochondria especially in adrenergic neurons mostly in the cytoplasm. 2. whereas ... α1 adrenergic α2 adrenergic β1 adrenergic β2 adrenergic α1 adrenergic α2 adrenergic β1 adrenergic β2 adrenergic 1 2 ... these pathways are not the major fate of NA released at adrenergic neurons. or of exogenously administered catecholamine's. ... nor adrenergic blockers affect this response while DB enhances the automaticity of the SA node. its effects on TPR and BP are ...
https://www.scribd.com/document/66049354/Autonomic
- The sympathetic adrenergic neuron. (worldcat.org)
- I thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/15599627 Title: The sympathetic adrenergic neuron. (worldcat.org)
- Add tags for "The sympathetic adrenergic neuron. (worldcat.org)
- The vast majority of sweat glands in the body are innervated by sympathetic cholinergic neurons. (wikipedia.org)
- however, the sympathetic postganglionic neurons that innervate sweat glands secrete acetylcholine and hence are termed sympathetic cholinergic neurons. (wikipedia.org)
- Sweat glands, piloerector muscles, and some blood vessels are innervated by sympathetic cholinergic neurons. (wikipedia.org)
- These efferent motor neuronns of the enteric nervous system are cholinergic and adrenergic neurons. (wikipedia.org)
- The hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN) neurons that project to the spinal intermediolateral cell column and brainstem are important for the control of sympathetic outflow. (aspetjournals.org)
- The inner circular layer is innervated by both excitatory and inhibitory motor neurons, while the outer longitudinal layer is innervated by mainly excitatory neurons. (wikipedia.org)
- The book then takes a look at the role of calcium in catecholamine release from adrenergic nerve terminals and presynaptic adrenoceptors and regulation of release. (ebookmall.com)
- Kanerva, L., Hervonen, A.: SIF-cells, short adrenergic neurons and vacuolated nerve cells of the paracervical (Frankenhäuser) ganglion. (springer.com)
- This is aimed at establishing the regulatory role of NMDA-R in this cell type (melanocytes isolated form Tilapia) in a similar manner to what is observable in the mammalian neurons. (springer.com)
- Kanerva, L., Hervonen, A., Hervonen, H.: Morphological characteristics of the ontogenesis of the mammalian peripheral adrenergic nervous system with special remarks on the human fetus. (springer.com)
- tyrosine hydroxylase has a key role in the physiology of adrenergic neurons. (healthcarecoremeasures.com)
- Plays an important role in the physiology of adrenergic neurons. (abcam.com)
- The Release of Catecholamines from Adrenergic Neurons focuses on the processes involved in determining the release of catecholamines from neurons, noting the influence of alcohols, analgesics, and acids in the release. (ebookmall.com)
- The selection is a dependable reference for readers interested in the study of the release of catecholamines from adrenergic neurons. (ebookmall.com)
- The Release of Catecholamines from Adrenergic Neurons PDF (Adobe DRM) can be read on any device that can open PDF (Adobe DRM) files. (ebookmall.com)
- The PVN presympathetic neurons are important in the physiological control of blood pressure and sympathetic outflow. (aspetjournals.org)
- In addition, 50 μM phenylephrine significantly increased the firing rate of 13 labeled PVN neurons from 3.16 ± 0.42 to 5.83 ± 0.65 Hz. (aspetjournals.org)
- Many important neuromodulators, such as nitric oxide and angiotensin II, can regulate PVN presympathetic neurons by indirect effects on GABAergic transmission (Li et al. (aspetjournals.org)
- We recently demonstrated, in rat brain slices, that the usual excitation by noradrenaline (NA) of hypocretin/orexin (hcrt/orx) neurons was changed to an inhibition following sleep deprivation (SD). (biomedsearch.com)
- Adrenergic neurone blocking agents. (semanticscholar.org)
- a function that is protective in adult neurons. (springer.com)
- an adrenergic drug. (thefreedictionary.com)
- Figure 7 Effect of galectin\1 (Gal\1) on axon formation in primary cerebellar granule neuron (CGN) cultures. (researchreportone.com)