An acetic acid ester of CARNITINE that facilitates movement of ACETYL COA into the matrices of mammalian MITOCHONDRIA during the oxidation of FATTY ACIDS.
A constituent of STRIATED MUSCLE and LIVER. It is an amino acid derivative and an essential cofactor for fatty acid metabolism.
An enzyme that catalyzes the formation of O-acetylcarnitine from acetyl-CoA plus carnitine. EC 2.3.1.7.
Acetyl CoA participates in the biosynthesis of fatty acids and sterols, in the oxidation of fatty acids and in the metabolism of many amino acids. It also acts as a biological acetylating agent.
A multienzyme complex responsible for the formation of ACETYL COENZYME A from pyruvate. The enzyme components are PYRUVATE DEHYDROGENASE (LIPOAMIDE); dihydrolipoamide acetyltransferase; and LIPOAMIDE DEHYDROGENASE. Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex is subject to three types of control: inhibited by acetyl-CoA and NADH; influenced by the energy state of the cell; and inhibited when a specific serine residue in the pyruvate decarboxylase is phosphorylated by ATP. PYRUVATE DEHYDROGENASE (LIPOAMIDE)-PHOSPHATASE catalyzes reactivation of the complex. (From Concise Encyclopedia Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 3rd ed)
An enzyme that catalyzes reversibly the hydrolysis of acetyl-CoA to yield CoA and acetate. The enzyme is involved in the oxidation of fatty acids. EC 3.1.2.1.
The maturing process of SPERMATOZOA after leaving the testicular SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES. Maturation in SPERM MOTILITY and FERTILITY takes place in the EPIDIDYMIS as the sperm migrate from caput epididymis to cauda epididymis.
A derivative of ACETIC ACID that contains two CHLORINE atoms attached to its methyl group.
Derivatives of ACETIC ACID. Included under this heading are a broad variety of acid forms, salts, esters, and amides that contain the carboxymethane structure.
Acyltransferases in the inner mitochondrial membrane that catalyze the reversible transfer of acyl groups from acyl-CoA to L-carnitine and thereby mediate the transport of activated fatty acids through that membrane. EC 2.3.1.
An intermediate compound in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. In thiamine deficiency, its oxidation is retarded and it accumulates in the tissues, especially in nervous structures. (From Stedman, 26th ed)
Coenzyme A is an essential coenzyme that plays a crucial role in various metabolic processes, particularly in the transfer and activation of acetyl groups in important biochemical reactions such as fatty acid synthesis and oxidation, and the citric acid cycle.
A key intermediate in metabolism. It is an acid compound found in citrus fruits. The salts of citric acid (citrates) can be used as anticoagulants due to their calcium chelating ability.
"Esters are organic compounds that result from the reaction between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid, playing significant roles in various biological processes and often used in pharmaceutical synthesis."
The convoluted cordlike structure attached to the posterior of the TESTIS. Epididymis consists of the head (caput), the body (corpus), and the tail (cauda). A network of ducts leaving the testis joins into a common epididymal tubule proper which provides the transport, storage, and maturation of SPERMATOZOA.
A normal intermediate in the fermentation (oxidation, metabolism) of sugar. The concentrated form is used internally to prevent gastrointestinal fermentation. (From Stedman, 26th ed)
A subtype of striated muscle, attached by TENDONS to the SKELETON. Skeletal muscles are innervated and their movement can be consciously controlled. They are also called voluntary muscles.
Mitochondria in hepatocytes. As in all mitochondria, there are an outer membrane and an inner membrane, together creating two separate mitochondrial compartments: the internal matrix space and a much narrower intermembrane space. In the liver mitochondrion, an estimated 67% of the total mitochondrial proteins is located in the matrix. (From Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 2d ed, p343-4)
Mature male germ cells derived from SPERMATIDS. As spermatids move toward the lumen of the SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES, they undergo extensive structural changes including the loss of cytoplasm, condensation of CHROMATIN into the SPERM HEAD, formation of the ACROSOME cap, the SPERM MIDPIECE and the SPERM TAIL that provides motility.
Physical activity which is usually regular and done with the intention of improving or maintaining PHYSICAL FITNESS or HEALTH. Contrast with PHYSICAL EXERTION which is concerned largely with the physiologic and metabolic response to energy expenditure.

Pyruvate dehydrogenase activation in inactive muscle during and after maximal exercise in men. (1/192)

Pyruvate dehydrogenase activity (PDHa) and acetyl-group accumulation were examined in the inactive deltoid muscle in response to maximal leg exercise in men. Seven subjects completed three consecutive 30-s bouts of maximal isokinetic cycling, with 4-min rest intervals between bouts. Biopsies of the deltoid were obtained before exercise, after bouts 1 and 3, and after 15 min of rest recovery. Inactive muscle lactate (LA) and pyruvate (PYR) contents increased more than twofold (P < 0.05) after exercise (bout 3) and remained elevated after 15 min of recovery (P < 0.05). Increased PYR accumulation secondary to LA uptake by the inactive deltoid was associated with greater PDHa, which progressively increased from 0.71 +/- 0.23 mmol. min-1. kg wet wt-1 at rest to a maximum of 1.83 +/- 0.30 mmol. min-1. kg wet wt-1 after bout 3 (P < 0.05) and remained elevated after 15 min of recovery (1.63 +/- 0.24 mmol. min-1. kg wet wt-1; P < 0.05). Acetyl-CoA and acetylcarnitine accumulations were unaltered. Increased PDHa allowed and did not limit the oxidation of LA and PYR in inactive human skeletal muscle after maximal exercise.  (+info)

A review of nutrients and botanicals in the integrative management of cognitive dysfunction. (2/192)

Dementias and other severe cognitive dysfunction states pose a daunting challenge to existing medical management strategies. An integrative, early intervention approach seems warranted. Whereas, allopathic treatment options are highly limited, nutritional and botanical therapies are available which have proven degrees of efficacy and generally favorable benefit-to-risk profiles. This review covers five such therapies: phosphatidylserine (PS), acetyl-l-carnitine (ALC), vinpocetine, Ginkgo biloba extract (GbE), and Bacopa monniera (Bacopa). PS is a phospholipid enriched in the brain, validated through double-blind trials for improving memory, learning, concentration, word recall, and mood in middle-aged and elderly subjects with dementia or age-related cognitive decline. PS has an excellent benefit-to-risk profile. ALC is an energizer and metabolic cofactor which also benefits various cognitive functions in the middle-aged and elderly, but with a slightly less favorable benefit-to-risk profile. Vinpocetine, found in the lesser periwinkle Vinca minor, is an excellent vasodilator and cerebral metabolic enhancer with proven benefits for vascular-based cognitive dysfunction. Two meta-analyses of GbE demonstrate the best preparations offer limited benefits for vascular insufficiencies and even more limited benefits for Alzheimer's, while "commodity" GbE products offer little benefit, if any at all. GbE (and probably also vinpocetine) is incompatible with blood-thinning drugs. Bacopa is an Ayurvedic botanical with apparent anti-anxiety, anti-fatigue, and memory-strengthening effects. These five substances offer interesting contributions to a personalized approach for restoring cognitive function, perhaps eventually in conjunction with the judicious application of growth factors.  (+info)

Entry of [(1,2-13C2)acetyl]-L-carnitine in liver tricarboxylic acid cycle and lipogenesis: a study by 13C NMR spectroscopy in conscious, freely moving rats. (3/192)

The biochemical pathways involved in acetyl-L-carnitine utilization were investigated in conscious, freely moving rats by 13C NMR spectroscopy. Following 4-h [(1,2-13C2)acetyl]-L-carnitine infusion in fasted animals, the free carnitine levels in serum were increased, and an efflux of unlabelled acetyl-L-carnitine from tissues was observed. [(1,2-13C2)Acetyl]-L-carnitine was found to enter biosynthetic pathways in liver, and the acetyl moiety was incorporated into both cholesterol and 3-hydroxybutyrate carbon skeleton. In accord with the entry of [(1,2-13C2)acetyl]-L-carnitine in the mitochondrial acetylCoA pool associated with tricarboxylic acid cycle, the 13C label was also found in liver glutamate, glutamine, and glutathione. The analysis of the 13C-labelling pattern in 3-hydroxybutyrate and cholesterol carbon skeleton provided evidence that the acetyl-L-carnitine-derived acetylCoA pool used for ketone bodies synthesis in mitochondria was homogeneous, whereas cholesterol was synthesized from two different acetylCoA pools located in the extra- and intramitochondrial compartment, respectively. Furthermore, cholesterol molecules were shown to be preferentially synthesized by the metabolic route involving the direct channelling of CoA-activated mitochondria-derived ketone bodies into 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutarylCoA pathway, prior to equilibration of their acyl groups with extramitochondrial acetylCoA pool via acetoacetylCoA thiolase.  (+info)

The effect of aging and acetyl-L-carnitine on the pyruvate transport and oxidation in rat heart mitochondria. (4/192)

The effect of aging and acute treatment with acetyl-L-carnitine on the pyruvate transport and oxidation in rat heart mitochondria was studied. The activity of the pyruvate carrier as well as the rates of pyruvate-supported respiration were both depressed (around 40%) in heart mitochondria from aged rats, the major decrease occurring during the second year of life. Administration of acetyl-L-carnitine to aged rats almost completely restored the rates of these metabolic functions to the level of young control rats. This effect of acetyl-L-carnitine was not due to changes in the content of pyruvate carrier molecules. The heart mitochondrial content of cardiolipin, a key phospholipid necessary for mitochondrial substrate transport, was markedly reduced (approximately 40%) in aged rats. Treatment of aged rats with acetyl-L-carnitine reversed the age-associated decline in cardiolipin content. As the changes in cardiolipin content were correlated with changes in rates of pyruvate transport and oxidation, it is suggested that acetyl-L-carnitine reverses the age-related decrement in the mitochondrial pyruvate metabolism by restoring the normal cardiolipin content.  (+info)

Functional characteristics and tissue distribution pattern of organic cation transporter 2 (OCTN2), an organic cation/carnitine transporter. (5/192)

We have demonstrated in the present study that novel organic cation transporter (OCTN) 2 is a transporter for organic cations as well as carnitine. OCTN2 transports organic cations without involving Na(+), but it transports carnitine only in the presence of Na(+). The ability to transport organic cations and carnitine is demonstrable with human, rat, and mouse OCTN2s. Na(+) does not influence the affinity of OCTN2 for organic cations, but it increases the affinity severalfold for carnitine. The short-chain acyl esters of carnitine are also transported by OCTN2. Two mutations, M352R and P478L, in human OCTN2 are associated with loss of transport function, but the protein expression of these mutants is comparable to that of the wild-type human OCTN2. In situ hybridization in the rat shows that OCTN2 is expressed in the proximal and distal tubules and in the glomeruli in the kidney, in the myocardium, valves, and arterioles in the heart, in the labyrinthine layer of the placenta, and in the cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum in the brain. This is the first report that OCTN2 is a Na(+)-independent organic cation transporter as well as a Na(+)-dependent carnitine transporter and that OCTN2 is expressed not only in the heart, kidney, and placenta but also in the brain.  (+info)

Skeletal muscle metabolism during high-intensity sprint exercise is unaffected by dichloroacetate or acetate infusion. (6/192)

This study investigated whether increased provision of oxidative substrate would reduce the reliance on nonoxidative ATP production and/or increase power output during maximal sprint exercise. The provision of oxidative substrate was increased at the onset of exercise by the infusion of acetate (AC; increased resting acetylcarnitine) or dichloroacetate [DCA; increased acetylcarnitine and greater activation of pyruvate dehydrogeanse (PDH-a)]. Subjects performed 10 s of maximal cycling on an isokinetic ergometer on three occasions after either DCA, AC, or saline (Con) infusion. Resting PDH-a with DCA was increased significantly over AC and Con trials (3.58 +/- 0.4 vs. 0.52 +/- 0.1 and 0.74 +/- 0.1 mmol. kg wet muscle(-1). min(-1)). DCA and AC significantly increased resting acetyl-CoA (35.2 +/- 4.4 and 22.7 +/- 2.9 vs. 10.2 +/- 1.3 micromol/kg dry muscle) and acetylcarnitine (12.9 +/- 1.4 and 11.0 +/- 1.0 vs. 3.3 +/- 0.6 mmol/kg dry muscle) over Con. Resting contents of phosphocreatine, lactate, ATP, and glycolytic intermediates were not different among trials. Average power output and total work done were not different among the three 10-s sprint trials. Postexercise, PDH-a in AC and Con trials had increased significantly but was still significantly lower than in DCA trial. Acetyl-CoA did not increase in any trial, whereas acetylcarnitine increased significantly only in DCA. Exercise caused identical decreases in ATP and phosphocreatine and identical increases in lactate, pyruvate, and glycolytic intermediates in all trials. These data suggest that there is an inability to utilize extra oxidative substrate (from either stored acetylcarnitine or increased PDH-a) during exercise at this intensity, possibly because of O(2) and/or metabolic limitations.  (+info)

Regulation of skeletal muscle glycogen phosphorylase and PDH during maximal intermittent exercise. (7/192)

The time course for the activation of glycogen phosphorylase (Phos) and pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) and their allosteric regulators was determined in human skeletal muscle during repeated bouts of maximal exercise. Six subjects completed three 30-s bouts of maximal isokinetic cycling separated by 4-min recovery periods. Muscle biopsies were taken at rest and at 6, 15, and 30 s of exercise during bouts 1 and 3. Phos was rapidly activated within the first 6 s of bout 1 from 12% at rest to 47% at 6 s. The activation of PDH increased from 14% at rest to 48% at 6 s and 95% at 15 s of bout 1. Phos reverted back to basal values at the end of the first bout, whereas PDH remained fully activated. In contrast, in the third bout, PDH was 42% at rest and was activated more rapidly and was nearly completely activated by 6 s, whereas Phos remained at basal levels (range 14-20%). Lactate accumulation was marked in the first bout and increased progressively from 2.7 to 76.1 mmol/kg dry wt with no further increase in bout 3. Glycogen utilization was also marked in the first bout and was negligible in bout 3. The rapid activation of Phos and slower activation of PDH in bout 1 was probably due to Ca(2+) release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Lactate accumulation appeared to be due to an imbalance of the relative activities of Phos and PDH. The increase in H(+) concentration may have served to reduce pyruvate production by inhibiting Phos transformation and may have simultaneously activated PDH in the third bout such that there was a better matching between pyruvate production and oxidation and minimal lactate accumulation. As each bout progressed and with successive bouts, there was a decreasing ability to stimulate substrate phosphorylation through phosphocreatine hydrolysis and glycolysis and a shift toward greater reliance on oxidative phosphorylation.  (+info)

Acetyl-L-carnitine. (8/192)

Acetyl-L-carnitine (ALC) is an ester of the trimethylated amino acid, L-carnitine, and is synthesized in the human brain, liver, and kidney by the enzyme ALC-transferase. Acetyl-L-carnitine facilitates the uptake of acetyl CoA into the mitochondria during fatty acid oxidation, enhances acetylcholine production, and stimulates protein and membrane phospholipid synthesis. ALC, similar in structure to acetylcholine, also exerts a cholinomimetic effect. Studies have shown that ALC may be of benefit in treating Alzheimer's dementia, depression in the elderly, HIV infection, diabetic neuropathies, ischemia and reperfusion of the brain, and cognitive impairment of alcoholism.  (+info)

Acetyl-L-carnitine, also known as ALCAR, is a form of the amino acid carnitine. It is a naturally occurring substance in the body that plays a crucial role in energy production in cells, particularly within mitochondria, the "powerhouses" of the cell.

Acetyl-L-carnitine is involved in the transport of fatty acids into the mitochondria, where they can be broken down to produce energy. It also functions as an antioxidant, helping to protect cells from damage caused by free radicals.

This compound has been studied for its potential benefits in various medical conditions, including neurological disorders, cardiovascular diseases, and liver diseases. Some research suggests that Acetyl-L-carnitine may help improve cognitive function, reduce fatigue, and alleviate pain. However, more studies are needed to confirm these findings and establish the optimal dosage and safety profiles for different medical conditions.

It is important to note that while Acetyl-L-carnitine is available as a dietary supplement, its use should be discussed with a healthcare provider before starting any new supplement regimen, especially if you have a medical condition or are taking medication.

Carnitine is a naturally occurring substance in the body that plays a crucial role in energy production. It transports long-chain fatty acids into the mitochondria, where they can be broken down to produce energy. Carnitine is also available as a dietary supplement and is often used to treat or prevent carnitine deficiency.

The medical definition of Carnitine is:

"A quaternary ammonium compound that occurs naturally in animal tissues, especially in muscle, heart, brain, and liver. It is essential for the transport of long-chain fatty acids into the mitochondria, where they can be oxidized to produce energy. Carnitine also functions as an antioxidant and has been studied as a potential treatment for various conditions, including heart disease, diabetes, and kidney disease."

Carnitine is also known as L-carnitine or levocarnitine. It can be found in foods such as red meat, dairy products, fish, poultry, and tempeh. In the body, carnitine is synthesized from the amino acids lysine and methionine with the help of vitamin C and iron. Some people may have a deficiency in carnitine due to genetic factors, malnutrition, or certain medical conditions, such as kidney disease or liver disease. In these cases, supplementation may be necessary to prevent or treat symptoms of carnitine deficiency.

Carnitine O-acetyltransferase (COAT) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the transport and metabolism of fatty acids within cells. It is also known as carnitine palmitoyltransferase I (CPT I).

The primary function of COAT is to catalyze the transfer of an acetyl group from acetyl-CoA to carnitine, forming acetylcarnitine and free CoA. This reaction is essential for the entry of long-chain fatty acids into the mitochondrial matrix, where they undergo beta-oxidation to produce energy in the form of ATP.

COAT is located on the outer membrane of the mitochondria and functions as a rate-limiting enzyme in fatty acid oxidation. Its activity can be inhibited by malonyl-CoA, which is an intermediate in fatty acid synthesis. This inhibition helps regulate the balance between fatty acid oxidation and synthesis, ensuring that cells have enough energy while preventing excessive accumulation of lipids.

Deficiencies or mutations in COAT can lead to various metabolic disorders, such as carnitine palmitoyltransferase I deficiency (CPT I deficiency), which may cause symptoms like muscle weakness, hypoglycemia, and cardiomyopathy. Proper diagnosis and management of these conditions often involve dietary modifications, supplementation with carnitine, and avoidance of fasting to prevent metabolic crises.

Acetyl Coenzyme A, often abbreviated as Acetyl-CoA, is a key molecule in metabolism, particularly in the breakdown and oxidation of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to produce energy. It is a coenzyme that plays a central role in the cellular process of transforming the energy stored in the chemical bonds of nutrients into a form that the cell can use.

Acetyl-CoA consists of an acetyl group (two carbon atoms) linked to coenzyme A, a complex organic molecule. This linkage is facilitated by an enzyme called acetyltransferase. Once formed, Acetyl-CoA can enter various metabolic pathways. In the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle), Acetyl-CoA is further oxidized to release energy in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH2, which are used in other cellular processes. Additionally, Acetyl-CoA is involved in the biosynthesis of fatty acids, cholesterol, and certain amino acids.

In summary, Acetyl Coenzyme A is a vital molecule in metabolism that connects various biochemical pathways for energy production and biosynthesis.

The Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex (PDC) is a multi-enzyme complex that plays a crucial role in cellular energy metabolism. It is located in the mitochondrial matrix and catalyzes the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate, the end product of glycolysis, into acetyl-CoA. This reaction links the carbohydrate metabolism (glycolysis) to the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle), enabling the continuation of energy production in the form of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.

The Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex consists of three main enzymes: pyruvate dehydrogenase (E1), dihydrolipoyl transacetylase (E2), and dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase (E3). Additionally, two regulatory enzymes are associated with the complex: pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK) and pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase (PDP). These regulatory enzymes control the activity of the PDC through reversible phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, allowing the cell to adapt to varying energy demands and substrate availability.

Deficiencies or dysfunctions in the Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex can lead to various metabolic disorders, such as pyruvate dehydrogenase deficiency, which may result in neurological impairments and lactic acidosis due to disrupted energy metabolism.

Acetyl-CoA hydrolase is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of Acetyl-CoA into acetate and coenzyme A (CoA). The chemical reaction it catalyzes is as follows:

Acetyl-CoA + H2O → acetate + CoA-SH

This enzyme plays a role in the metabolism of fatty acids, cholesterol, and other compounds. It is also involved in the detoxification of certain drugs and chemicals that are conjugated with Acetyl-CoA before being excreted from the body.

Acetyl-CoA hydrolase is found in various tissues, including the liver, kidney, and intestine. It belongs to the family of hydrolases, specifically those acting on thioester bonds. The gene that encodes this enzyme is called "ACOT" (Acyl-CoA thioesterase). Mutations in this gene have been associated with neurological disorders and other health conditions.

Sperm maturation is the process by which spermatids, immature sperm cells produced in meiosis, transform into fully developed spermatozoa capable of fertilization. This complex process occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes and includes several stages:

1. **Golfi formation:** The first step involves the spermatids reorganizing their cytoplasm and forming a cap-like structure called the acrosome, which contains enzymes that help the sperm penetrate the egg's outer layers during fertilization.
2. **Flagellum development:** The spermatid also develops a tail (flagellum), enabling it to move independently. This is achieved through the assembly of microtubules and other associated proteins.
3. **Nuclear condensation and elongation:** The sperm's DNA undergoes significant compaction, making the nucleus smaller and more compact. Concurrently, the nucleus elongates and aligns with the flagellum.
4. **Mitochondrial positioning:** Mitochondria, which provide energy for sperm motility, migrate to the midpiece of the sperm, close to the base of the flagellum.
5. **Chromatin packaging:** Histones, proteins that help package DNA in non-sperm cells, are replaced by transition proteins and then protamines, which further compact and protect the sperm's DNA.
6. **Sperm release (spermiation):** The mature sperm is finally released from the supporting Sertoli cells into the lumen of the seminiferous tubule, where it mixes with fluid secreted by the testicular tissue to form seminal plasma.

This entire process takes approximately 64 days in humans.

Dichloroacetic acid (DCA) is a chemical compound with the formula CCl2CO2H. It is a colorless liquid that is used as a reagent in organic synthesis and as a laboratory research tool. DCA is also a byproduct of water chlorination and has been found to occur in low levels in some chlorinated drinking waters.

In the medical field, DCA has been studied for its potential anticancer effects. Preclinical studies have suggested that DCA may be able to selectively kill cancer cells by inhibiting the activity of certain enzymes involved in cell metabolism. However, more research is needed to determine whether DCA is safe and effective as a cancer treatment in humans.

It is important to note that DCA is not currently approved by regulatory agencies such as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use as a cancer treatment. It should only be used in clinical trials or under the supervision of a qualified healthcare professional.

Acetates, in a medical context, most commonly refer to compounds that contain the acetate group, which is an functional group consisting of a carbon atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms and an oxygen atom (-COO-). An example of an acetate is sodium acetate (CH3COONa), which is a salt formed from acetic acid (CH3COOH) and is often used as a buffering agent in medical solutions.

Acetates can also refer to a group of medications that contain acetate as an active ingredient, such as magnesium acetate, which is used as a laxative, or calcium acetate, which is used to treat high levels of phosphate in the blood.

In addition, acetates can also refer to a process called acetylation, which is the addition of an acetyl group (-COCH3) to a molecule. This process can be important in the metabolism and regulation of various substances within the body.

Carnitine acyltransferases are a group of enzymes that play a crucial role in the transport and metabolism of fatty acids within cells. These enzymes are responsible for transferring acyl groups from acyl-CoAs to carnitine, forming acylcarnitines, which can then be transported across the mitochondrial membrane and into the mitochondrial matrix.

Once inside the matrix, the acyl groups can be released from carnitine and oxidized in the beta-oxidation pathway to produce energy in the form of ATP. There are three main types of carnitine acyltransferases: Carnitine palmitoyltransferase I (CPT I), located on the outer mitochondrial membrane, which activates long-chain fatty acids for transport into the mitochondria; Carnitine palmitoyltransferase II (CPT II), located on the inner mitochondrial membrane, which reconverts acylcarnitines back to acyl-CoAs for oxidation; and carnitine octanoyltransferase (CRAT), which is involved in the metabolism of medium-chain fatty acids.

Deficiencies in these enzymes can lead to various metabolic disorders, such as CPT II deficiency, which can cause muscle weakness, hypoglycemia, and cardiomyopathy. Proper regulation of carnitine acyltransferases is essential for maintaining healthy fatty acid metabolism and overall cellular function.

Pyruvic acid, also known as 2-oxopropanoic acid, is a key metabolic intermediate in both anaerobic and aerobic respiration. It is a carboxylic acid with a ketone functional group, making it a β-ketoacid. In the cytosol, pyruvate is produced from glucose during glycolysis, where it serves as a crucial link between the anaerobic breakdown of glucose and the aerobic process of cellular respiration in the mitochondria.

During low oxygen availability or high energy demands, pyruvate can be converted into lactate through anaerobic glycolysis, allowing for the continued production of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) without oxygen. In the presence of adequate oxygen and functional mitochondria, pyruvate is transported into the mitochondrial matrix where it undergoes oxidative decarboxylation to form acetyl-CoA by the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC). This reaction also involves the reduction of NAD+ to NADH and the release of CO2. Acetyl-CoA then enters the citric acid cycle, where it is further oxidized to produce energy in the form of ATP, NADH, FADH2, and GTP (guanosine triphosphate) through a series of enzymatic reactions.

In summary, pyruvic acid is a vital metabolic intermediate that plays a significant role in energy production pathways, connecting glycolysis to both anaerobic and aerobic respiration.

Coenzyme A, often abbreviated as CoA or sometimes holo-CoA, is a coenzyme that plays a crucial role in several important chemical reactions in the body, particularly in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fatty acids, and amino acids. It is composed of a pantothenic acid (vitamin B5) derivative called pantothenate, an adenosine diphosphate (ADP) molecule, and a terminal phosphate group.

Coenzyme A functions as a carrier molecule for acetyl groups, which are formed during the breakdown of carbohydrates, fatty acids, and some amino acids. The acetyl group is attached to the sulfur atom in CoA, forming acetyl-CoA, which can then be used as a building block for various biochemical pathways, such as the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) and fatty acid synthesis.

In summary, Coenzyme A is a vital coenzyme that helps facilitate essential metabolic processes by carrying and transferring acetyl groups in the body.

Citric acid is a weak organic acid that is widely found in nature, particularly in citrus fruits such as lemons and oranges. Its chemical formula is C6H8O7, and it exists in a form known as a tribasic acid, which means it can donate three protons in chemical reactions.

In the context of medical definitions, citric acid may be mentioned in relation to various physiological processes, such as its role in the Krebs cycle (also known as the citric acid cycle), which is a key metabolic pathway involved in energy production within cells. Additionally, citric acid may be used in certain medical treatments or therapies, such as in the form of citrate salts to help prevent the formation of kidney stones. It may also be used as a flavoring agent or preservative in various pharmaceutical preparations.

Esters are organic compounds that are formed by the reaction between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid. They are widely found in nature and are used in various industries, including the production of perfumes, flavors, and pharmaceuticals. In the context of medical definitions, esters may be mentioned in relation to their use as excipients in medications or in discussions of organic chemistry and biochemistry. Esters can also be found in various natural substances such as fats and oils, which are triesters of glycerol and fatty acids.

The epididymis is a tightly coiled tube located on the upper and posterior portion of the testicle that serves as the site for sperm maturation and storage. It is an essential component of the male reproductive system. The epididymis can be divided into three parts: the head (where newly produced sperm enter from the testicle), the body, and the tail (where mature sperm exit and are stored). Any abnormalities or inflammation in the epididymis may lead to discomfort, pain, or infertility.

Lactic acid, also known as 2-hydroxypropanoic acid, is a chemical compound that plays a significant role in various biological processes. In the context of medicine and biochemistry, lactic acid is primarily discussed in relation to muscle metabolism and cellular energy production. Here's a medical definition for lactic acid:

Lactic acid (LA): A carboxylic acid with the molecular formula C3H6O3 that plays a crucial role in anaerobic respiration, particularly during strenuous exercise or conditions of reduced oxygen availability. It is formed through the conversion of pyruvate, catalyzed by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), when there is insufficient oxygen to complete the final step of cellular respiration in the Krebs cycle. The accumulation of lactic acid can lead to acidosis and muscle fatigue. Additionally, lactic acid serves as a vital intermediary in various metabolic pathways and is involved in the production of glucose through gluconeogenesis in the liver.

Skeletal muscle, also known as striated or voluntary muscle, is a type of muscle that is attached to bones by tendons or aponeuroses and functions to produce movements and support the posture of the body. It is composed of long, multinucleated fibers that are arranged in parallel bundles and are characterized by alternating light and dark bands, giving them a striped appearance under a microscope. Skeletal muscle is under voluntary control, meaning that it is consciously activated through signals from the nervous system. It is responsible for activities such as walking, running, jumping, and lifting objects.

I'd be happy to help! However, I believe there might be a slight misunderstanding in your question. Mitochondria are organelles found in the cells of all complex living organisms, including humans, while the liver is a large, solid organ located in the upper right portion of the abdomen. They don't have a medical definition together. I can certainly provide you with separate definitions for each:

1. Mitochondria: These are double-membrane-bound cellular organelles that generate most of the chemical energy needed to power the cell's biochemical reactions. Commonly known as the "powerhouse of the cell," mitochondria convert organic substrates, such as glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids, into adenosine triphosphate (ATP) through a process called oxidative phosphorylation. Mitochondria are dynamic structures that can change their shape, size, and number through fission (division) and fusion (merging) processes. They play essential roles in various cellular functions, including calcium signaling, apoptosis (programmed cell death), and the regulation of cellular metabolism.

2. Liver: The liver is a large, lobulated organ that lies mainly in the upper right portion of the abdominal cavity, just below the diaphragm. It plays a crucial role in various physiological functions, such as detoxification, protein synthesis, metabolism, and nutrient storage. The liver is responsible for removing toxins from the bloodstream, producing bile to aid in digestion, regulating glucose levels, synthesizing plasma proteins, and storing glycogen, vitamins, and minerals. It also contributes to the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and amino acids, helping maintain energy homeostasis in the body.

I hope this clarifies any confusion! If you have any further questions or need more information, please don't hesitate to ask.

Spermatozoa are the male reproductive cells, or gametes, that are produced in the testes. They are microscopic, flagellated (tail-equipped) cells that are highly specialized for fertilization. A spermatozoon consists of a head, neck, and tail. The head contains the genetic material within the nucleus, covered by a cap-like structure called the acrosome which contains enzymes to help the sperm penetrate the female's egg (ovum). The long, thin tail propels the sperm forward through fluid, such as semen, enabling its journey towards the egg for fertilization.

Exercise is defined in the medical context as a physical activity that is planned, structured, and repetitive, with the primary aim of improving or maintaining one or more components of physical fitness. Components of physical fitness include cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, and body composition. Exercise can be classified based on its intensity (light, moderate, or vigorous), duration (length of time), and frequency (number of times per week). Common types of exercise include aerobic exercises, such as walking, jogging, cycling, and swimming; resistance exercises, such as weightlifting; flexibility exercises, such as stretching; and balance exercises. Exercise has numerous health benefits, including reducing the risk of chronic diseases, improving mental health, and enhancing overall quality of life.

... is broken down in the blood by plasma esterases to carnitine which is used by the body to transport fatty acids ... Acetylcarnitine is the most abundant naturally occurring derivative and is formed in the reaction: acetyl-CoA + carnitine ⇌ CoA ... Rueda JR, Guillén V, Ballesteros J, Tejada MI, Solà I (May 2015). "L-acetylcarnitine for treating fragile X syndrome". The ... acetylcarnitine where the acetyl group displaces the hydrogen atom in the central hydroxyl group of carnitine. Coenzyme A (CoA ...
March 2013). "L-acetylcarnitine causes rapid antidepressant effects through the epigenetic induction of mGlu2 receptors". ...
The SkQ derivatives with acetylcarnitine (SkQ2M) tributyl ammonium (SkQ4) as lipophilic cations have weak penetrating ...
Acetylcarnitine Gamma-butyrobetaine dioxygenase Glycine Propionyl-l-Carnitine (GPLC) Meldonium Systemic primary carnitine ... Carnitine is involved in transporting fatty acids across the mitochondrial membrane, by forming a long chain acetylcarnitine ...
Acetylcarnitine Acetylcysteine N-Acetylserotonin Hoffer LJ, Sher K, Saboohi F, Bernier P, MacNamara EM, Rinzler D (November ...
If either acetyl-CoA or acetylcarnitine binds to CRAT, a water molecule may fill the other binding site and act as an acetyl ... Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are acetyl-CoA and carnitine, whereas its two products are CoA and O-acetylcarnitine. ... The deprotonated group is now free to attack the acetyl group of acetyl-CoA or acetylcarnitine at its carbonyl site. The ... Other names in common use include acetyl-CoA-carnitine O-acetyltransferase, acetylcarnitine transferase, carnitine acetyl ...
Carnitine or its precursor acetylcarnitine are sometimes added to the mix for their supposed ability to enhance exercise ...
... by using the enzyme carnitine acetyltransferase and 14C-labelled acetyl-coenzyme A to give labelled acetylcarnitine for ...
... acyltransferases such as CROT can catalyze the acetyl group transfer from acetylcarnitine to coenzyme A. Rescue experiments ...
The molecular formula C9H17NO4 (molar mass: 203.23 g/mol, exact mass: 203.1158 u) may refer to: Acetylcarnitine (ALC) ...
... acetylcarnitine MeSH D02.092.877.883.099.700 - palmitoylcarnitine MeSH D02.092.877.883.111 - cetrimonium compounds MeSH D02.092 ...
1987 Army Legal Corps Atlantic Lacrosse Conference Australian Lutheran College Acetylcarnitine, an acetylated form of L- ...
Central nervous system stimulant Acetylcarnitine, also known as Acetyl-L-carnitine - Form of L-carnitine (ALCAR) Meclofenoxate ...
N06BX07 Oxiracetam N06BX08 Pirisudanol N06BX09 Linopirdine N06BX10 Nizofenone N06BX11 Aniracetam N06BX12 Acetylcarnitine ...
Acetylcarnitine is broken down in the blood by plasma esterases to carnitine which is used by the body to transport fatty acids ... Acetylcarnitine is the most abundant naturally occurring derivative and is formed in the reaction: acetyl-CoA + carnitine ⇌ CoA ... Rueda JR, Guillén V, Ballesteros J, Tejada MI, Solà I (May 2015). "L-acetylcarnitine for treating fragile X syndrome". The ... acetylcarnitine where the acetyl group displaces the hydrogen atom in the central hydroxyl group of carnitine. Coenzyme A (CoA ...
NFH ACETYLCARNITINE SAP:. Helps to support cognitive function in the elderly.. Helps reduce fatigue.. Helps optimize cellular ... Be the first to review "Acetylcarnitine SAP" Cancel reply. Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked ...
... Acetyl L-Carnitine Background and Benefits. Acetyl L-carnitine is an amino acid that is ...
title = "Acetylcarnitine and cholinergic receptors",. abstract = "Acetylcarnitine, a naturally occurring compound found in high ... Acetylcarnitine-conformational analysis, comparison to cholinergic receptor patterns. *Cholinergic activity-acetylcarnitine, ... Acetylcarnitine and cholinergic receptors. / Reed, K. W.; Murray, W. J.; Roche, E. B. In: Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, ... Acetylcarnitine and cholinergic receptors. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 1980 Sep;69(9):1065-1068. doi: 10.1002/jps. ...
The effect of exercise on intramyocellular acetylcarnitine (AcCtn) concentration in adult growth hormone deficiency (GHD) ... The effect of exercise on intramyocellular acetylcarnitine (AcCtn) concentration in adult growth hormone deficiency (GHD). ... resulting in the increased formation of intramyocellular acetylcarnitine (AcCtn). We hypothesized that reduced substrate ...
Acetylcarnitine / blood * Acetylcarnitine / physiology* * Amino Acids / metabolism * Animals * Brain / metabolism* * Glucose / ...
... acetylcarnitine accumulation (p , 0.05) and glucose-derived mitochondrial ATP production (p , 0.01) and increased pyruvate ...
... acetylcarnitine production by 37% and decreased the acetylcarnitine pool size by 40%. CONCLUSIONS: Hyperpolarized (13)C ... In the perfused heart, [1-(13)C]acetylcarnitine saturation reduced the [1-(13)C]citrate and [5-(13)C]glutamate resonances by 63 ... METHODS AND RESULTS: Ex vivo, following hyperpolarized [2-(13)C]pyruvate infusion, the [1-(13)C]acetylcarnitine resonance was ... Cycling of acetyl-CoA through acetylcarnitine appears key to matching instantaneous acetyl-CoA supply with metabolic demand, ...
2009) Mitochondria in the elderly: is acetylcarnitine a rejuvenator? Adv Drug Deliv Rev 61:1332-1342. doi:10.1016/j.addr. ...
The compound L-acetylcarnitine has shown efficacy as a therapeutic agent in human neuropathic disorders, including painful ... Gereau and his group have determined that L-acetylcarnitine functions as an acetyl donor that promotes acetylation of the NF-κB ... Preclinical investigation of L-acetylcarnitines analgesic effects has shown that it acts in part by regulating the expression ... has shown that inhibitors of this transcription factor reduce mGlu2 expression and block the ability of L-acetylcarnitine to ...
Acetylcarnitine Deficiency Acholinesterasemia Acid Phosphatase Deficiency Acute Reversible Leukoencephalopathy with Increased ...
Patients will have a high ratio of palmitoylcarnitine + oleocarnitine/acetylcarnitine. Findings of electrodiagnostic studies, ...
N-Acetyl-Carnitine. 30mg. †. Co-Enzyme Q10. 10mg. †. Red Grape Skin Extract 30% polyphenols. 10mg. †. ...
l-acetylcarnitine in depressed elderly subjects. A cross-over study vs placebo. Drugs Exp Clin Res. 1987;13:417-423.. 75. ... Evaluation of the effects of l-acetylcarnitine on senile patients suffering from depression. Drugs Exp Clin Res. 1990;16:101- ... Evaluation of the effects of l-acetylcarnitine on senile patients suffering from depression. Drugs Exp Clin Res. 1990;16:101- ...
Acetylcarnitine. CAR 2:0. ME544928. -. C02571. -. -. Acetylcholine. Acetylcholine. ME544884. -. C01996. -. -. Adenosine. ...
7, Table 1). Furthermore, TMAO treatment showed limited or no changes to choline and betaine, while acetylcarnitine appeared to ...
Normally I get rash from Acetyl-Carnitine (a known side).. After read carnitine/TMAO warning, I started using transdermal (the ...
Effects of L-carnitine and L-acetyl-carnitine on testicular sperm motility and chromatin quality. Iranian Journal of ...
Carnitine and acetylcarnitine were measured in the breastmilk of 14 lactating women who were 1 to 10 months postpartum and not ... Levocarnitine and acetylcarnitine are normal components of breastmilk, and are transported into milk via organic cation ... Immediately postpartum, the average milk carnitine concentration was 12.6 mg/L and acetylcarnitine was 5.7 mg/L. From 2 months ... About one-third to one-half of the carnitine was free carnitine and the remainder was acetylcarnitine. Breastmilk ...
Acetylcarnitine may be a useful for treatment of male infertility caused by low quantities of immobile sperm. ...
To test whether acetylcarnitine supplementation improved mitochondrial function in old rats, we fed an acetylcarnitine- ... Acetylcarnitine is a naturally-occurring compound used to shuttle fatty acids to the mitochondria, where they are converted to ... Acetylcarnitine caused certain mitochondrial membrane properties in the old animals to improve to the level observed in young ... Age-Related Mitochondrial Decay Increases Oxidative Stress in the Aging Rat Heart: Improvement by Acetylcarnitine and/or (R)-A- ...
You ask if Acetyl Carnitine is the same as L Carnitine. They are not. Carnitine is used for fat removal and to help those ...
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De Falco FA, DAngelo E, Grimaldi G, Scafuro F, Sachez F, Caruso G. [Effect of the chronic treatment with L-acetylcarnitine in ...
Behaviour and Degenerative Changes in the Basal Forebrain Systems of Aged Rats (12 Months Old) after Levo-Acetyl-Carnitine ...
De Falco FA, DAngelo E, Grimaldi G, Scafuro F, Sachez F, Caruso G. [Effect of the chronic treatment with L-acetylcarnitine in ...
Endura N-Acetyl Carnitine: To help metabolise fats for energy production. This is important for an Ironman event because over ...
The best form of body energy (ATP) is from oils (lipids). I often take Acetyl-Carnitine to facilitate that oil energy source, ...
Ames BN, Liu J. Delaying the mitochondrial decay of aging with acetylcarnitine. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2004 Nov;1033:108-16. ... Salvioli G, Neri M. L-acetylcarnitine treatment of mental decline in the elderly. Drugs Exp Clin Res. 1994;20(4):169-76. ...
  • Acetylcarnitine is broken down in the blood by plasma esterases to carnitine which is used by the body to transport fatty acids into the mitochondria for breakdown. (wikipedia.org)
  • Acetylcarnitine is the most abundant naturally occurring derivative and is formed in the reaction: acetyl-CoA + carnitine ⇌ CoA + acetylcarnitine where the acetyl group displaces the hydrogen atom in the central hydroxyl group of carnitine. (wikipedia.org)
  • BACKGROUND: Carnitine acetyltransferase catalyzes the reversible conversion of acetyl-coenzyme A (CoA) into acetylcarnitine. (ox.ac.uk)
  • In a study that followed 37 healthy, nonsmoking mothers who were not taking carnitine as a supplement, carnitine and acetylcarnitine in breastmilk were measured over time. (drugs.com)
  • Immediately postpartum, the average milk carnitine concentration was 12.6 mg/L and acetylcarnitine was 5.7 mg/L. From 2 months postpartum to 12 months postpartum, carnitine and acetylcarnitine milk concentrations were lower, in the range of 6.1 to 8.9 mg/L for carnitine and 1.2 to 2 mg/L for acetylcarnitine. (drugs.com)
  • About one-third to one-half of the carnitine was free carnitine and the remainder was acetylcarnitine. (drugs.com)
  • Carnitine and acetylcarnitine were measured in the breastmilk of 14 lactating women who were 1 to 10 months postpartum and not taking carnitine as a supplement. (drugs.com)
  • The cycling of acetyl-coenzyme A through acetylcarnitine buffers cardiac substrate supply: a hyperpolarized 13C magnetic resonance study. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Cycling of acetyl-CoA through acetylcarnitine appears key to matching instantaneous acetyl-CoA supply with metabolic demand, thereby helping to balance myocardial substrate supply and contractile function. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Acetylcarnitine, a naturally occurring compound found in high concentration in heart and skeletal muscle of vertebrates, bears structural resemblance to acetylcholine, and studies have shown that it has slight cholinergic properties. (nebraska.edu)
  • Mitochondria in the elderly: Is acetylcarnitine a rejuvenator? (aksci.com)
  • NFH ACETYLCARNITINE SAP: Helps to support cognitive function in the elderly. (yourgoodhealth.com)
  • These studies partially explain the low cholinergic activity found for acetylcarnitine and the higher activity of (S)‐acetylcarnitine compared to the R‐isomer. (nebraska.edu)
  • The bioavailability of levocarnitine is less than 20%, but acetylcarnitine and propionlycarnitine may be higher. (drugs.com)
  • Acetylcarnitine is the most abundant naturally occurring derivative and is formed in the reaction: acetyl-CoA + carnitine ⇌ CoA + acetylcarnitine where the acetyl group displaces the hydrogen atom in the central hydroxyl group of carnitine. (wikipedia.org)
  • The increased rate of acetylcarnitine production following feeding is consistent with its reported role as a store of acetyl moieties should they be abundant in a post-prandial state, into which ketone oxidation is directed. (bmj.com)
  • Acetyl-CoA can go on to enter the TCA cycle, or it can react with L-carnitine to form L-acetylcarnitine in a reaction catalyzed by Carnitine O-acetyltransferase. (smpdb.ca)
  • This reaction can occur in both directions, and L-acetylcarnitine and CoA can react to form acetyl-CoA and L-carnitine in certain circumstances. (smpdb.ca)