• Currently, 18 subtypes have been reported: 12 are type I (dysfunctional lipid-linked oligosaccharide precursor synthesis), and 6 are type II (dysfunctional trimming/processing of the protein-bound oligosaccharide), including leukocyte adhesion deficiency II (CDG-IIc). (medscape.com)
  • Leukocyte extravasation (also commonly known as leukocyte adhesion cascade or diapedesis - the passage of cells through the intact vessel wall) is the movement of leukocytes out of the circulatory system and towards the site of tissue damage or infection. (wikipedia.org)
  • Circulating leukocytes are localised towards the site of injury or infection due to the presence of chemokines. (wikipedia.org)
  • Once in the interstitial fluid, leukocytes migrate along a chemotactic gradient towards the site of injury or infection. (wikipedia.org)
  • An abnormal leukocyte count can be a sign of an underlying infection or disease. (indorad.com)
  • When an infection is detected, the leukocytes are activated and quickly multiply to produce more cells to fight off the infection. (indorad.com)
  • On the other hand, a high leukocyte count, also known as leukocytosis, can be a sign of an infection, inflammation, or other medical conditions, such as leukemia or lymphoma. (indorad.com)
  • Leukocytes or white blood cells (WBCs) are immune cells that fight infection, neoplasms and other inflammatory conditions, and mediate allergic responses. (loinc.org)
  • Both elevated and low leukocyte counts can be markers of infection and malignancy, and low leukocyte counts are associated with a variety of primary and secondary immunodeficiencies, depending on the WBC type(s) that are out of range. (loinc.org)
  • A low white blood cell count may make a person more likely to contract an infection. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • White blood cells help fight infection in the body. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • A person may experience a short-term drop in their white blood cell count due to infection, drug interaction, or other causes. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • A hallmark of leukocyte adhesion deficiency type 1 is the lack of pus formation at the sites of infection. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Signaling through the β2 integrins triggers the transport of the attached leukocyte across the blood vessel wall to the site of infection or injury. (medlineplus.gov)
  • However, higher levels of leukocytes in urine without nitrates could indicate the presence of a disease or infection-it could be a urinary tract infection , or kidney stones, hypertension, diabetes, or other kidney diseases. (doctorshealthpress.com)
  • A urinary tract infection (UTI) is a common cause of leukocytes in urine, as is bladder irritation (or cystitis). (doctorshealthpress.com)
  • A kidney infection (pyelonephritis) can lead to higher rates of white blood cells in urine. (doctorshealthpress.com)
  • But if these elevated levels of white blood cells are a frequent issue, then visit your doctor to confirm whether it's a bladder infection or something else. (doctorshealthpress.com)
  • When extra urine remains in the bladder for too long, a bacterial infection can result, and with it, you'll also see higher levels of white blood cells in urine. (doctorshealthpress.com)
  • The white blood cell count (the number of cells in a given amount of blood) in someone with an infection often is higher than usual because more WBCs are being made or are entering the bloodstream to battle the infection. (kidshealth.org)
  • white blood cells that combat infection & respond to inflammation. (studystack.com)
  • There is an abnormally high production of white bloodless (cells that fight infection and provide immunity), which are unable to mature properly leading to the symptoms in leukemia. (medicinenet.com)
  • The bone marrow produces a high number of B-Cells, a type of white blood cell that fights against infection-causing a decrease in healthy blood cells. (medicinenet.com)
  • [ 1 , 2 ] The clinical picture is characterized by marked leukocytosis and localized bacterial infections that are difficult to detect until they have progressed to an extensive level secondary to lack of leukocyte recruitment at the site of infection. (medscape.com)
  • They are the most numerous type of white blood cell and your first line of defense when infection strikes. (rochester.edu)
  • When your white blood cell count is low, you are at great risk for any illness or infection, which can spiral into a serious health threat. (rochester.edu)
  • Cancer treatments, such as chemotherapy or radiation therapy can destroy white blood cells and leave you at risk for infection. (rochester.edu)
  • A higher-than-normal white blood cell count usually means you have some type of infection. (rochester.edu)
  • Leukocytes in urine are not dangerous, but it's a sign that you are suffering from an infection or damage. (md-health.com)
  • The body expels excess leukocytes when they have become damaged or killed fighting off an infection, causing them to be expelled in the urine. (md-health.com)
  • If a high number of leukocytes are found in the urine, this is a sign that there may be an infection in the urinary system. (md-health.com)
  • Those with a weak immune system or those who frequently use a urinary catheter system are at a higher risk for developing a kidney infection that raises leukocyte levels in the urine. (md-health.com)
  • You will not treat the presence of leukocytes in the urine, but the infection which is causing them to appear. (md-health.com)
  • As the infection subsides, the number of younger forms and the total white cell count decrease and ultimately return to normal. (britannica.com)
  • Total white blood cell counts decreased shortly after infection then increased with time. (usda.gov)
  • Results indicate that the peripheral blood leukocytes response to PRRSV infection mainly involves CD8+ T cells. (usda.gov)
  • How many white blood cells (WBCs) someone has varies, but the normal range is usually between 4,000 and 11,000 per microliter of blood. (webmd.com)
  • Diagnosis of leukocyte adhesion deficiency is by detecting absence or severe deficiency of adhesive glycoproteins on the surface of WBCs using monoclonal antibodies (eg, anti-CD11, anti-CD18) and flow cytometry. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Leukocyte adhesion deficiency type 1 is a disorder that causes the immune system to malfunction, resulting in a form of immunodeficiency. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Starting from birth, people with leukocyte adhesion deficiency type 1 develop serious bacterial and fungal infections. (medlineplus.gov)
  • One of the first signs of leukocyte adhesion deficiency type 1 is a delay in the detachment of the umbilical cord stump after birth. (medlineplus.gov)
  • but, in infants with leukocyte adhesion deficiency type 1, this separation usually occurs at three weeks or later. (medlineplus.gov)
  • In leukocyte adhesion deficiency type 1, bacterial and fungal infections most commonly occur on the skin and mucous membranes such as the moist lining of the nose and mouth. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Life expectancy in individuals with leukocyte adhesion deficiency type 1 is often severely shortened. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Leukocyte adhesion deficiency type 1 is estimated to occur in 1 per million people worldwide. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Mutations in the ITGB2 gene cause leukocyte adhesion deficiency type 1. (medlineplus.gov)
  • ITGB2 gene mutations that cause leukocyte adhesion deficiency type 1 lead to the production of a β2 subunit that cannot bind with other subunits to form β2 integrins. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Cox DP, Weathers DR. Leukocyte adhesion deficiency type 1: an important consideration in the clinical differential diagnosis of prepubertal periodontitis. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Leukocyte adhesion deficiency (LAD) is a rare primary immunodeficiency. (medscape.com)
  • Thus the infections in patients with leukocyte adhesion deficiency act similarly as those observed in patients with neutropenia. (medscape.com)
  • Labial ulceration from which Escherichia coli was cultured in an 8-month-old girl with leukocyte adhesion deficiency type 1 (LAD I). Note the thin bluish scar at the superior aspect of the labia from an earlier cellulitis. (medscape.com)
  • This 3-year-old girl had leukocyte adhesion deficiency type I (LAD I) with complete absence of CD18 expression. (medscape.com)
  • This 10-month-old patient with severe leukocyte adhesion deficiency type I (LAD I) developed a cervical adenitis caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae. (medscape.com)
  • Leukocyte adhesion deficiency type I (LAD I) is a failure to express CD18, which composes the common ß 2 subunit of LFA1 family (ß2 integrins). (medscape.com)
  • In milder forms of leukocyte adhesion deficiency I (1-30% expression of CD8), patients may survive to adulthood. (medscape.com)
  • Patients with leukocyte adhesion deficiency II manifest the Bombay phenotype (ie, negative for O and H blood group antigens with potential production of anti-H antibody). (medscape.com)
  • However, IgM and IgG serum levels are within the reference range in patients with leukocyte adhesion deficiency II. (medscape.com)
  • Leukocyte adhesion deficiency II may be classified as one of the congenital disorders of glycosylation (CDG), a rapidly expanding group of metabolic syndromes with a wide symptomatology and severity. (medscape.com)
  • Variants of leukocyte adhesion deficiency have also been reported, including fully expressed but nonfunctional CD18 and an E selectin that is expressed but rapidly cleaved from the cell surface (only present in soluble form). (medscape.com)
  • Another reported type of leukocyte adhesion deficiency involves dysfunction in platelet aggregation in addition to a defect in leukocyte adhesion. (medscape.com)
  • Thus, patients with this type of leukocyte adhesion deficiency manifest both severe bacterial infections and bleeding disorder. (medscape.com)
  • This leukocyte adhesion deficiency variant is associated with defective expression of the Rap-1 activator CalDAG-GEFI. (medscape.com)
  • Leukocyte adhesion deficiency results from an adhesion molecule defect that causes granulocyte and lymphocyte dysfunction and recurrent soft-tissue infections. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Manifestations of leukocyte adhesion deficiency usually begin in infancy. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Several different and diverse types of leukocytes exist, but they are all produced and derived from a multipotent cell in the bone marrow known as a hematopoietic stem cell . (wikidoc.org)
  • NOD/LtSz-Rag1nullPfpnull mice: a new model system with increased levels of human peripheral leukocyte and hematopoietic stem-cell engraftment. (umassmed.edu)
  • Treatment options for abnormal leukocyte counts depend on the underlying cause and may include medications, lifestyle changes, or more advanced medical interventions. (indorad.com)
  • The relationship between exposure to benzene (71432) and low red and white blood cell counts was studied over a 35 year period in workers at a rubber film (rubber-hydrochloride) factory. (cdc.gov)
  • The first occurrences of low red or white cell counts were defined as incident cases and controls were selected from individuals tested within 6 months, before or after, the case's blood test. (cdc.gov)
  • Benzene exposure was significantly correlated with low white cell counts according to all the measures employed. (cdc.gov)
  • The relationship between exposure to benzene and the risk of low cell counts is stronger for white blood cells than for red blood cells. (cdc.gov)
  • Leukocyte counts of 12,000 to 20,000 per cubic millimetre during infections are not unusual. (britannica.com)
  • High white blood cell levels in the urine will also be present in interstitial cystitis. (doctorshealthpress.com)
  • Taking a test to check for leukocyte levels in the urine will help you determine if you need to see a doctor to treat your condition. (md-health.com)
  • A strip test can be used to check the leukocyte levels in the urine. (md-health.com)
  • This can cause protein levels or leukocyte levels in the urine to increase. (md-health.com)
  • Leukocyte extravasation occurs mainly in post-capillary venules, where haemodynamic shear forces are minimised. (wikipedia.org)
  • Here is a brief summary of each of the four steps currently thought to be involved in leukocyte extravasation: Upon recognition of and activation by pathogens, resident macrophages in the affected tissue release cytokines such as IL-1, TNFα and chemokines. (wikipedia.org)
  • The events that follow leukocyte extravasation are perhaps less well characterized, although significant advances have been made with the advent of high-resolution intravital microscopy and the development of more sophisticated culture systems to investigate leukocyte migration and interactions in three dimensions. (hindawi.com)
  • We believe that successfully combining our current knowledge about leukocyte extravasation, three-dimensional migration through the stroma and the sequential interactions with parenchymal cell barriers, which include adopting unified experimental models, will help shed light on the entire migratory route of each immune cell type and on the specificity of the innate inflammatory responses in each type of tissue. (hindawi.com)
  • Endothelial selectins bind carbohydrates on leukocyte transmembrane glycoproteins, including sialyl-LewisX. (wikipedia.org)
  • citation needed] Like velcro, carbohydrate ligands on the circulating leukocytes bind to selectin molecules on the inner wall of the vessel, with marginal affinity. (wikipedia.org)
  • Leukocytes, commonly known as white blood cells, are an essential part of the immune system. (indorad.com)
  • Each type of leukocyte has a specific role in the immune system. (indorad.com)
  • Leukocytes play a critical role in the body's immune system by protecting against infections and diseases. (indorad.com)
  • Overall, the immune system relies heavily on the functions of leukocytes to protect the body against a wide range of infections and diseases. (indorad.com)
  • White blood cells that are an important component of the body's immune system . (emf-portal.org)
  • White blood cells or leukocytes are cells of the immune system which defend the body against both infectious disease and foreign materials. (wikidoc.org)
  • The immune system is a large and complex network of organs, white blood cells, proteins (antibodies), and chemicals that work together to help maintain a healthy state from foreign invaders. (solgar.com)
  • White blood cells play an important role in the immune system. (solgar.com)
  • Leukocytes are white blood cells (WBC) that work with the immune system to defend against infectious disease. (md-health.com)
  • This process can be understood in several steps:[citation needed] Chemoattraction Rolling adhesion Tight adhesion (Endothelial) Transmigration It has been demonstrated that leukocyte recruitment is halted whenever any of these steps is suppressed. (wikipedia.org)
  • The binding of PSGL-1 on the leukocyte to P-selectin on the endothelial cell allows for the leukocyte to roll along the endothelial surface. (wikipedia.org)
  • citation needed] The cytoskeletons of the leukocytes are reorganized in such a way that the leukocytes are spread out over the endothelial cells. (wikipedia.org)
  • In this form, leukocytes extend pseudopodia and pass through gaps between endothelial cells. (wikipedia.org)
  • These gaps can form through interactions of the leukocytes with the endothelium, but also autonomously through endothelial mechanics. (wikipedia.org)
  • Transmigration of the leukocyte occurs as PECAM proteins, found on the leukocyte and endothelial cell surfaces, interact and effectively pull the cell through the endothelium. (wikipedia.org)
  • On the one hand, similar to endothelial cells, parenchymal epithelia must guide leukocytes to traverse them in order to reach a localized inflammatory focus, for example, in the lung or intestinal mucosa. (hindawi.com)
  • Endothelial and epithelial barriers determine the different stages of leukocyte migration in its journey towards the inflammatory focus in complex tissues. (hindawi.com)
  • These 2 members mediate leukocyte adhesions to endothelial cells but they also serve as receptors for iC3b (inactivated C3b). (medscape.com)
  • This disease is a defect in fucose metabolism (lack of fucosylation of the carbohydrate selectin ligands) that results in failure to express the ligand for E and P selectin, sialyl Lewis-X (CD15s) expressed on leukocytes and endothelial cells. (medscape.com)
  • DNA sequence variation within human leukocyte antigen (HLA) genes mediate susceptibility to a wide range of human diseases. (nih.gov)
  • white boxes indicate absence of genes. (cdc.gov)
  • This process forms part of the innate immune response, involving the recruitment of non-specific leukocytes. (wikipedia.org)
  • Leukocyte recruitment into the inflamed parenchyma requires successive interactions with cellular and stromal barriers that establish mechanical, chemotactic and haptotactic gradients to guide immune cells towards the inflammatory focus. (hindawi.com)
  • The levels of different types of leukocytes in the blood can provide valuable information about a person's health. (indorad.com)
  • If a person's leukocyte count falls outside of the normal range, further tests may be necessary to determine the underlying cause. (indorad.com)
  • A panel of monoclonal antibodies was used to analyze peripheral blood leukocytes by two-color flow cytometric analysis. (usda.gov)
  • The elements were evaluated by the total number of peripheral leukocyte, granulocyte and lymphocyte ratio and lymphocyte subsets. (scirp.org)
  • The number of leukocyte subsets, granulocyte and lymphocyte were also regulated by dose dependent manner. (scirp.org)
  • Here we review evidence showing that apicobasal polarity regulates the inflammatory response: various polarized epithelia asymmetrically secrete chemotactic mediators and polarize adhesion receptors that dictate the route of leukocyte migration within the parenchyma. (hindawi.com)
  • Normal myeloid cells undergo differentiation to form leukocytes. (medicinenet.com)
  • Bernard A, Boumsell L, Hill C. Joint report of the first international workshop on human leucocyte differentiation antigens by the investigators of the participating laboratories: T2 protocol. (bdbiosciences.com)
  • Leucocyte Typing IV: White Cell Differentiation Antigens. (bdbiosciences.com)
  • Oncolytic vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) can be delivered intravenously to target primary and metastatic lesions, but the interaction between human peripheral blood leukocytes (PBLs) and VSV remains poorly understood. (karger.com)
  • The Innate Immunity Signal Transduction in Human Leukocytes is a research study to determine the response of immune cells from the bloodstream. (nih.gov)
  • You have a donor whose human leukocyte antigens (HLA) closely match yours. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • The best possible match is a healthy donor who has human leukocyte antigens (HLA) that are a close match to yours. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • A white blood cell which appears 5,000 to 10,000 times in each cubic millimeter of normal human blood. (digitalnaturopath.com)
  • It has been suggested that cytokine acc leukoreduction prevents transmission of cyc cumulation in plasma of platelet concenc tomegalovirus and decreases alloimmunizac trates (PC) during storage may contribute tion to human leukocyte antigen (HLA), it to development of nonchaemolytic febrile does not prevent allergic reactions. (who.int)
  • No significant changes were found in peripheral blood leukocytes of pigs inoculated with attenuated PRRSV or sham inoculum. (usda.gov)
  • leukocytes characterized by the absence of granules in their cytoplasm . (wikidoc.org)
  • Each one corresponds to the type of white blood cell that is affected. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • If a high level of a particular type of leukocyte is found in elevated levels, this can be a sign of disease. (md-health.com)
  • We used data from the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis Stress Study (N = 988) to describe age- and gender- independent associations of race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status (SES) with methylation of Alu and LINE-1 repetitive elements in leukocyte DNA. (columbia.edu)
  • 0.05) lower Alu methylation than whites. (columbia.edu)
  • 0.01) higher LINE-1 methylation than whites. (columbia.edu)
  • In this pilot study, we profiled DNA methylation with the Infinium MethylationEPIC in blood leukocytes from 31 Hispanic white and 163 non-Hispanic white firefighters. (cdc.gov)
  • Conditions, such as extreme physical stress caused by an injury or emotional stress, can also trigger high white blood cell levels. (rochester.edu)
  • For example, the carbohydrate ligand for P-selectin, P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 (PSGL-1), is expressed by different types of leukocytes (white blood cells). (wikipedia.org)
  • Is the Subject Area "White blood cells" applicable to this article? (plos.org)
  • We also discuss recent findings showing that the loss of apicobasal polarity increases leukocyte adhesion to epithelial cells and the consequences that this could have for the inflammatory response towards damaged, infected or transformed epithelial cells. (hindawi.com)
  • Particular attention has been paid to elucidating how leukocytes can migrate through the stroma, the way these cells remodel their morphology and sense cues that guide them towards dysfunctional tissue areas. (hindawi.com)
  • On the other hand, these barriers contain damaged or infected cells that are part of the inflammatory focus and the endpoint of the leukocyte migratory journey, so some sort of footprint, which is not completely understood, must exist in these cells to promote a preferential adhesion with infiltrated leukocytes. (hindawi.com)
  • So far, most of the in vivo and in vitro approaches to study leukocyte migration across the tissue parenchyma have addressed the role of each single tissue barrier that immune cells encounter in their journey to the inflammatory focus. (hindawi.com)
  • The normal range for leukocyte count in a blood test is typically between 4,500 and 11,000 cells per microliter (mcL) of blood. (indorad.com)
  • There are normally between 4×10 9 and 11×10 9 white blood cells in a litre of blood, making up approximately 1% of blood in a healthy adult. (wikidoc.org)
  • The physical properties of leukocytes, such as volume, conductivity, and granularity, may change due to activation, the presence of immature cells, or the presence of malignant leukocytes in leukemia. (wikidoc.org)
  • The name "white cells" derives from the fact that after centrifugation of a blood sample, the white cells are found in the Buffy coat , a thin layer of nucleated cells between the sedimented red blood cells and the blood plasma , which is typically white in color. (wikidoc.org)
  • There are several different types of white blood cells. (wikidoc.org)
  • Meanwhile, a leukocyte is the scientific name of the more prominently known white blood cells (W.B.C.'s). (differencebetween.net)
  • There are five types of white blood cells that are grouped under two major classifications, that is: granulocytes (with granules) and agranulocytes (without granules). (differencebetween.net)
  • According to the Leukemia & Lymphoma Society , a healthy white blood cell count is 5,000-10,000 white cells per microliter (µL) of blood for males and children, and 3,500-11,000 white cells per µL for females. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • COVID-19 may also result in a shortage of white blood cells. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • A person has five types of white blood cells. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • White blood cells serve as an army against unwanted invaders, and search for, attack, and destroy them to help keep you healthy. (solgar.com)
  • The following are natural ways to treat white blood cells in urine. (doctorshealthpress.com)
  • Myeloid leukemia (myelogenous leukemia) arises from the myeloid line of the white blood cells. (medicinenet.com)
  • University of Rochester Medical Center: "What Are White Blood Cells? (webmd.com)
  • Even at Low Levels, Benzene Takes Toll on White Blood Cells. (webmd.com)
  • Your white blood cells account for only about 1% of your blood, but their impact is big. (rochester.edu)
  • Think of white blood cells as your immunity cells. (rochester.edu)
  • When your body is in distress and a particular area is under attack, white blood cells rush in to help destroy the harmful substance and prevent illness. (rochester.edu)
  • They have a longer lifespan than many white blood cells and help to break down bacteria. (rochester.edu)
  • White blood cells are multiplying to destroy the bacteria or virus. (rochester.edu)
  • Estimation of exposure in the 180 day interval was considered crucial because the lifespan of red blood cells and most white cells is less than 180 days. (cdc.gov)
  • Drs. Kenneth Donaldson and coworkers at the Institute of Occupational Medicine examined whether exposure to ozone activates white blood cells to release substances that can damage lung tissue. (healtheffects.org)
  • First, they determined the numbers and types of white blood cells in the wash fluid. (healtheffects.org)
  • It will determine how the cells may, under certain circumstances, contribute to inflammation, and will measure substances in the blood plasma (the liquid, non-cellular part of the blood) that might stimulate white blood cells, in order to understand how the blood responds to possible disease-related conditions. (nih.gov)
  • A small number of leukocytes will always be found in the urine as old cells are passed from the system. (md-health.com)
  • A child with low levels of white blood cells is more likely to have infections. (chkd.org)
  • Allogeneic stem cell transplantation replaces damaged white blood cells. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • The influx of leukocytes facilitates the process of phagocytosis and the removal of damaged cells and other particulate matter. (medscape.com)
  • The white blood cell (WBC) differential refers to the number of the different types of white blood cells seen in the blood. (emedicinehealth.com)
  • The white blood cell count (WBC) is a component of a complete blood cell count (CBC) and is the enumeration of white blood cells in a small volume of whole blood. (medscape.com)
  • The total white blood cell count is expressed as an absolute number and is further divided into subtypes of white blood cells by a differential WBC count, which is expressed as a percentage and absolute number. (medscape.com)
  • Leukocytes are found throughout the body, including the blood and lymphatic system . (wikidoc.org)
  • Understanding the different types of leukocytes and their functions can help in the diagnosis and treatment of various medical conditions. (indorad.com)
  • The first stage of this immune steeplechase, the leukocyte transendothelial migration, is a multi-step cascade of interactions that have been extensively studied in recent years in different vascular beds and experimental models, and some comprehensive reviews on this topic can be found in this special issue [ 1 - 5 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • These compounds restrict the accumulation of polymorphonuclear leukocytes and macrophages and reduce the release of vasoactive kinins. (medscape.com)
  • The study found significant cytokine accumulation during 5 days of storage time in leukocyte contaminated platelet concentrates, suggesting that the platelet storage time has an effect on IL-2R levels. (who.int)
  • We undertook this study to investigate receptor (IL-2R) accumulation is related to whether the cytokine accumulation in PCs the leukocyte content of the platelet comc obtained from single apheresis donors was ponent and can be reduced by prestorage beyond the acceptable limits of WBC conc leukocyte depletion [ 3 ]. (who.int)
  • In general, leukocytes are involved in the defense of an organism and protect it from disease by promoting or inhibiting inflammatory responses. (wikipedia.org)
  • These expelled particles act as antigens to stimulate a nonspecific immune response and to cause the proliferation of leukocytes. (medscape.com)
  • The main function of leukocytes is to identify and destroy harmful microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi. (indorad.com)