Cortisol and aldosteroneSecretionPotassiumHelps regulateBody'sRAASKidneysBloodSteroid hormoneHelp regulateZonaAdrenal hormonesAffect aldosteroneSelective aldosteroneExtracellular fluid volumeMineralocorticoid hormoneUrineAngiotensin-converRenin activityNorepinephrineConcentrationsVarious physiological processesKidneyInhibitorsImportant hormonesInflammationLevelsHypertensionAntagonistsAdenomasGlucocorticoidEnzymeENaCDistalAddison'sRoleExcretionOperativeEplerenoneProductionSuppressionEndocrine systemSteroidsChronicStress hormone
Cortisol and aldosterone5
- The adrenal gland produces hormones -- such as cortisol and aldosterone -- that regulate metabolism, blood pressure and other bodily functions. (sciencedaily.com)
- This enzyme is found in the adrenal glands, where it plays a role in producing hormones called cortisol and aldosterone. (medlineplus.gov)
- When 21-hydroxylase is lacking, substances that are usually used to form cortisol and aldosterone instead build up in the adrenal glands and are converted to androgens. (medlineplus.gov)
- Both cortisol and aldosterone are collectively referred to as corticosteroids. (glutenfreesociety.org)
- How Addison's disease works is that it tells antibodies to attach to the adrenal cortex and destroy the cells that make cortisol and aldosterone. (northwestpharmacy.com)
Secretion8
- Drugs that interfere with the secretion or function of aldosterone are in clinical use as antihypertensives. (arborassays.com)
- For example, Lisinopril blocks the action of angiotensin-converting enzyme, reducing aldosterone secretion. (arborassays.com)
- Unlike most adrenal hormones regulated heavily through the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, secretion of aldosterone depends minimally on the action of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH). (aacc.org)
- The main pathway of aldosterone secretion is the renin- angiotensin-aldosterone system. (aacc.org)
- Psychological stress also activates the sympathetic-adrenomedullary system which stimulates rennin release leading to increases in angiotensin II and aldosterone secretion. (moviecultists.com)
- Aldosterone is part of the mechanism that regulates blood pressure, and causes conservation of sodium, secretion of potassium, increased water retention, and increased blood pressure. (dbpedia.org)
- It plays an important role in regulating renal hemodynamics, intestinal epithelial transport, adrenal aldosterone secretion, and uterine function. (globaldata.com)
- [6] Angiotensin II also stimulates the secretion of the hormone aldosterone [6] from the adrenal cortex . (wikipedia.org)
Potassium16
- Aldosterone is a steroid hormone primarily involved in regulating sodium and potassium levels in the blood as part of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS). (arborassays.com)
- Aldosterone increases sodium reabsorption from the tubular epithelial cells of the kidneys back into the blood while simultaneously moving potassium ions from the blood into the kidneys for eventual excretion in urine. (arborassays.com)
- Unusually high aldosterone levels (hyperaldosteronism) lead to elevated blood sodium and reduced blood potassium, increasing water retention, blood pressure, and blood volume. (arborassays.com)
- Aldosterone increases the reabsorption of sodium and water and the release of potassium in the kidneys. (medlineplus.gov)
- Typically, the body's kidneys are able to regulate its serum concentration of potassium. (medicalnewstoday.com)
- This hormone helps regulate the amount of potassium the body excretes in the urine. (medicalnewstoday.com)
- It can affect the production of hormones, such as aldosterone and cortisol, which can affect potassium levels. (medicalnewstoday.com)
- Aldosterone regulates blood pressure by balancing sodium and potassium levels. (chiroeco.com)
- Aldosterone regulates reabsorption of sodium and water at the kidneys by promoting the synthesis of sodium and potassium channels on cells of the distal convoluted tubule (DTC). (aacc.org)
- Potassium also regulates aldosterone by causing membrane depolarization and activation of signaling pathways that lead to aldosterone synthesis. (aacc.org)
- Treating hyperaldosteronism focuses on reducing your aldosterone levels or blocking the effects of aldosterone, high blood pressure, and low blood potassium. (moviecultists.com)
- Aldosterone is a mineralocorticoid hormone that plays a central role in regulating blood pressure and the levels of sodium and potassium (electrolytes) in your blood. (clevelandclinic.org)
- Reduced aldosterone production can result in different serum levels of chloride, sodium and potassium. (foundanimals.org)
- It regulates kidney function and plays a role in controlling levels of two crucial signaling chemicals in the nervous system, potassium and sodium. (naturalnews.com)
- The adrenal glands are located at the top of each kidney and produce hormones that help regulate metabolism, blood sodium and potassium levels, blood pressure, response to stressors, immune function, and other essential functions. (health.mil)
- Aldosterone causes the renal tubules to increase the reabsorption of sodium which in consequence causes the reabsorption of water into the blood, while at the same time causing the excretion of potassium (to maintain electrolyte balance). (wikipedia.org)
Helps regulate4
- As an electrolyte, it helps regulate fluid and blood levels, muscle contractions, and nerve impulses. (medicalnewstoday.com)
- This means aldosterone helps regulate your blood pH (how acidic or basic it is) by controlling the levels of electrolytes in your blood. (clevelandclinic.org)
- Calcitonin, on the other hand, is produced by the thyroid gland as well and helps regulate calcium levels in the blood. (proprofs.com)
- This hormone helps regulate blood pressure by helping the kidneys retain water and sodium. (glutenfreesociety.org)
Body's5
- All four hormones work in tandem to regulate the body's stress reactions. (chiroeco.com)
- It helps maintain normal blood pressure, supports the work of your nerves and muscles, and regulates your body's fluid balance. (david-cook.org)
- Aldosterone affects the body's ability to regulate blood pressure. (moviecultists.com)
- The adrenal hormones help regulate several bodily functions including metabolism, blood pressure and your body's response to stress. (clevelandclinic.org)
- Thyroxin is produced by the thyroid gland and plays a crucial role in regulating the body's metabolism. (proprofs.com)
RAAS5
- The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) regulates blood pressure. (degruyter.com)
- Plasma renin activities (PRA) and plasma aldosterone concentrations (PAC) are biomarkers related to RAAS. (degruyter.com)
- The ACE2 receptor also has a vital role in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), which regulates blood pressure. (news-medical.net)
- The antagonists of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) have been shown to interfere with angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)-2 receptor expression in heart and kidney tissues. (bmj.com)
- The renin-angiotensin system ( RAS ), or renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system ( RAAS ), is a hormone system that regulates blood pressure , fluid and electrolyte balance, and systemic vascular resistance . (wikipedia.org)
Kidneys10
- The adrenal glands are located on top of the kidneys and produce a variety of hormones that regulate many essential functions in the body. (medlineplus.gov)
- is sometimes called the salt-retaining hormone because it regulates the amount of salt retained by the kidneys. (medlineplus.gov)
- Do kidneys secrete aldosterone? (moviecultists.com)
- Aldosterone is a hormone produced in the outer section (cortex) of the adrenal glands , which sit above the kidneys. (moviecultists.com)
- Is aldosterone produced in the kidneys? (moviecultists.com)
- Aldosterone is produced in the cortex of the adrenal glands , which are located above the kidneys. (moviecultists.com)
- To prevent osmolarity from decreasing below normal, the kidneys also have a regulated mechanism for reabsorbing sodium in the distal nephron. (moviecultists.com)
- Angiotensin II also stimulates the production of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex, which causes the tubules of the kidneys to increase reabsorption of sodium, with water following, thereby increasing plasma volume, and thus also blood pressure. (standardofcare.com)
- Aldosterone is a hormone that is produced by the adrenal glands and acts on the kidneys to make sure that salt levels in the blood are kept at a safe level. (gla.ac.uk)
- Thses mechanisms are needed to ensure that the GFR will be high enough to allow the kidneys to eliminate wastes and regulate blood pressure, but not so high as to cause excessive water loss. (flashcardmachine.com)
Blood29
- Measuring aldosterone could help identify the cause(s) of high blood pressure to optimize and monitor the efficacy of treatment. (arborassays.com)
- In addition to blood pressure, aldosterone has roles in kidney disease, heart failure, diabetic neuropathy, and other diseases. (arborassays.com)
- The aldosterone blood test measures the level of the hormone aldosterone in blood. (medlineplus.gov)
- At other times, the aldosterone blood test is done right before and after you receive a salt solution (saline) through the vein (IV) for 2 hours. (medlineplus.gov)
- It helps the body regulate blood pressure. (medlineplus.gov)
- Aldosterone blood test is often combined with other tests, such as the renin hormone test , to diagnose over- or under-production of aldosterone. (medlineplus.gov)
- Aldosterone then promotes sodium retention and increases blood pressure. (aacc.org)
- Its main role is to regulate salt and water in the body, thus having an effect on blood pressure. (david-cook.org)
- Aldosterone is responsible for regulating sodium homeostasis, thereby helping to control blood volume and blood pressure. (moviecultists.com)
- Aldosterone is important for regulating blood pressure and is one of the factors involved in heart function. (mydr.com.au)
- It also suppresses inflammation , regulates your blood pressure, increases blood sugar and helps control your sleep-wake cycle. (clevelandclinic.org)
- Therefore, insulin plays a crucial role in regulating blood sugar levels and preventing hyperglycemia. (proprofs.com)
- Prostaglandins are involved in regulating inflammation, blood clotting, and smooth muscle contraction, while leukotrienes are primarily associated with allergic and inflammatory reactions. (proprofs.com)
- Blood levels of aldosterone also fall as people age. (naturalnews.com)
- Researchers from the University of Glasgow have studied the way in which aldosterone affects blood pressure regulation. (gla.ac.uk)
- The group found that in older people, higher levels of aldosterone in the bloodstream are associated with high blood pressure, while in young adults, high aldosterone levels indicate you are more likely to subsequently develop hypertension later in life. (gla.ac.uk)
- The higher the level of aldosterone in your blood, the more likely it is that you will suffer from high blood pressure, which will increase your risk of suffering a heart attack or a stroke. (gla.ac.uk)
- Aldosterone plays a key role in regulating blood pressure and can affect how susceptible you are to developing hypertension later in life. (gla.ac.uk)
- This means that throughout life, certain individuals will have higher aldosterone levels and are more prone to developing high blood pressure. (gla.ac.uk)
- Evidence suggests that aldosterone may be a causal factor in 10% of patients with high blood pressure(1). (gla.ac.uk)
- ENaC also mediates aldosterone-dependent sodium reabsorption in the distal nephron of the kidney, thus regulating blood pressure. (thermofisher.com)
- These may include medications to regulate blood pressure and electrolyte levels, as well as dialysis or kidney transplantation in severe cases. (articleinsider.com)
- Renin is an important enzyme in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, which regulates blood pressure and fluid balance in the body. (articleinsider.com)
- Treatment options may include medication to regulate blood pressure and support kidney function, as well as dialysis or kidney transplantation in severe cases. (articleinsider.com)
- Both our team and others have observed that patients with AUD often present with changes in peripheral hormones, including aldosterone, which plays a key role in regulating blood pressure and electrolytes," Leggio told Medscape Medical News . (medscape.com)
- There are myriad important CYP enzymes, including aromatase (the enzyme that converts androgen into estrogen) and 21-Hydroxylase, which creates cortisol (stress hormone) and aldosterone (regulates blood pressure). (ecochildsplay.com)
- The zona glomerulosa is responsible for the production of mineralocorticoids, mainly aldosterone, which regulates blood pressure and electrolyte balance. (medscape.com)
- He never had significant respiratory problems throughout that period, The possibility of Bartter syndrome was raised, but the diagnosis was dismissed as his blood pressure was initially high, urinary chloride excretion was low with only slightly elevated levels of serum renin (320 ng/dL at rest and standing) and aldosterone (195 ng/dL at rest and 206 ng/dL while standing). (who.int)
- was low with only slightly elevated levels contraction and the initial but transient of serum renin (320 ng/dL at rest and rise in blood pressure to secondary standing) and aldosterone (195 ng/dL hyperaldosteronism. (who.int)
Steroid hormone6
- Aldosterone is a steroid hormone secreted by adrenal glands. (david-cook.org)
- Aldosterone is a steroid hormone synthesized in and secreted from the outer layer of the adrenal cortex , the zona glomerulosa. (moviecultists.com)
- This mechanism is controlled by aldosterone, a steroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex. (moviecultists.com)
- Aldosterone is a steroid hormone. (moviecultists.com)
- Aldosterone, a steroid hormone with mineralocorticoid activity, is mainly recognized for its action on sodium reabsorption in the distal nephron of the kidney , which is mediated by the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC). (moviecultists.com)
- Aldosterone is a steroid hormone from the mineralocorticoid family, produced in the adrenal cortex. (naturalnews.com)
Help regulate1
- Adrenal issues are not typically treated with medication that is designed to help the adrenal glands themselves, but to help regulate the hormones the adrenal glands are (or are not) making. (northwestpharmacy.com)
Zona5
- The chronic maintenance of aldosterone production in the adrenal zona glomerulosa is associated with increased expression of aldosterone synthase (P450aldo), the enzyme responsible for the conversion of 11-deoxycorticosterone to aldosterone. (unical.it)
- Aldosterone, the most potent mineralocorticoid, is made exclusively in the zona glomerulosa. (aacc.org)
- It also stimulates the cells of the zona glomerulosa to produce the enzyme aldosterone synthase and, consequently, aldosterone. (aacc.org)
- Production of aldosterone (in adult humans, about 20-200 micrograms per day) in the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex is regulated by the renin-angiotensin system. (moviecultists.com)
- and to receptors on the zona glomerulosa cells, causing the release of aldosterone from the zona glomerulosa in the adrenal cortex . (wikipedia.org)
Adrenal hormones1
- This may help keep their adrenal hormones better regulated. (chiroeco.com)
Affect aldosterone1
- How does sodium affect aldosterone? (moviecultists.com)
Selective aldosterone2
- Treatment with the more selective aldosterone receptor inhibitor eplerenone is associated with fewer side effects than treatment with spironolactone and may be more effective for hypertension related to primary hyperaldosteronism. (medscape.com)
- Eplerenone belongs to a group of medicines called 'selective aldosterone blockers' that stop the action of aldosterone, a substance made by your body. (mydr.com.au)
Extracellular fluid volume2
- Mineralocorticoids are steroids that regulate salt homeostasis and extracellular fluid volume. (aacc.org)
- In order to maintain or increase extracellular fluid volume, aldosterone increases sodium retention and stimulates salt appetite . (moviecultists.com)
Mineralocorticoid hormone1
- The kidney is known to be the major target for aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid hormone synthesized in the adrenal cortex that acts on electrolyte transport in the distal nephron. (moviecultists.com)
Urine4
- The DetectX® Aldosterone ELISA Kits (K052-H1/H5) and Aldosterone Chemiluminescent ELISA Kits (K052-C1/C5) quantitatively measure aldosterone present in extracted serum and plasma, urine, extracted fecal samples, and tissue culture media samples. (arborassays.com)
- Aldosterone can also be measured using a urine test . (medlineplus.gov)
- PRA and PAC results of hypertensive patients with urine aldosterone tests for primary aldosteronism (PA) screening were retrieved from the laboratory information system. (degruyter.com)
- Aldosterone increases urine production and decreases apical AQP2 expression in rats with diabetes insipidus. (moviecultists.com)
Angiotensin-conver2
- OBJECTIVE Angiotensin II (AII) and aldosterone are not always fully suppressed during chronic angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor treatment. (bmj.com)
- Blockade of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RASS) with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition or angiotensin receptor blockade are central therapies for both renal and cardiovascular protection in patients with chronic kidney disease. (standardofcare.com)
Renin activity2
- A key contributor to secondary hypertension is primary aldosteronism, characterized by high aldosterone concentrations and low renin activity. (arborassays.com)
- In heart failure decreased cardiac output and reduced renal perfusion leads to stimulation of plasma renin activity and thus to release of angiotensin II and aldosterone. (standardofcare.com)
Norepinephrine1
- 1 The adrenal glands produce cortisol, aldosterone, catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine), and small amounts of androgens (hormones with testosterone-like function). (health.mil)
Concentrations3
- How often are angiotensin II and aldosterone concentrations raised during chronic ACE inhibitor treatment in cardiac failure? (bmj.com)
- 0.001) with ACE but not with aldosterone concentrations. (bmj.com)
- Aldosterone concentrations were not significantly correlated with ACE concentrations. (bmj.com)
Various physiological processes1
- Hormones are secreted directly into the bloodstream and travel to target cells or organs to regulate various physiological processes in the body. (proprofs.com)
Kidney4
- Osmolality1 of the extracellular fluid is monitored and adjusted by regulating water excretion by the kidney in response to antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which is secreted by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. (david-cook.org)
- Does kidney control aldosterone? (moviecultists.com)
- Where does aldosterone affect kidney? (moviecultists.com)
- AIMS: Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors (RAASi) therapy is commonly used to reduce the risk of death and to slow down disease progression in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD), heart failure (HF) and hypertension. (bvsalud.org)
Inhibitors1
- Inhibitors of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and CoViD-19-affected patients: A two-faced Janus? (bmj.com)
Important hormones2
- They produce many important hormones, including cortisol, aldosterone and adrenaline. (clevelandclinic.org)
- They also secrete important hormones, including aldosterone. (pathwaystofamilywellness.org)
Inflammation1
- Aldosterone activates MR which in turn may lead to vascular injury and inflammation, and ultimately heart disease, renal disease, and stroke. (moviecultists.com)
Levels11
- A rare disease resulting from a gene mutation that can also cause lower levels of aldosterone. (medicalnewstoday.com)
- A low-salt diet can also increase aldosterone levels. (moviecultists.com)
- Previous research has emphasized the importance of the gut microbiome in regulating inflammatory processes at both local and systemic levels. (news-medical.net)
- Decreased aldosterone levels may affect hearing both in the inner ear and in the part of the brain used for hearing. (naturalnews.com)
- Scientists in Rochester, New York studied the relation between serum aldosterone levels and age-related hearing loss , and the correlation between these levels and the degree of age-related hearing loss in humans. (naturalnews.com)
- The researchers discovered highly significant correlations between pure-tone thresholds in both right and left ears, and hearing in noise scores versus serum aldosterone levels. (naturalnews.com)
- Aldosterone regulates water levels and the concentration of minerals, like sodium, in your body, helping you stay hydrated. (pathwaystofamilywellness.org)
- Through our research, we have discovered some of the factors that predispose you to having higher aldosterone levels. (gla.ac.uk)
- Individual aldosterone levels are determined by a number of factors. (gla.ac.uk)
- People born with a low birth weight tend to have higher aldosterone levels when they are older. (gla.ac.uk)
- Although it primarily over a 2-year period with episodes of bicarbonate 22 mmol/L. The serum affects the respiratory and gastrointes- diarrhoea and vomiting associated levels of aldosterone (99 ng/dL) and tinal tracts, it can also involve other renin (84 ng/dL) were normal, so was organs. (who.int)
Hypertension4
- 1. Freel, E. Mechanisms of hypertension: the expanding role of aldosterone. (degruyter.com)
- PA was originally described in 1955 by Conn as a condition characterized by an elevated plasma concentration of aldosterone along with hypokalemia and hypertension. (aacc.org)
- Conclusions: These results suggest that high salt intake increases aldosterone production and expression of the AT1R mRNA in the cardiovascular tissue in SHRSP, which may contribute to the development of malignant hypertension in salt-loaded SHRSP. (moviecultists.com)
- Aldosterone excess, whether from genetic causes or primary aldosteronism (hyperplasia or aldosterone-secreting adenomas), is well documented to cause hypertension . (moviecultists.com)
Antagonists1
- Consequences of continuing renin angiotensin aldosterone system antagonists in the preoperative period: a systematic review and meta-analysis. (medscape.com)
Adenomas1
- The main causes of PA are bilateral adrenal hyperplasia and aldosterone producing adenomas, accounting for 65-70% and 30-35% of all PA cases, respectively. (aacc.org)
Glucocorticoid3
- Gene- and variant-specific efficacy of serum/glucocorticoid-regulated kinase 1 inhibition in long QT syndrome types 1 and 2. (nih.gov)
- Together, they discovered and identified the hormone aldosterone, the last of a series of naturally occurring biologically potent steroid hormones to be isolated and identified between the 1920s to the 1950s, after the androgens, oestrogens, and glucocorticoid hormones. (dbpedia.org)
- Their early research showed that aldosterone added to the drinking water of mice was equivalent to glucocorticoid drugs for reversing hearing loss in autoimmune mice. (naturalnews.com)
Enzyme1
- Renin is the first enzyme in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. (standardofcare.com)
ENaC1
- ENaC is thought to be regulated, in part, through association with the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) chloride ion channel. (thermofisher.com)
Distal1
- Aldosterone deficiency leads to an inability to conserve sodium in the renal distal tubule and collecting duct , resulting in hyponatremia, hypovolemia, and hyperkalemia. (moviecultists.com)
Addison's1
- In cases such as Addison's disease (when the adrenal glands do not produce enough cortisol or aldosterone), or a tumor around the adrenal gland, there may not be enough hormones being released into the body. (chiroeco.com)
Role3
- Genetic analysis supports the role of aldosterone and of MR-related pathways in the pathophysiology of depression. (karger.com)
- When the renin-angiotensin system is suppressed, ACTH has a more prominent role in regulating aldosterone. (aacc.org)
- Later research showed that the role of aldosterone in restoring auditory function was through increasing stria vascularis sodium transport rather than through the suppression of autoimmune symptoms. (naturalnews.com)
Excretion1
- Sodium balance is regulated by changes in sodium intake and excretion, whereas plasma osmolality is regulated by changes in water intake and water excretion. (david-cook.org)
Operative1
- Operative pathway regulating vascular volume, salt and water retention. (standardofcare.com)
Eplerenone1
- Eplerenone works by blocking the action of aldosterone and slowing the progression of heart failure by reducing heart damage. (mydr.com.au)
Production6
- The major physiologic regulators of aldosterone production are angiotensin II (ANG II) and (K+) which act in part through increasing intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i). (unical.it)
- PA is a group of disorders with inappropriately high production of aldosterone, which is autonomous and non-suppressible by sodium loading. (aacc.org)
- A lack of aldosterone production contributes to the salt loss in people with the salt-wasting form of this condition. (medlineplus.gov)
- Rationale: In healthy individuals, aldosterone production is inversely correlated with salt intake. (moviecultists.com)
- Aldosterone production by the adrenal glands is markedly stimulated by prolonged sodium deprivation, at least partly independently of glucocorticoids and angiotensin II stimulation. (moviecultists.com)
- We now need to build up a better understanding of how production of aldosterone throughout life is controlled. (gla.ac.uk)
Suppression1
- CONCLUSIONS AII "reactivation" occurred in 15% and failure of aldosterone suppression in 38% of routine CHF patients taking ACE inhibitor treatment. (bmj.com)
Endocrine system1
- Sodium and water balance are precisely regulated by the endocrine system. (david-cook.org)
Steroids1
- These hormones include steroids, aldosterone and cortisol, which regulate your pooch's organs. (foundanimals.org)
Chronic4
- 2 , 3 However, the reductions in angiotensin II (AII) and aldosterone may not be maintained with chronic ACE inhibitor treatment. (bmj.com)
- 6 , 7 It is also known that aldosterone does not remain suppressed during chronic ACE inhibitor treatment and this phenomenon has been called aldosterone escape. (bmj.com)
- Progressive activation of the sympathetic nervous system and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system contributes to chronic heart failure, including that which occurs after acute myocardial infarction. (standardofcare.com)
- In a 2008 study, researchers including Trune showed that aldosterone treatments could improve the physiology of chronic middle and inner ear disease seen with chronic ear infection. (naturalnews.com)
Stress hormone1
- Whereas the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis has long been recognized for its involvement in depression, the focus was mostly on cortisol/corticosterone, whereas aldosterone appears to be the 'forgotten' stress hormone. (karger.com)