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OdorAfferentDrosophilaOdorant receptorsOdorsCircuitryProjectionInterneuronsLigandsStimuliOdoursPathwaysCerebral cortexNERVEAppetitiveSense organsCranialTerminatesRegulateSignalsBULBSynapsesLimbicConveysSynapticBehaviorsPlasticityConsistsLateral hornMiceNeuralCellsParadigmBRAINExtensivelyResponsesProteinConcentrationsFunctionBehavioralIntegrateFoundTypesRoleEnvironmentActivationWire togetherArea

Odor4

• found that a subset of neurons called inhibitory projection neurons processes information about whether the odor is attractive or repulsive, and that a second subset of these neurons process information about the intensity of the odor. (elifesciences.org)
• Here, we investigate the extent to which a honey bee's ability to assess food quality affected the formation of association with an odor stimulus and the retention of olfactory memories associated with reward. (silverchair.com)
• Finally, to test whether the act of feeding on a reward containing sucrose during conditioning affected olfactory memory formation, we conditioned honey bees to associate an odor with antennal stimulation with sucrose followed by feeding on a water droplet. (silverchair.com)
• Li H, Li Y, Lei Z , Wang K, Guo A . Transformation of odor selectivity from projection neurons to single mushroom body neurons mapped with dual-color calcium imaging. (neurotree.org)

Afferent3

• Specialized afferent neurons capable of transducing sensory stimuli into NERVE IMPULSES to be transmitted to the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. (lookformedical.com)
• Cutaneous receptors are at the ends of afferent neurons. (mukemmellokma.com)
• Sensory neurons, also known as afferent neurons, are neurons in the nervous system, that convert a specific type of stimulus, via their receptors, into action potentials or graded potentials. (mukemmellokma.com)

Drosophila5

• Liu H , Zhou B, Yan W, Lei Z , Zhao X , Zhang K, Guo A . Astrocyte-like glial cells physiologically regulate olfactory processing through the modification of ORN-PN synaptic strength in Drosophila. (neurotree.org)
• Lei Z , Chen K , Li H, Liu H , Guo A . The GABA system regulates the sparse coding of odors in the mushroom bodies of Drosophila. (neurotree.org)
• Zhang X, Liu H , Lei Z , Wu Z, Guo A . Lobula-specific visual projection neurons are involved in perception of motion-defined second-order motion in Drosophila. (neurotree.org)
• The Drosophila giant fiber (GF) escape circuit is an extensively studied model for neuron connectivity and function. (eneuro.org)
• The Drosophila giant fiber circuit has long served as such a model, due to large neuron size, genetic malleability, and easily visualized behavioral output: a jump in response to a threat. (eneuro.org)

Odorant receptors3

• These neurons send their DENDRITES to the surface of the epithelium with the odorant receptors residing in the apical non-motile cilia . (lookformedical.com)
• The large number of different odorant receptors appears to arise from several gene families or subfamilies rather than from DNA rearrangement. (lookformedical.com)
• J. The open reading frames of three odorant receptors were cloned from cDNlibrary made from the antennae of female Anopheles gambiae. (hsp70inhibitor.com)

Odors3

• The ability to detect scents or odors , such as the function of OLFACTORY RECEPTOR NEURONS . (lookformedical.com)
• Moreover, functional imaging disclosed a LH region tuned to repulsive odors comprised exclusively of third-order neurons. (elifesciences.org)
• Other insects, such as honey bees and hawk moths, have olfactory systems with a similar architecture and might also employ a similar spatial approach to encode information regarding the intensity and identity of odors. (elifesciences.org)

Circuitry1

• As olfactory bulb (OB) circuitry plays a critical role in odour learning, we studied the plausible changes in the OB of ELS mice. (nature.com)

Projection3

• The accessory olfactory bulb , which receives the projection from the VOMERONASAL ORGAN via the vomeronasal nerve, is also included here. (lookformedical.com)
• We characterized an olfactory-processing pathway, comprised of inhibitory projection neurons (iPNs) that target the LH exclusively, at morphological, functional and behavioral levels. (elifesciences.org)
• In the locust, olfactory information is sent from peripheral olfactory organs to the antennal lobe (AL) and is then carried as the oscillatory output of a synchronized population of projection neurons (PNs) ( Wehr and Laurent, 1996 ) to two higher olfactory centers. (jneurosci.org)

Interneurons1

• focused on a population of interneurons in the LH [LHIs, a subtype of LH neurons (LHNs)] that extends processes to the MB and appears to be GABAergic. (jneurosci.org)

Ligands1

• Foretinib solubility Downstream signaling activities were also analyzed following activation of the receptors with putative OR ligands in lepidopteran cells that were either transfected with one or more of the cloned ORs or also co transfected with the promiscuous individual G 16 protein, which mediates downstream signaling by activating the phospholipase C pathway. (hsp70inhibitor.com)

Stimuli4

• Adult flies are trained en masse to differentially associate one of two visual conditioned stimuli (CS) (blue and green light as CS) with an appetitive or aversive chemical substance (unconditioned stimulus or US). (frontiersin.org)
• In response to stimuli the sensory receptor fires off a nerve fibre which goes to the central nervous system. (mukemmellokma.com)
• These categories are based on the nature of the stimuli that each receptor class transduces. (mukemmellokma.com)
• The stimuli that each receptor type conveys a distinct sensory modality to integrate into a canal or sac the! (mukemmellokma.com)

Odours1

• In adult humans with history of childhood maltreatment, which is a type of ELA, OB volume was reduced by 20% with a concomitant decrease in their olfactory detection thresholds and problems in identifying odours [ 13 ]. (nature.com)

Pathways2

• Sulfoxaflor and neonicotinoids like imidacloprid act on the same target, the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), but they are thought to be detoxified through different pathways and differ in affinity to nAChR subunits ( 5 , 6 ). (frontiersin.org)
• A sensory system consists of sensory neurons (including the sensory receptor cells), neural pathways, and parts of the brain involved in sensory perception.Commonly recognized sensory systems are those for vision, hearing, touch, taste, smell, and balance. (mukemmellokma.com)

Cerebral cortex2

• Set of nerve fibers conducting impulses from olfactory receptors to the cerebral cortex. (lookformedical.com)
• The cerebrum's outer layer, the cerebral cortex, is composed of gray matter made up of nerve cell bodies. (jrank.org)

NERVE5

• Ovoid body resting on the CRIBRIFORM PLATE of the ethmoid bone where the OLFACTORY NERVE terminates. (lookformedical.com)
• The olfactory bulb contains several types of nerve cells including the mitral cells, on whose DENDRITES the olfactory nerve synapses , forming the olfactory glomeruli. (lookformedical.com)
• The olfactory nerve conveys the sense of smell . (lookformedical.com)
• Tactile receptors range in complexity from free nerve endings to specialized sensory complexes complete with accessory cells and supporting structures. (mukemmellokma.com)
• Thus, both modulated Notch and BMP activity disrupts the conducive tomation of the olfactory nerve, without significantly counterfeiting cell death. (centralparkcarriagesofficial.org)

Appetitive2

• Our results show that stimulation of the sensory receptors on the proboscis and/or ingestion of the sucrose reward during appetitive olfactory conditioning are necessary for long-term memory formation. (silverchair.com)
• An important aspect of appetitive learning, therefore, is the evaluation of food quality either via pre-ingestive mechanisms such as gustatory receptors at the sensory periphery or using post-ingestive mechanisms for assessing food quality after food has been consumed. (silverchair.com)

Sense organs1

• The human sense organs contain receptors that relay information through sensory neurons to the appropriate places within the nervous system. (mukemmellokma.com)

Cranial1

• Among these cranial nerves are the olfactory nerves that bring messages about smell and the optic nerves that conduct visual information. (jrank.org)

Terminates1

• Researchers have long taken advantage of the simple linear neuronal pathway, which begins at peripheral sensory modalities, travels through the central GF interneuron (GFI) to motor neurons, and terminates on wing/leg muscles. (eneuro.org)

Regulate2

• The hypothalamus controls a number of body functions, such as heartbeat rate and digestion, and helps regulate the endocrine system and normal body temperature. (jrank.org)
• support neurons structurally and metabolically (regulate pH, ion concentrations) e.g. (assignguru.com)

Signals2

• Perception of these chemical signals may be olfactory or by contact. (lookformedical.com)
• 2 I see it as the enhanced synapses' having less resistance to passage of electrochemical neuronal circuits, so that signals take the path of least resistance from one neuron to another. (natural-universe.net)

BULB3

• Their unmyelinated AXONS synapse in the OLFACTORY BULB of the BRAIN . (lookformedical.com)
• It is formed by the axons of OLFACTORY RECEPTOR NEURONS which project from the olfactory epithelium (in the nasal epithelium) to the OLFACTORY BULB . (lookformedical.com)
• Mammalian olfactory bulb (OB) is a specialised pre-cortical area of the brain that processes smell and can be modulated by the affective states. (nature.com)

Synapses1

• GFC1-4 share a central site of GFI connectivity, the inframedial bridge, where the neurons each form electrical synapses. (eneuro.org)

Limbic2

• Although it is known that olfactory centres are entwined with limbic brain regions, olfactory dysfunctions under conditions of ELA remain elusive. (nature.com)
• The receptors are located primarily in the limbic system of the brain. (mukemmellokma.com)

Conveys1

• Each receptor type conveys a distinct sensory modality to integrate into a single perceptual frame eventually. (mukemmellokma.com)

Synaptic1

• We identify new transgenic Gal4 drivers that express specifically in these neurons, and map both neuronal architecture and synaptic polarity. (eneuro.org)

Behaviors1

• Research on the bodies and behaviors of our furry (and creepy and crawly and slimy and slithery) cousins can help scientists learn more about our own species' evolution and cognition. (mukemmellokma.com)

Plasticity1

• Zhou M, Lei Z , Li H, Yi W, Zhang Z , Guo A . NMDA receptors-dependent plasticity in the phototaxis preference behavior induced by visual deprivation in young and adult flies. (neurotree.org)

Consists2

• Each neuron consists of a body, an axon, and dendrites . (lookformedical.com)
• a , The network consists of many simple computing nodes, each simulating a neuron, and organized in a series of layers. (jneurosci.org)

Lateral horn1

• addressed how attractiveness or repulsiveness of a smell, and also the strength of a smell, are processed by a part of the olfactory system called the lateral horn in fruit flies. (elifesciences.org)

Mice2

• By implementing go/no-go odour discrimination paradigm, we observed olfactory learning and memory impairments in early life stressed (ELS) male mice. (nature.com)
• Compromised mammillary body connectivity and psychotic symptoms in mice with di- and mesencephalic ablation of ST8SIA2. (mhh.de)

Neural1

• Genetic model neural circuits with individually identifiable neurons help us to understand how nervous systems wire together during development, and then operate through coordinated chemical and electrical signaling. (eneuro.org)

Cells1

• question because taste-receptor cells get replaced every 5-20 days. (mukemmellokma.com)

Paradigm1

• C. Elegans Positive Olfactory Associative Memory Is a Molecularly Conserved Behavioral Paradigm. (princeton.edu)

BRAIN5

• As a result, each side of the brain controls the opposite side of the body. (jrank.org)
• In general, the left half of the brain controls the right side of the body, and vice versa. (jrank.org)
• The sensory receptor does not "interpret" the change….that is the job of your brain. (mukemmellokma.com)
• Transgenic overexpression of polysialyltransferase ST8SiaIV under the control of a neuron-specific promoter does not affect brain development but impairs exploratory behavior. (mhh.de)
• Identification of this large population of electrically coupled neurons in this classic model, and the ability to genetically manipulate these electrically synapsed neurons, expands the GF system capabilities for the nuanced, sophisticated circuit dissection necessary for deeper investigations into brain formation. (eneuro.org)

Extensively2

• One center, the mushroom body (MB), has been studied extensively and is thought to be a site for olfactory learning ( Davis, 2011 ). (jneurosci.org)
• Overall, this work reveals extensively coupled interconnectivity within the GF circuit, and the requirement of coupled neurons for circuit development. (eneuro.org)

Responses1

• Proteins, usually projecting from the cilia of olfactory receptor neurons , that specifically bind odorant molecules and trigger responses in the neurons . (lookformedical.com)

Protein1

• A ubiquitous, cytoplasmic protein found in mature OLFACTORY RECEPTOR NEURONS of all VERTEBRATES. (lookformedical.com)

Concentrations1

• 1) Chemoreceptors - these are receptors that are designed to sense changes in chemical concentrations in the environment surrounding the receptor. (mukemmellokma.com)

Function4

• Yet relatively little is known of the structure and function of LH neurons (LHNs), making it difficult to evaluate these ideas. (jneurosci.org)
• instead, it appears that another mechanism, feedback inhibition from the giant GABAergic neuron, serves this function. (jneurosci.org)
• The necessity to function with resource constraints has led evolution to design animal brains (and bodies) to be optimal in their use of computational power while being adaptable to their environmental niche. (jneurosci.org)
• Learn about 4 types of sensory receptors, their location, and function in this video! (mukemmellokma.com)

Behavioral1

• in vitro studies suggest that PeF-orexinergic neurons are under glutamatergic influence, the sleep-wake behavioral consequences of glutamatergic activation of those neurons are not known. (flt-3inhibitors.com)

Integrate1

• We illustrate how animals integrate these learning principles using the fruit fly olfactory learning circuit, one of nature's best-characterized and highly optimized schemes for learning. (jneurosci.org)

Found1

• They are found in tropical and subtropical waters and characterized by short spines along the length of the tail and body. (lookformedical.com)

Types1

• S1P receptor 1 is expressed by many muscle cell types, especially muscle fibers, and phosphorylated S1PR1 is localized in the plasmmem intracellularly and brane of muscle fibers. (hsp70inhibitor.com)

Role1

• We provide evidence for a feature-based map in the LH, and elucidate its role as the center for integrating behaviorally relevant olfactory information. (elifesciences.org)

Environment1

• mechanoreceptor: Any receptor that provides an organism with information about mechanical changes in its environment such as movement, tension, and pressure. (mukemmellokma.com)

Activation1

• We examined the effects of bilateral glutamatergic activation of neurons in and around the PeF on sleep-wake parameters in freely behaving rats. (flt-3inhibitors.com)

Wire together1

• The idea is conveyed by the popular statement, "Neurons that fire together wire together. (natural-universe.net)

Area1

• The orexinergic neurons, localized in the perifornical hypothalamic area (PeF), are active during waking and quiet during non-rapid eye PI3K inhibitor movement (non-REM) and REM sleep. (flt-3inhibitors.com)