• Actin treadmilling is the process of turnover of actin filaments where F-actin is rapidly assembled and disassembled. (wikipedia.org)
  • Postsynaptically, actin filaments traffic AMPA receptors to the PSDZ, while also providing scaffolding for plasticity products such as CAMKII. (wikipedia.org)
  • [ 3 ] The exact function of WASp is not fully elucidated, but it seems to function as a bridge between signaling and movement of the actin filaments in the cytoskeleton. (medscape.com)
  • Next, gelsolin (activated by Ca ++ ) severs actin filaments to create barbed ends, but then must be uncapped from the filament by phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphonate and Rac to proceed with polymerization. (medscape.com)
  • The cytoskeleton is typically divided into three distinct components: microtubules, intermediate filaments and actin[ 4 , 5 ]. (biorxiv.org)
  • Unlike the globular units of microtubules and actin filaments, intermediate filaments are themselves constructed from filamentous sub-units, and confer strength as well as stress resistance to the cell[ 10 ]. (biorxiv.org)
  • Finally, actin filaments, also known as microfilaments, are the narrowest components of the cytoskeleton and are constructed from globular actin sub-units (G-actin) that assemble to form a helical structure 5-7nm in diameter[ 12 ]. (biorxiv.org)
  • Actin microfilaments are present as both individual filaments and bundled into thicker filaments, and play a key role in plant cell growth and internal transport[ 14 ]. (biorxiv.org)
  • The effect on actin filaments is because of enzymes before GAPDH, the first enzyme in the payoff phase. (jneurosci.org)
  • The growth cone is the site of axon extension, and it is characterized by a complex morphology wholly dependent on the actin filaments that underlie filopodia and lamellipodia formation and dynamics ( Dent and Gertler, 2003 ). (jneurosci.org)
  • A requirement for actin filaments (F-actin) in mediating axon retraction has long been established ( Solomon and Magendantz, 1981 ). (biologists.com)
  • In living cells, cofilin is not necessary for actin assembly on endocytic membranes but is recruited to molecularly aged adenosine diphosphate actin filaments and is necessary for their rapid disassembly. (rupress.org)
  • Cofilin binds preferentially to ADP-actin subunits within actin filaments. (rupress.org)
  • This binding induces a twist in the filament, accelerates the release of Pi from ADP-Pi subunits, and severs actin filaments ( Pollard and Borisy, 2003 ). (rupress.org)
  • The molecular determinants of cofilin recruitment to actin filaments in vivo have not been fully investigated. (rupress.org)
  • This localization was found to be unaffected by manipulations that were expected to change polymerization rates at the leading edge, which should alter the relative abundance of ATP-, ADP-Pi-, and ADP-actin subunits within the filaments. (rupress.org)
  • A central feature of actin dynamics is the capacity of filaments to polymerize and depolymerize at their ends in response to cellular conditions. (cipsm.de)
  • B) LFP vectors, are informative about the overall organization of apical actin filaments is increased to 1. (fvcruisecontrol.com)
  • At the same time, TB-500 affects actin filaments, a cellular structure crucial for cell movement and, consequently, tissue regeneration. (direct-peptides.com)
  • Intracellular L. monocytogenes replicate in the cytoplasm of host cells and induce the polymerization of host actin filaments at the bacterial surface. (silverchair.com)
  • Actin nucleation triggers the formation of new actin filaments and has the power to shape cells but requires tight control in order to bring about proper morphologies. (healthanddietblog.info)
  • Author Summary The organization and the formation of new actin filaments by polymerization of actin monomers has the power to shape cells. (healthanddietblog.info)
  • Introduction Metazoan life critically relies on the formation organization and dynamics of actin filaments which are for example crucial for shaping and movement of membranes and entire cells. (healthanddietblog.info)
  • GI:203255) because CaM kinases (CaMKs) downstream of CaM were observed to be involved in dendritogenesis [4 5 Prime effector machinery that may power early neuromorphogenesis would be proteins with the ability to trigger the formation of new actin filaments in a spatially and locally well-controlled manner. (healthanddietblog.info)
  • These membrane domains remain directly connected to the cell body with a complex underlying cytoarchitecture comprising microtubules distributed in larger processes and actin filaments enriched in thinner myelin domains and in paranodes [ 6 , 7 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Actin Binding Proteins (ABPs) facilitate rapid remodeling of the actin cytoskeleton by regulating the unpolymerized (G-actin monomers) and polymerized (F-actin filaments) actin (ACT) equilibrium [ 1 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Recently, profilin has also been found to inhibit the spontaneous polymerization of actin filaments by forming a 1:1 complex with G-actin, thereby lowering ATP-G-actin steady-state concentrations. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Although profilin-bound actin monomers cannot add to pointed ends of actin filaments, they have been shown to elongate filament barbed ends at approximately the same rate as free actin monomers [ 14 , 15 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of the disassembly of intermediate filaments by the removal of monomers from a filament. (mcw.edu)
  • Furthermore, the actin cytoskeleton in the neck of the spine compartmentalizes the LTP induced response to the innervated dendritic spine, which leads to the specificity of LTP. (wikipedia.org)
  • [ 4 ] that interfere with the protein binding to Cdc42 and Rac GTPases, among other binding partners, most of which are involved in regulation of the actin cytoskeleton of lymphocytes. (medscape.com)
  • The actin cytoskeleton is responsible for cellular functions such as growth, endocytosis, exocytosis, and cytokinesis. (medscape.com)
  • The actin cytoskeleton is essential in eukaryotes, not least in the plant kingdom where it plays key roles in cell expansion, cell division, environmental responses and pathogen defence. (biorxiv.org)
  • In addition to these results, our algorithm is designed to be easily adaptable to other tissues, mutants and plants, and so will be a valuable asset for the study and future biological engineering of the actin cytoskeleton in globally-important crops. (biorxiv.org)
  • In addition, this problem is by far the most acute for actin, the narrowest element of the cytoskeleton, which is ubiquitous throughout eukaryotic cells. (biorxiv.org)
  • Formed from polymerisation of discrete protein sub-units, the cytoskeleton connects to various organelles (including the nucleus) and the plasma membrane. (biorxiv.org)
  • I suggest that in the context of semaphorin 3A signaling, RhoA-kinase serves as a switch to change the function of the F-actin cytoskeleton from promoting protrusive activity to generating contractile forces. (biologists.com)
  • Flagella from E. coli O157 (H7), EPEC O127 (H6) and S. Typhimurium (P1 and P2 flagella) were shown to bind to purified intracellular components of the actin cytoskeleton and directly increase in vitro actin polymerization rates. (ed.ac.uk)
  • Binds to actin and affects the structure of the cytoskeleton. (cusabio.com)
  • Thymosin is involved in cell proliferation, migration and differentiation caused by a specific interaction with actin in the cell cytoskeleton (giving the cell shape and mechanical resistance to deformation). (genx.bio)
  • Ena/VASP proteins are actin-associated proteins involved in a range of processes dependent on cytoskeleton remodeling and cell polarity such as axon guidance, lamellipodial and filopodial dynamics, platelet activation and cell migration. (affbiotech.com)
  • The actin cytoskeleton is involved in an array of integral structural and developmental processes throughout the cell. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Studies of EPEC and EHEC O157 show that these pathogens trigger different actin polymerization pathways respectively involving Tir cytoskeleton coupling proteins ( tccP or tccP2 ) ( 5 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Rho GTPases are then activated to polymerize G-actin to F-actin through the activity of actin binding proteins. (wikipedia.org)
  • A major modulator of actin filament disassembly is the actin-depolymerization factor/cofilin family of proteins (hereafter referred to as cofilin). (rupress.org)
  • These small highly conserved actin-binding proteins are essential regulators of actin dynamics in living cells. (rupress.org)
  • Severing increases the number of actin filament pointed ends and, in conjunction with capping of barbed ends by capping proteins, stimulates filament disassembly ( Andrianantoandro and Pollard, 2006 ). (rupress.org)
  • In this study, using direct visualization of single actin filament elongation, we show that actin polymerization kinetics at both filament ends are strongly influenced by the binding of proteins to the lateral filament surface. (cipsm.de)
  • To elucidate the mechanism of actin disassembly, we characterized molecular kinetics of the major filament end-binding proteins Arp2/3 complex and capping protein (CP) using single-molecule speckle microscopy. (silverchair.com)
  • The computational model was constructed as a network-like 2D stochastic polymerization of actin guided by the proximity of cell membrane with branching governed by Arp2/3 and WASP proteins. (sbpreports.com)
  • Once actin barbed ends (+ end of actin polarity) become blocked by capping proteins, profilin begins to sequester G-actin from pointed-end polymerization [ 11 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • By numerous specific protein-protein interactions, SHANKs are either directly or indirectly linked to other structural proteins, cell adhesion molecules, receptors, ion channels and to actin-interacting proteins at the postsynaptic density. (nature.com)
  • The filamin family of proteins bind to both actin and a number of signaling molecules including Rho GTPases. (mechanobio.info)
  • It interrupts the actin polymerization-depolymerization cycle and impairs cell membrane function. (medscape.com)
  • Phalloidin interrupts actin polymerisation and impairs cell membrane function, but has a limited absorption and therefore toxicity. (brainkart.com)
  • Phalloidin binds to the actin F (filamentous polymer) of the plasma membranes, and hence increases the perme-ability of the plasma membranes of hepatocytes. (brainkart.com)
  • Filamin binds all actin isoforms (e.g. (mechanobio.info)
  • Actin exists in two states in the axonal and dendritic processes: globular or G-actin and filament/filamentous or F-actin. (wikipedia.org)
  • However, extensive research has shown that they also play a complex role in the formation of F-actin (filamentous actin) through the replenishment of the ATP-actin monomer pool via catalyzing the exchange of ADP for ATP on Actin [ 12 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Mapping synaptic transmission between identified neurons, they usually allow to record only one caused lysis to occur in some cases (S2B Fig and S1 Text) exhibit similar PCC trends, suggesting that DCP1 overexpression in naive cultures does not affect the formation of filamentous actin polymerisation. (storiedellaltromondo.com)
  • Thymosin-β4 plays a role in regulating actin polymerization and encoding the actin sequestering protein in eukaryotic cells, which are cells that contain organelles, a nucleus, and are enclosed by a plasma membrane. (direct-peptides.com)
  • Thymosin Beta 4 intervenes in the regulation of actin polymerization encoding an actin sequestering protein in eukaryotic cells. (genx.bio)
  • T β 4 regulates actin polymerization and functions as an anti-inflammatory molecule and an antioxidant as well as a promoter of wound healing and angiogenesis. (hindawi.com)
  • TB-500 is a synthetic version of (Thymosin Beta-4), which is a 43 formed amino-acid protein that regulates actin polymerization. (genx.bio)
  • G-actin subunits preferentially add to the barbed end of the F-actin polymer and older units are removed from the pointed end. (wikipedia.org)
  • The Arp2/3 complex is composed of seven subunits and stimulates the formation of branched actin filament networks. (bvsalud.org)
  • They extend and contract through the reversible assembly of actin subunits into microfilaments. (studysmarter.co.uk)
  • The concentration of free G-actin monomers decreases until it reaches a critical concentration where the rate of assembly to disassembly or the F to G-actin ratio reaches a steady state. (wikipedia.org)
  • The increase in polymerized F-actin is due to the recruitment of G-actin monomers and the translation of actin mRNA in the dendrite. (wikipedia.org)
  • The rate-limiting step in actin polymerization is "nucleation"-a process during which the first actin monomers are assembled with the help of actin nucleators. (healthanddietblog.info)
  • However, the role of actin filament disassembly (a key step in actin dynamics) during actin-mediated endocytosis is less clear. (rupress.org)
  • These data indicate that the glycolytic pathway is operative in distal axons and contributes to the rate of axon extension and growth cone dynamics in the presence of NGF and that, in the absence of NGF, the axonal glycolytic pathway is required for axon maintenance. (jneurosci.org)
  • In this study, we analyzed the dynamics of fluorescently tagged cofilin and the role of cofilin-mediated actin turnover during endocytosis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae . (rupress.org)
  • Cofilin and its role in actin dynamics have been studied extensively in vitro. (rupress.org)
  • Actin filament dynamics govern many key physiological processes from cell motility to tissue morphogenesis. (cipsm.de)
  • Tuning elongation kinetics by exploiting the malleability of the filament structure may be a ubiquitous mechanism to generate a rich variety of cellular actin dynamics. (cipsm.de)
  • CP dissociates slower from actin stress fibers than from the lamellipodial actin network, suggesting that CP dissociation correlates with actin filament dynamics. (silverchair.com)
  • This CP dissociation rate is three orders of magnitude faster than in vitro. (silverchair.com)
  • In addition, SCNT embryos are especially sensible to in vitro culture conditions and a non-invasive method for the prediction of their developmental potential, which could increase success rates, is lacking. (uab.cat)
  • In addition, it has been shown here that LatA improves in vitro developmental rates, especially of those embryos non-treated with epigenetic modifiers. (uab.cat)
  • Nucleation, the rate-limiting step, is stimulated by a complex of actin-related protein Arp2/3 and WASp. (medscape.com)
  • We have determined the dissociation rates of Arp2/3 and CP as 0.048 and 0.58 s −1 , respectively, in lamellipodia of live XTC fibroblasts. (silverchair.com)
  • Translocation of the ADP-ribosyltransferase component of CDT toxin into human colon carcinoma Caco2 cells led to ADP-ribosylation of cellular Arp2 and actin followed by a collapse of the lamellipodial extensions and F-actin network. (bvsalud.org)
  • The Listeria monocytogenes ActA protein mediates actin-based motility by recruiting and stimulating the Arp2/3 complex. (silverchair.com)
  • Furthermore, purified VASP enhances the actin-nucleating activity of wild-type ActA and the Arp2/3 complex while also reducing the frequency of actin branch formation. (silverchair.com)
  • The well-established actin filament-promoting components i.e. the Arp2/3 Formins and complex are controlled by Rho-type GTPases [6-9]. (healthanddietblog.info)
  • Actin forms the dendritic nucleation network and undergoes rapid polymerization-depolymerization cycles in lamellipodia. (silverchair.com)
  • The ability of VASP to contribute to actin filament nucleation and to regulate actin filament architecture highlights the central role of VASP in actin-based motility. (silverchair.com)
  • G-actin is the monomer form of actin, and is uniformly distributed throughout the axon and the dendrite. (wikipedia.org)
  • F-actin is the polymer form of actin, and its presence in dendritic spines is associated with their change in shape and structure. (wikipedia.org)
  • In combination with myosin motors, actin aids in transport by providing the roads and pathways for cellular cargo[ 13 ]. (biorxiv.org)
  • Flagella interactions with host cell surfaces were intimate and crossed cellular boundaries as demarcated by actin and membrane labelling. (ed.ac.uk)
  • The findings of our study demonstrate a direct regulation of an actin nucleator by Ca2+/CaM and reveal that the Ca2+/CaM-controlled molecular mechanisms we discovered are crucial for Cobl's cellular functions. (healthanddietblog.info)
  • By unveiling the means of Cobl regulation and the mechanisms by which Ca2+/CaM signals directly converge on a cellular effector promoting actin filament formation our work furthermore sheds light on how local Ca2+ signals steer and power branch initiation during early arborization of nerve cells-a key process in neuronal network formation. (healthanddietblog.info)
  • Genetic and biochemical analysis of a conditional allele of cofilin showed that the actin filament disassembly activity of cofilin is essential for fluid-phase endocytosis ( Lappalainen and Drubin, 1997 ). (rupress.org)
  • Such cytoskeletal changes appeared to render the eggs more receptive to sperm, as judged by the significant alleviation of polyspermy by latrunculin-A and mycalolide-B. In addition, our fluorimetric assay provided the first evidence that nicotine directly accelerates polymerization kinetics of G-actin and attenuates depolymerization of preassembled F-actin. (mdpi.com)
  • It is currently thought that filament kinetics can be described by a single rate constant for each end. (cipsm.de)
  • This thesis studies the polymerization kinetics of ATRP with mathematical models based on our own experimental work and experimental data published by other researchers. (ndltd.org)
  • This is one of very few studies combining detailed mathematical models for polymerization kinetics and polymer microstructure and experimental results in the area of ATRP. (ndltd.org)
  • Non-LTP inducing stimuli cause alterations in spine morphology due to changes in actin polymerization. (wikipedia.org)
  • Defects in cofilin function alter the morphology of actin networks in vivo and reduce the rate of actin flux through actin networks. (rupress.org)
  • Here, we provide genetic and biochemical evidence that vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (VASP) recruitment by ActA can bypass defects in actin monomer-binding. (silverchair.com)
  • In the presynaptic region, actin allows for the formation of new axonal branches that result in new boutons. (wikipedia.org)
  • Considering filament polymerization requires ATP, inhibition of glycolysis results in a paradoxical increase in axonal actin filament levels. (jneurosci.org)
  • Furthermore, semaphorin 3A promotes the formation of intra-axonal F-actin bundles in concert with the loss of F-actin in growth cone lamellipodia and filopodia. (biologists.com)
  • Formation of axonal F-actin bundles was independent of myosin II, but partially required RhoA-kinase activity. (biologists.com)
  • Collectively, these observations suggest that guidance cues cause axon retraction through the coordinated activation of myosin II and the formation of intra-axonal F-actin bundles for myosin-II-based force generation. (biologists.com)
  • At high concentrations, profilin prevents the polymerization of actin, whereas it enhances it at low concentrations. (cusabio.com)
  • While profilin does not bind F-actin directly, profilin-ATP-G-actin complexes are essential for rapid filament assembly [ 13 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • This would lead us to believe that profilin might be facilitating rather than inhibiting polymerization [ 16 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • This idea is further strengthened by results indicating that profilin could lower the critical concentration of actin needed to drive polymerization [ 17 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • While the role of profilin in actin mechanics and signaling has been explored in detail, its role in development is tissue and development is poorly understood. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Inhibits androgen receptor (AR) and HTT aggregation and binding of G-actin is essential for its inhibition of AR. (cusabio.com)
  • In this sense, the use of latrunculin A (LatA) instead of cytochalasin B for actin polymerization inhibition significantly improves the development to term of HDACitreated SCNT embryos. (uab.cat)
  • However, the molecular mechanism of cofilin recruitment to actin networks during dynamic actin-mediated processes in living cells and cofilin's precise in vivo functions have not been determined. (rupress.org)
  • In addition to homopolymerization studies, this thesis presents mathematical models for copolymerization with ATRP and for processes combining ATRP and coordination polymerization. (ndltd.org)
  • In the actin remodeling of neurons, the protein actin is part of the process to change the shape and structure of dendritic spines. (wikipedia.org)
  • Cobl-induced dendritic branch initiation was preceded by Ca2+ SNX-2112 signals and coincided with local CaM and F-actin accumulations. (healthanddietblog.info)
  • Here we SNX-2112 analyse signaling cascades and mechanisms regulating the actin nucleator Cobl which is crucial for the formation of dendritic arbors of nerve cells-a key process in neuronal network formation. (healthanddietblog.info)
  • We observed local accumulation of CaM Cobl actin and syndapin I-a membrane-shaping protein-at dendritic branch initiation sites. (healthanddietblog.info)
  • Actin remodeling consists of the dynamic changes in actin polymerization that underlie the morphological changes at the neural synapse. (wikipedia.org)
  • One of the mechanisms of action for TB500 peptides is the regulation of Actin, a vital protein for cell structure. (direct-peptides.com)
  • In summary we i) show a direct regulation of the actin nucleator Cobl by Ca2+/CaM ii) demonstrate that the molecular mechanisms we discovered are crucial for shaping nerve cells SNX-2112 and iii) underscore how local Ca2+ signals steer and power branch initiation during early arborization of neurons. (healthanddietblog.info)
  • Actin, a family of hemoproteins that form microfilaments, is present in virtually every eukaryotic cell. (direct-peptides.com)
  • Under conditions of suppressed oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis actin turnover in developing neurons consumes ∼50% of the available ATP ( Bernstein and Bamburg, 2003 ), indicating that actin filament turnover is a major bioenergetic drain. (jneurosci.org)
  • Cofilin is the major mediator of actin filament turnover in vivo. (rupress.org)
  • Target organs are those with the highest rate of cell turnover-GI tract epithelium, liver hepatocytes, and kidneys. (brainkart.com)
  • Filamin forms a vital scaffolding adaptor and regulatory component that contributes to the mechanical stability of cells by linking the internal actin network with membrane receptors and mechanosensitive components. (mechanobio.info)
  • Myosin II interacts with F-actin to generate contractile forces that result in axon retraction. (biologists.com)
  • Actin plays a role in the formation of new spines as well as stabilizing spine volume increase. (wikipedia.org)
  • The changes that actin brings about lead to the formation of new synapses as well as increased cell communication. (wikipedia.org)
  • Actin is only able to cause all of the changes that promote long-term potentiation (LTP) through its formation from G-actin into F-actin. (wikipedia.org)
  • Actin plays a role in the formation of new spines as well as stabilized spine volume increase. (wikipedia.org)
  • The directed movement of neutrophils is provided by the rapid polymerization of actin with the formation of a protrusion growing forward. (sbpreports.com)
  • In addition, it greatly reduced the invasiveness of breast tumor cells, stopped the maturation of invadopodia in tumor cells, and lowered the rate of polymerization of actin, which is needed for progression in invadopodia formation. (medboundtimes.com)
  • however, this region is dispensable for actin-based motility in cells. (silverchair.com)
  • F-actin is a two-stranded asymmetrical helical polymer. (wikipedia.org)
  • The consequences of decreasing actin flux are manifested by decreased but not blocked endocytic internalization at the plasma membrane and defects in late steps of membrane trafficking to the vacuole. (rupress.org)
  • We find that Ca2+/CaM modulates Cobl's actin-binding properties and promotes its interactions with syndapin I which then serves as a membrane anchor for Cobl. (healthanddietblog.info)
  • Using this algorithm, we then studied a number of cases in Arabidopsis thaliana , including several different tissues, a variety of actin-affected mutants, and cells responding to powdery mildew. (biorxiv.org)
  • Actin remodeling is a biochemical process in cells. (wikipedia.org)
  • In cells, F-actin assumes specific types of organization depending on its functions. (biologists.com)
  • By binding to Actin, the peptide can stimulate the production of new blood cells. (direct-peptides.com)
  • Polarized polymerization of actin propels the bacteria through the cytoplasm and into pseudopod-like structures that are engulfed by neighboring cells. (silverchair.com)
  • We thus investigated the in vivo dynamic, actin-related response of these cells under different kinds of demyelinating stress. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Cells with the highest rate of multiplication, such as the intestinal mucosa, are injured first, followed by the liver and kidneys. (brainkart.com)
  • To determine the molecular mechanisms, we modeled the V409I/A mutants in budding yeast and found that they promote intrinsically faster microtubule polymerization rates in cells and in reconstitution experiments with purified tubulin. (elifesciences.org)
  • how can myosin II drive axon retraction if the major source of the required substratum for force generation, growth cone F-actin, has been depleted? (biologists.com)
  • Actin is an ATPase and must be loaded with ATP to polymerize and subsequently hydrolyzes the ATP once incorporated into a filament. (jneurosci.org)
  • Additionally, actin is present at the active zone and plays a role in moving vesicles to the active zone for exocytosis into the synapse. (wikipedia.org)
  • A1731S overexpression strongly decreased the SHANK2-Bassoon-positive synapse number and diminished the F/G-actin ratio. (nature.com)
  • G-actin are the monomer building blocks that assemble via weak noncovalent interactions to form F-actin. (wikipedia.org)
  • F-actin is concentrated at the growth cone and sparse in the axon ( Letourneau, 1983 ). (biologists.com)
  • Importantly, repellent guidance cues cause growth cone collapse and depolymerize growth cone F-actin while promoting axon retraction ( Gallo and Letourneau, 2004 ). (biologists.com)
  • In order to investigate the plasticity of mature ODCs under demyelinating conditions in vivo , we have thus generated a mouse model (oLucR) in which luciferase expression is controlled by a β-actin promoter and restricted specifically to mature ODCs [ 28 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Coronaviruses infect vertebrates and may cause acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) with high morbidity and mortality rates, depending on species [ 1 , 2 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • The protein is used to improve the healing of acute injuries with a slow rate in the process of recuperation [3] . (direct-peptides.com)