Induced Oxidative StressApoptosisLiverProcess of oxidative phosphorylationMammalianMetabolismMtDNAAdenosine triphosphateRole of MitochondriaReactive oxygenEukaryotic cellsProteinsDysfunctionPathwaysInflammationNeuronalPhysiologicalEndoplasmic reticulumTumorEnzymaticCellular energyMiceStress inducedMembranesProteinMechanismsIntermembraneNeuroblastomaFree radicalsDamageProcessesSynthesisMnSODPrecursorsCytochromeGlutathioneEnzymeCellPhysiologyPreferentiallyNeurodegenerationAntioxidantGenesReductionAerobicOrganelleEukaryotesCellsOuterStructuresRespiratoryDeficiencyTissueFatty
Induced Oxidative Stress1
- In conclusion, the presented results demonstrate that picein can significantly reduce the level of MQ-induced oxidative stress on mitochondria, and thereby plays a role as a potent neuroprotectant. (abo.fi)
Apoptosis10
- Mitochondria are the cellular powerhouse of eukaryotic cells, and they also regulate brain function through oxidative stress and apoptosis. (frontiersin.org)
- Alterations in mitochondrial functions such as oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and membrane polarity, which increase oxidative stress and apoptosis, may precede the development of depressive symptoms. (frontiersin.org)
- Interestingly, mitochondrial association of ADF and n-cofilin during apoptosis was preceded by, and dependent on, actin that translocated by a yet unknown mechanism to mitochondria during cell death. (nature.com)
- 4 Although the mechanisms of caspase activation in the cytosol are well characterized, the steps that control cytochrome c release from mitochondria and thereby activate the apoptosis program have remained largely elusive. (nature.com)
- 8 Recently, it was shown that n-cofilin translocates to mitochondria during the early phase of apoptosis, but the mechanism for this translocation remained obscure. (nature.com)
- We found that, upon induction of apoptosis in control MEFs, n-cofilin, and its homolog ADF translocated to mitochondria together with actin. (nature.com)
- These findings suggest that CHOP is a fundamental factor that links protein misfolding in the ER to oxidative stress and apoptosis in β cells under conditions of increased insulin demand. (jci.org)
- The mechanisms of the cytotoxicity, apoptosis, and oxidative stress induced by the 5-15 nm SiNPs still remain unclear. (mdpi.com)
- The hippocampus neuron oxidative stress and apoptosis were both decreased compared to untrained HFD group, which finally improved cognitive function of HFD mice. (hindawi.com)
- Both PON2 and PON3 are upregulated in cancer, favoring tumor progression through mitochondrial protection against oxidative stress and apoptosis. (cdc.gov)
Liver12
- Luminescence was detected in the mitochondria of the liver of a rat, in which the process of oxidative phosphorylation had taken place. (dtic.mil)
- NDLI: Non-equilibrium thermodynamics of oxidative phosphorylation by inverted inner membrane vesicles of rat liver mitochondria. (iitkgp.ac.in)
- Liver mitochondria of the toad (Bufo viridis), the common lizard (Agama stellio), the domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus) and the hamster (Mesocricetus auratus) were isolated. (bgu.ac.il)
- Cassuto, Y 1971, ' Oxidative activites of liver mitochondria from mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibia as a function of temperature ', Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology - B Biochemistry and Molecular Biology , vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 919-923. (bgu.ac.il)
- A mature red blood cell has no mitochondria, whereas a liver cell can have more than 2000. (wikipedia.org)
- Enhanced oxidative metabolism in liver mitochondria from genetically obese mice. (jax.org)
- Background and Aims: The precise pathogenic significance of oxidative injury in the evolution of alcohol-induced liver disease is still obscure. (elsevierpure.com)
- A continuous infusion of ethanol (50 mmol/l) increased oxidative stress and decreased mitochondrial membrane potential in the pericentral area of isolated perfused rat liver. (elsevierpure.com)
- 10 Kennedy E.P., Lehninger A.L. Oxidation of fatty acids and tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates by isolated rat liver mitochondria. (thieme-connect.de)
- Magnesium deficiency led to decreased mitochondria-per-cell count and increased size of individual mitochondrions in liver and kidney cells, which indicates that not only did low magnesium drop the overall number of mitochondria, but also increased the workload of the remaining mitochondria. (marksdailyapple.com)
- zinc toxicity alters mitochondrial metabolism and lowers ATP production in liver mitochondria. (marksdailyapple.com)
- The liver processes both fats and sugars and healthy liver mitochondria are crucial for that important task. (marksdailyapple.com)
Process of oxidative phosphorylation1
- The mitochondrial genome encodes the genetic information for the 13 polypeptide subunits essential for the process of oxidative phosphorylation. (medscape.com)
Mammalian2
- Two types of swelling-shrinkage change manifested by isolated mammalian heart mitochondria have been studied. (rupress.org)
- Some cells in some multicellular organisms lack mitochondria (for example, mature mammalian red blood cells). (wikipedia.org)
Metabolism3
- Like all organisms, pathogenic microbes produce ROS as byproducts of aerobic metabolism, but the burden of ROS is magnified when these microbes confront the oxidative burst of the host. (bodyecology.com)
- These questions will give you basic idea for Examination Preparation and/or interview on Oxidative Phosphorylation and Nitrogen Metabolism. (udemy.com)
- Mitochondria play essential roles in plant metabolism, supporting both development and stress responses. (lu.se)
MtDNA7
- To compare alterations of mitochondria DNA (mtDNA) copy number, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and oxidative damage of mtDNA in clinically stable patients with major depressive disorder (MDD). (extivita.org)
- Peripheral blood leukocytes were analyzed to compare copy number, SNPs and oxidative damage of mtDNA between the two groups. (extivita.org)
- The mutations could lead to energy failure, increased oxidative stress, and accumulation of A β , which in a vicious cycle reinforces the mtDNA damage and oxidative stress. (scirp.org)
- Because egg cells, but not sperm cells, contribute mitochondria to the developing embryo, children can only inherit disorders resulting from mtDNA mutations from their mother. (medlineplus.gov)
- They also identified mtDNA deletions in a "hotspot" in complex I respiratory chain subunits that were associated with dysregulation of oxidative stress and DNA damage response pathways in cohorts with sporadic PD and PDD. (medscape.com)
- They showed that lack of neuronal IFNβ signaling leads to oxidative damage and mutations in mtDNA in neurons, which are subsequently released outside the neurons. (medscape.com)
- Further study revealed that the mechanism through which damaged mtDNA causes pathology in healthy neurons involves dual activation of Toll-like receptor (TLR) 9 and 4 pathways, leading to increased oxidative stress and neuronal cell death, respectively. (medscape.com)
Adenosine triphosphate6
- Mitochondria have a double membrane structure and use aerobic respiration to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is used throughout the cell as a source of chemical energy. (wikipedia.org)
- Mitochondria have folding to increase surface area, which in turn increases ATP (adenosine triphosphate) production. (wikipedia.org)
- Oxidative phosphorylation or electron transport-linked phosphorylation is the metabolic pathway in which cells use enzymes to oxidize nutrients, thereby releasing the chemical energy of molecular oxygen, which is used to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP). (udemy.com)
- Lack of neuronal IFNβ or disruption of its downstream signaling causes the accumulation of damaged mitochondria with excessive oxidative stress and insufficient adenosine triphosphate production. (medscape.com)
- Suppression of oxidative phosphorylation leads to cellular anoxia, with adenosine triphosphate (ATP) depletion, inability to extract oxygen from blood delivered to tissues, and lactic acidosis resulting from the body's attempts to generate energy nonoxidatively. (msdmanuals.com)
- Thus, citric acid cycle intermedi- ates are not used for adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production and are shuttled out of the mitochondria, providing precursors for nucleotide, amino acid, and lipid synthesis path- ways for the dividing cell [13]. (who.int)
Role of Mitochondria1
- Commenting on the research for Medscape Medical News , James Beck, PhD, chief scientific officer at the Parkinson's Foundation, noted that the role of mitochondria in PD is "like a starlet that burst onto the scene in the 80s, faded into obscurity, and through diligence and continued research has moved beyond being a solid character actor and is reemerging as a force to reckon with. (medscape.com)
Reactive oxygen2
- As a result of the their roles in energy production, mitochondria also generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) that may have a toxic effects in cells. (frontiersin.org)
- Several oxidative stress-related parameters were evaluated to measure the protection for mitochondrial integrity, such as mitochondrial superoxide production, mitochondrial activity (MTT), reactive oxygen species (ROS) and live-cell imaging. (abo.fi)
Eukaryotic cells3
- Mitochondria are the main energy factories of eukaryotic cells. (frontiersin.org)
- This finding has led to general acceptance of the endosymbiotic hypothesis - that free-living prokaryotic ancestors of modern mitochondria permanently fused with eukaryotic cells in the distant past, evolving such that modern animals, plants, fungi, and other eukaryotes are able to respire to generate cellular energy. (wikipedia.org)
- In eukaryotic cells, the enzymes that are reponsible for this breakdown are located in the mitochondria, while in procaryotes they are in the cytoplasm. (encyclopedia.com)
Proteins11
- In this review, we summarize some of the latest knowledge on mitochondrial dysregulation in major depression (depicted in Figure 1 ) and also discuss how mitochondrial dysfunction could instigate downstream changes in extracellular matrix proteins such as reelin, neuronal nitric oxide (nNOS), oxidative stress, and inflammation, and finally adult hippocampal neurogenesis. (frontiersin.org)
- 3 Pro-apoptotic proteins, such as cytochrome c and second mitochondria-derived activator of caspase (SMAC), are released from mitochondria into the cytosol where they participate in the activation of execution caspases. (nature.com)
- A mitochondrion contains outer and inner membranes composed of phospholipid bilayers and proteins. (wikipedia.org)
- Larger proteins can enter the mitochondrion if a signaling sequence at their N-terminus binds to a large multisubunit protein called translocase in the outer membrane, which then actively moves them across the membrane. (wikipedia.org)
- Capicor administration increased the endogenous antioxidant defense, weakening the lipid peroxidation and oxidative modification of mitochondrial proteins. (ukrbiochemjournal.org)
- called amino acids into full-length, functioning proteins within mitochondria. (medlineplus.gov)
- These proteins perform the steps of oxidative phosphorylation. (medlineplus.gov)
- Mutations that cause MERRF impair the ability of mitochondria to make proteins, use oxygen, and produce energy. (medlineplus.gov)
- Although studies suggest that αSyn and its missense mutant, A53T, preferentially accumulate in the mitochondria, the mechanisms by which αSyn and mitochondrial proteins regulate each other to trigger mitochondrial and neuronal toxicity are poorly understood. (springer.com)
- Deficiency in ClpP induces an overload of mitochondrial misfolded/unfolded proteins, suppresses mitochondrial respiratory activity, increases mitochondrial oxidative damage and causes cell death. (springer.com)
- 15 Castilho R.F., Meinicke A.R., Alemida A.M., Hermes-Lima M., Vercesi A.E. Oxidative damage of mitochondria induced by Fe(II)citrate is potentiated by Ca 2+ and includes lipid peroxidation and alterations in membrane proteins. (thieme-connect.de)
Dysfunction5
- Mitochondria could be targeted in the development of novel antidepressant drugs, and specific forms of mitochondrial dysfunction could be identified as biomarkers to personalize treatment and aid in early diagnosis by differentiating between disorders with overlapping symptoms. (frontiersin.org)
- More large-scale studies are warranted to assess the interplay between oxidative stress, mitochondria dysfunction and MDD. (extivita.org)
- Mitochondria have been implicated in several human disorders and conditions, such as mitochondrial diseases, cardiac dysfunction, heart failure and autism. (wikipedia.org)
- This review focuses on the evidence supporting a clear association between amyloid- β toxicity, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress and neuronal damage/death in Alzheimer's disease. (scirp.org)
- SIRT3 deficiency further aggravated HFD-induced cognitive dysfunction and susceptibility to oxidative stress injury. (hindawi.com)
Pathways2
- The identification of the transporter may lead to a better understanding of a variety of disease pathways linked to oxidative stress, including those involved in aging and neurodegeneration. (sciencedaily.com)
- NAFLD is part of a complex system of mental and non-communicable somatic disorders with a common pathogenesis, based on shared lifestyle and environmental risks, mediated by dysregulation of inflammation, oxidative stress pathways, and mitochondrial function. (biomedcentral.com)
Inflammation2
- Jan. 17, 2023 Aging and related diseases are associated with alterations in oxidative status and low-grade inflammation, as well as a decreased endoplasmic reticulum (ER) unfolded protein response (UPR). (sciencedaily.com)
- All three PONs modulate oxidative stress and inflammation. (cdc.gov)
Neuronal3
- Mitochondria provide and regulate cellular energy and are crucial for proper neuronal activity and survival. (scirp.org)
- Overexpression of ClpP reduces αSyn-induced mitochondrial oxidative stress through enhancing the level of Superoxide Dismutase-2 (SOD2), and suppresses the accumulation of αSyn S129 phosphorylation and promotes neuronal morphology in neurons derived from PD patient iPS cells carrying αSyn A53T mutant. (springer.com)
- Despite these findings suggesting that mitochondria might be a key link between αSyn toxicity and neuronal degeneration in PD, the field still lacks an understanding of how αSyn abnormality and mitochondrial functional deficiency influence each other. (springer.com)
Physiological1
- The mitochondrion under normal physiological conditions and in the depression brain. (frontiersin.org)
Endoplasmic reticulum2
- The outer mitochondrial membrane can associate with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane, in a structure called MAM (mitochondria-associated ER-membrane). (wikipedia.org)
- PON2 is localized in the mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum. (cdc.gov)
Tumor1
- Moreover, the team is now exploring whether SLC25A39 might hold promise as a drug target for cancer, by helping to induce fatal oxidative stress in tumor cells. (sciencedaily.com)
Enzymatic2
- Enzymatic diagnosis of oxidative phosphorylation defects on muscle biopsy: Better on tissue homogenate or on a mitochondria-enriched suspension? (medscimonit.com)
- The results indicated that complex IB reflected the enzymatic changes in the mitochondria during myocardial ischaemia, but complex IA did not. (karger.com)
Cellular energy1
- In addition to supplying cellular energy, mitochondria are involved in other tasks, such as signaling, cellular differentiation, and cell death, as well as maintaining control of the cell cycle and cell growth. (wikipedia.org)
Mice4
- Furthermore, because of the known interaction between SOD2 and p53 protein, this study seeks to clarify the impact that the double mutation has on oxidative/nitrative stress levels in the brain of mice carrying the double mutation (p53(-/-) × SOD2(-/+) and p53(-/-) × TgSOD2). (nih.gov)
- In addition, we found that isolated islets from Chop -/- mice displayed increased expression of UPR and oxidative stress response genes and reduced levels of oxidative damage. (jci.org)
- Compensating for the loss of ClpP in the substantia nigra of αSyn A53T mice by viral expression of ClpP suppresses mitochondrial oxidative damage, and reduces αSyn pathology and behavioral deficits of mice. (springer.com)
- PON2 has potent antioxidant properties and is found at 3- to 4-fold higher levels in females than males, providing increased protection against oxidative stress, as observed in primary cultures of neurons and astrocytes from female mice compared with male mice. (cdc.gov)
Stress induced1
- To analyze the effect of homeopathic Arnica on mitochondrial oxidative stress induced by Ca 2+ plus inorganic phosphate and/or Fe 2+ -citrate-mediated lipid peroxidation through changes in oxygen consumption rates. (thieme-connect.de)
Membranes1
- Because of this double-membraned organization, there are five distinct parts to a mitochondrion: The outer mitochondrial membrane, The intermembrane space (the space between the outer and inner membranes), The inner mitochondrial membrane, The cristae space (formed by infoldings of the inner membrane), and The matrix (space within the inner membrane), which is a fluid. (wikipedia.org)
Protein8
- In animals engineered to lack this protein, red blood cells quickly die by oxidative stress due to their failure to bring glutathione into mitochondria. (sciencedaily.com)
- In cancer, we would want to prevent antioxidants from getting into mitochondria, and the transporter protein may be our way to do that," Birsoy says. (sciencedaily.com)
- June 23, 2022 Researchers describe how they have improved the ability of a protein to repair oxidative DNA damage and created a new protein function. (sciencedaily.com)
- As OS biomarkers, lipid peroxidation, protein oxidative modification, H 2 O 2 production, the activity of MnSOD, GPx and glutathione pool indexes were measured. (ukrbiochemjournal.org)
- Rotenone intoxication increased the intensity of lipid peroxidation, protein oxidative modification, and H 2 O 2 production. (ukrbiochemjournal.org)
- The effect of Capicor on the protein markers of oxidative stress development in rat brain mitochondria under modeling of Parkinson's disease. (ukrbiochemjournal.org)
- FMT) protein, homologous to 'clustered mitochondria protein homolog' CLU in animals, was recently suggested to mediate mitophagy of depolarized mitochondria. (lu.se)
- The FMT protein is mostly localised in the cytosol, but we show that during darkness FMT is redistributed into speckles, some of which associate with mitochondria. (lu.se)
Mechanisms1
- Biochemical and genetic mechanisms of oxidative stress (OS) developing in rat heart mitochondria were studied in a rotenone model of Parkinson's disease (PD), and the effect of Capicor (combination of meldonium dihydrate and gamma-butyrobetain dihydrate) on these mechanisms was evaluated. (ukrbiochemjournal.org)
Intermembrane1
- A nucleoside diphosphate kinase subtype that is localized to the intermembrane space of MITOCHONDRIA. (bvsalud.org)
Neuroblastoma1
- Our in vitro studies demonstrate the neuroprotective properties of picein by blocking the oxidative stress effects, induced by free radical generator 2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone (menadione, MQ), in neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. (abo.fi)
Free radicals3
- Antioxidants can help deter oxidative stress, which simultaneously prevents free radicals. (bodyecology.com)
- In a new study, Rockefeller scientists identify a key molecule that ferries glutathione, the body's major antioxidant, into the cell's mitochondria, where free radicals are produced en masse. (sciencedaily.com)
- To avoid oxidative stress, cells need to properly balance the levels of free radicals and antioxidants within their mitochondria, where energy production happens. (sciencedaily.com)
Damage4
- Mitochondrial oxidative and structural damage in ischemia-reperfusion in human myocardium. (imrpress.com)
- The nature of the activation energy of the oxidative reactions may explain the primary damage caused in higher organisms by heat stroke. (bgu.ac.il)
- Because of the SOD2 strategic location, it represents the first mechanism of defense against the augmentation of ROS/reactive nitrogen species levels in the mitochondria for preventing further damage. (nih.gov)
- Parkinson-susceptibility gene DJ-1/PARK7 protects the murine heart from oxidative damage in vivo. (ukrbiochemjournal.org)
Processes1
- The module will provide detailed information on aspects of basic mitochondrial biology including the origins and essential functions of mitochondria, the maintenance and expression of the mitochondrial genome, and the metabolic processes in which mitochondria play a role. (ncl.ac.uk)
Synthesis1
- It is believed to play a role in the synthesis of triphosphonucleotides using ATP formed through OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION. (bvsalud.org)
MnSOD1
- This study seeks to understand the effects that the partial lack (SOD2(-/+) ) or the overexpression (TgSOD2) of MnSOD produces on oxidative/nitrative stress basal levels in different brain isolated cellular fractions (i.e., mitochondrial, nuclear, cytosolic) as well as in the whole-brain homogenate. (nih.gov)
Precursors1
- Estrogens decrease osteoclast number by attenuating mitochondria oxidative phosphorylation and ATP production in early osteoclast precursors. (bvsalud.org)
Cytochrome1
- Cyanides and hydrogen sulfides both enter mitochondria, where they inactivate cytochrome oxidase, an enzyme needed for oxidative phosphorylation (cellular respiration). (msdmanuals.com)
Glutathione3
- With the potential transporter identified, we can now control the amount of glutathione that enters mitochondria and study oxidative stress specifically at its source," says Kivanç Birsoy, Chapman Perelman Assistant Professor at The Rockefeller University. (sciencedaily.com)
- Because glutathione is produced outside of mitochondria, in the cell's cytosol, the scientists wanted to know how it gets transported into these tiny powerhouses in the first place. (sciencedaily.com)
- The researchers found that blocking SLC25A39 reduced glutathione inside the mitochondrion, without affecting its levels elsewhere in the cell. (sciencedaily.com)
Enzyme1
- The intermediate product in this oxidative decarboxylation reaction is oxalosuccinate, whose formation is coupled with the production of NADH + H + . While still bound to the enzyme, oxalosuccinate loses CO2 to produce alpha-ketoglutarate. (encyclopedia.com)
Cell3
- The mitochondrion is popularly nicknamed the "powerhouse of the cell", a phrase coined by Philip Siekevitz in a 1957 article of the same name. (wikipedia.org)
- The number of mitochondria in a cell can vary widely by organism, tissue, and cell type. (wikipedia.org)
- Although most of a eukaryotic cell's DNA is contained in the cell nucleus, the mitochondrion has its own genome ("mitogenome") that is substantially similar to bacterial genomes. (wikipedia.org)
Physiology1
- Their speed, specificity, and reversibility indicate that they are closely geared to the normal function of the respiratory chain and are a true reflection of a mechanochemical coupling process characteristic of the physiology of mitochondria. (rupress.org)
Preferentially1
- In the case of cancer-associated metabolic reprogramming, cancer cel s preferentially metabolize glu- cose through glycolysis rather than oxidative phosphorylation, even in the presence of oxygen [11-13]. (who.int)
Neurodegeneration1
- Mechanism of oxidative stress in neurodegeneration. (ukrbiochemjournal.org)
Antioxidant2
- These conditions could potentially be treated or prevented by stimulating antioxidant transport into mitochondria," Birsoy says. (sciencedaily.com)
- M. Dumont, M. T. Lin and M. F. Beal, "Mitochondria and Antioxidant Targeted Therapeutic Strategies for Alzheimer's Disease," Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, Vol. 20, 2010, pp. 633-643. (scirp.org)
Genes1
- Instead, using microarray analysis we have elucidated that ERα-mediated estrogen signaling in osteoclast progenitors decreases " oxidative phosphorylation " and the expression of mitochondria complex I genes . (bvsalud.org)
Reduction2
- We show that each mutation affects mitochondrial, nuclear, and cytosolic oxidative/nitrative stress basal levels differently, but, overall, no change or reduction of oxidative/nitrative stress levels was found in the whole-brain homogenate. (nih.gov)
- Following the formation of isocitrate there are four oxidation-reduction reactions, the first of which, the oxidative decarboxylation of isocitrate, is catalyzed by isocitrate dehydrogenase. (encyclopedia.com)
Aerobic1
- Almost all aerobic organisms carry out oxidative phosphorylation. (udemy.com)
Organelle2
- Mitochondria - Organelle within a ce. (thelongevityrevolution.tv)
- PL: mitochondria) is an organelle found in the cells of most eukaryotes, such as animals, plants and fungi. (wikipedia.org)
Eukaryotes1
- In most eukaryotes, this takes place inside mitochondria. (udemy.com)
Cells2
- are structures within cells that use oxygen to convert the energy from food into a form cells can use through a process called oxidative phosphorylation . (medlineplus.gov)
- within the mitochondria in your cells. (booklocker.com)
Outer1
- Mitochondria stripped of their outer membrane are called mitoplasts. (wikipedia.org)
Structures2
- Vital cellular structures and functions can be lost, causing pathological conditions and triggering the production of oxidative stress. (bodyecology.com)
- A large number of unicellular organisms, such as microsporidia, parabasalids and diplomonads, have reduced or transformed their mitochondria into other structures. (wikipedia.org)
Respiratory1
- These physical changes in mitochondria are brought about rapidly and reversibly by normal reactants of the respiratory chain. (rupress.org)
Deficiency1
- In the nervous system, mitochondria SIRT3 deficiency would affect the normal function of the neuron [ 10 ]. (hindawi.com)
Tissue1
- Mitochondria and two complexes I (complex IA and complex IB) were isolated from normal and ischaemic myocardial tissue. (karger.com)
Fatty2
- Carnitine is biosynthesized from methionine and lysine, two amino acids which are highly prevalent in red meat, and your mitochondria like a lot of carnitine because it's required for shuttling fatty acids into the mitochondria for processing. (marksdailyapple.com)
- Yeah, if you want mitochondria to do one of their most basic jobs - break down fatty acids for energy - you better consume ample amounts of meat, or supplement with L-carnitine. (marksdailyapple.com)