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Acyl Carrier ProteinAcetyl Coenzyme ACoenzyme APantetheinePyruvate KinaseAcetyl-CoA CarboxylasePyruvate Dehydrogenase ComplexOxidation-ReductionFatty Acid SynthasesPyruvic AcidPyruvate CarboxylaseFatty AcidsPyruvatesPolyketide SynthasesFatty Acid Synthase, Type II3-Oxoacyl-(Acyl-Carrier-Protein) SynthaseAcetatesMalonyl Coenzyme AAcyltransferasesLigasesPyruvate DecarboxylaseAcetate-CoA LigaseAcyl Coenzyme AEscherichia coliATP Citrate (pro-S)-LyaseBiotinKineticsTransferases (Other Substituted Phosphate Groups)Pantothenic Acid3-Oxoacyl-(Acyl-Carrier-Protein) ReductaseMolecular Sequence DataAcylationPyruvate OxidaseAcetyltransferasesAmino Acid SequenceLiverPyruvate Dehydrogenase (Lipoamide)AcetylcarnitineGlucoseMultienzyme ComplexesCarbon IsotopesCitric Acid CycleSubstrate SpecificityCarbon-Sulfur LigasesCarrier StateMagnesium CompoundsCitratesCaprylatesThiolester HydrolasesBacterial ProteinsAcetyl-CoA C-AcetyltransferaseEnoyl-(Acyl-Carrier-Protein) Reductase (NADH)Rhizobium etliCatalysisModels, MolecularMitochondria, LiverCarrier ProteinsLipid MetabolismMalonatesSequence Homology, Amino AcidCloning, MolecularStreptomycesAdenosine TriphosphateLactatesBase SequenceSaccharopolysporaThioctic AcidPyruvate Dehydrogenase (Lipoamide)-PhosphataseAcetylationMutationCarbon RadioisotopesHydrogen-Ion ConcentrationCeruleninMolecular StructureMagnetic Resonance SpectroscopyLactic AcidBinding SitesEnergy MetabolismDrug CarriersSulfhydryl CompoundsApoproteinsMevalonic AcidProtein ConformationAMP-Activated Protein KinasesTriclosanMalatesAcetylesteraseOxidoreductasesNADRecombinant ProteinsCrystallography, X-RayMitochondriaAnthraquinonesRats, Inbred StrainsChromatography, High Pressure LiquidCytosolGlycolysisLipidsAcyl-Carrier Protein S-AcetyltransferaseAlcohol Oxidoreductases

NADHGlycolysisSynthetaseEnzymePathwayMitochondriaEnzymesBeta-oxidation of fattyGluconeogenesisEnter the electron transCitricAcetateOxaloacetateAnaerobicCoenzymeKrebsMetabolismOxidative phosphorylationMitochondrialMetabolic pathwaysGlycerolUndergo oxidationProteinSubstrateMetaboliteYieldCarbohydratesFatty acidCytosolMethyl groupEquivalentsCellularAdenosineCatalyzesProcess

NADH8

• Ethanol is a most efficient reduced substrate (as ED) because its biooxidation can provide energy (ATP) and reducing equivalents (NADH), and acetyl-CoA to drive the reverse β-oxidation for chain elongation. (biomedcentral.com)
• Lactate has also been described to generate the acetyl-CoA to provide the two carbon atoms for the acetate to n -butyrate elongation via reverse β-oxidation, in which the oxidation of lactate to pyruvate produces NADH and the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA with ATP generation. (biomedcentral.com)
• Like NADH, NADPH participates in oxidation-reduction reactions. (histocutup.co.uk)
• The resulting acetyl-CoA molecules enter the Krebs cycle, generating additional carbon dioxide, ATP, and electron carriers (such as NADH and FADH2). (microbiologynote.com)
• This allows the recycling of the electron carriers (NADH) back into their oxidized forms (NAD+), enabling glycolysis to continue. (microbiologynote.com)
• Figure 4.1 The citric acid cycle showing acetyl CoA entry and the formation of NADH and FADH 2 with the liberation of CO 2 and GTP. (veteriankey.com)
• This breakdown of glucose results in one 6-carbon molecule, generating two 3-carbon precursors, which eventually generate 2 NADH and 4 ATP and 2 pyruvate molecules ( Figure 4.2 ). (veteriankey.com)
• Glycolysis is the process of converting glucose into pyruvate and generating small amounts of ATP (energy) and NADH (reducing power). (easyomics.org)

Glycolysis9

• the three main pathways in eukaryotes are (1) glycolysis, (2) the citric acid cycle/oxidative phosphorylation, and (3) beta-oxidation. (wikipedia.org)
• In glycolysis, glucose and glycerol are metabolized to pyruvate. (wikipedia.org)
• Glycolysis generates two equivalents of ATP through substrate phosphorylation catalyzed by two enzymes, phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) and pyruvate kinase. (wikipedia.org)
• The pyruvate generated as an end-product of glycolysis is a substrate for the Krebs Cycle. (wikipedia.org)
• By focusing on the critical roles of different metabolic programs, such as glycolysis, oxidative phosphorylation, fatty acid oxidation, fatty acid synthesis, and amino acid metabolism, as well as their essential regulators in modulating Treg proliferation, migration, and function, we hope to provide new insights into Treg cell-targeted antitumor immunotherapies. (biomedcentral.com)
• This process involves four main metabolic pathways: glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, the Krebs cycle (also known as the citric acid cycle or the tricarboxylic acid cycle), and oxidative phosphorylation. (microbiologynote.com)
• In the presence of oxygen, the process begins with glycolysis, which breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate. (microbiologynote.com)
• ATP generation occurs through beta-oxidation of fat and glucose oxidation through glycolysis, both of which lead to acetyl CoA production. (veteriankey.com)
• derived from glycolysis and pyruvate oxidation for carbohydrates and from beta oxidation of fatty acids. (easyomics.org)

Synthetase3

• This process is catalyzed by the enzyme acetyl-CoA synthetase. (medscape.com)
• Acyl CoA Synthetase: What is it/What does it do? (flashcardmachine.com)
• acyl-CoA synthetase medium chain famil. (gsea-msigdb.org)

Enzyme13

• Maple syrup urine disease is caused by a deficiency of the branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase (BCKD) enzyme complex, which catalyses the decarboxylation of the alpha-keto acids of leucine, isoleucine, and valine to their respective branched-chain acyl-CoAs. (medscape.com)
• Quental et al identified a homozygous 1-bp deletion (117delC) in the BCKDHA gene (this gene codes for the alpha subunit of the BCKD enzyme complex, specifically E1) in Portuguese Gypsies and estimated the carrier frequency for this deletion to be as high as 1.4% (about 1 case per 71 live births). (medscape.com)
• This enzyme is also part of the citric acid cycle and uses the electron carrier flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD/FADH). (histocutup.co.uk)
• In all DD-CPase PBPs, the lysine of the SXXK tetrad acts as a proton acceptor for a nucleophilic attack by serine that facilitates the formation of an acyl-enzyme intermediate IKBKE (Nicholas et al. (phosphorylaseinhibitors.com)
• It is worth mentioning that during acyl-enzyme complex formation, the terminal d-Ala is removed from the pentapeptide. (phosphorylaseinhibitors.com)
• The lysine residue in KTG motif is known to stabilize the acyl-enzyme complex (Zhang et al. (phosphorylaseinhibitors.com)
• Carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1A (CPT1A) is the gatekeeper enzyme for mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation. (bvsalud.org)
• Here, we examined whether carnitinea palmitoyltransferase 1A (CPT1A), a key enzyme in mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation, affects energy balance. (bvsalud.org)
• To produce energy G-6-PO 4 (derived from monosaccharides from dietary CHO or produced from glycogen degradation by glycogenolysis) is converted by a series of enzyme reactions in the glycolytic pathway to form pyruvate or lactic acid, then to acetyl-CoA, which is also produced from fatty acid oxidation and degradation of the carbon skeleton of glucogenic amino acids ( Table 17.1 ). (oncohemakey.com)
• An enzyme that catalyzes reversibly the conversion of palmitoyl-CoA to palmitoylcarnitine in the inner mitochondrial membrane. (lookformedical.com)
• Additionally, in mice expressing constitutively active acetyl-CoA carboxylase, metformin acutely decreased hepatic glucose production and increased the hepatic cytosolic redox state without altering hepatic triglyceride content or gluconeogenic enzyme expression. (edu.au)
• These studies demonstrate that metformin, at clinically relevant plasma concentrations, inhibits hepatic gluconeogenesis in a redox-dependent manner independently of reductions in citrate synthase flux, hepatic nucleotide concentrations, acetyl-CoA carboxylase activity, or gluconeogenic enzyme protein expression. (edu.au)
• An enzyme that catalyzes the first step in the biosynthetic pathway to LEUCINE , forming isopropyl malate from acetyl-CoA and alpha-ketoisovaleric acid. (lookformedical.com)

Pathway4

• What is the β-oxidation pathway? (flashcardmachine.com)
• The spirals represent the spiral reactions of the beta-oxidation pathway, resulting in the liberation of acetyl-coenzyme A (CoA) and the reduction of flavoprotein. (medlink.com)
• Krebs cycle) is an important aerobic pathway for the final steps of the oxidation of carbohydrates and fatty acids. (easyomics.org)
• This pathway map also shows the Entner-Doudoroff pathway where 6-P-gluconate is dehydrated and then cleaved into pyruvate and glyceraldehyde-3P [MD:M00008]. (easyomics.org)

Mitochondria6

• Kennedy, E. P. & Lehninger, A. L. Oxidation of fatty acids and tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates by isolated rat liver mitochondria. (nature.com)
• Cell-membrane permeable substrates (glucose, pyruvate) may be applied to evaluate their effect on cell physiology, and cell-membrane impermeable substrates (succinate, ADP) are titrated as a cell viability test to assess the fraction of dead cells (dce) with permeable cell membranes and functional mitochondria. (mitoglobal.org)
• Acetyl-CoA enters the Krebs cycle, also known as the citric acid or tricarboxylic (TCA) cycle, within the mitochondria. (oncohemakey.com)
• Fatty acids enter the mitochondria via the carnitine transport cycle (medium chain fatty acids enter independently of carnitine) into the β-oxidation spiral in which fatty acids, via a series of enzymes, produce acetyl-CoA and electron carriers. (oncohemakey.com)
• These pyruvate molecules then enter the mitochondria , where they undergo oxidation, releasing carbon dioxide as a byproduct. (microbiologynote.com)
• Acetyl groups are oxidized inside cellular mitochondria in the third stage of catabolism, the citric acid cycle, to yield CO 2 . (openstax.org)

Enzymes4

• As well as being an integral cofactor for succinate dehydrogenase, FAD also assists other enzymes that require oxidation-reduction support. (histocutup.co.uk)
• Within the Krebs cycle acetyl-CoA, combined with oxaloacetate, undergoes cycles involving eight enzymes, in which reducing equivalents are produced which then enter the electron transfer chain for the production of energy as adenosine triphosphate (ATP). (oncohemakey.com)
• Enzymes from the transferase class that catalyze the transfer of acyl groups from donor to acceptor, forming either esters or amides. (lookformedical.com)
• The citric acid cycle is a complex of many enzymes that convert the by-products of glucose, protein, and fat degradation as pyruvate (glucose and some amino acids) and acetate (fatty acids and some amino acids) into covalently bound CoA moieties to make acetyl CoA, the major entry point substrate for the citric acid cycle ( Figure 4.1 ). (veteriankey.com)

Beta-oxidation of fatty1

• They are the site at which the Krebs cycle and beta-oxidation of fatty acids takes place. (histocutup.co.uk)

Gluconeogenesis2

• G-6-PO 4 can also be produced via pyruvate from protein catabolism of glucogenic amino acids ( Table 17.1 ) or breakdown of glycerol from lipids (gluconeogenesis). (oncohemakey.com)
• Here we show that clinically relevant concentrations of plasma metformin achieved by acute intravenous, acute intraportal or chronic oral administration in awake normal and diabetic rats inhibit gluconeogenesis from lactate and glycerol but not from pyruvate and alanine, implicating an increased cytosolic redox state in mediating metformin's antihyperglycemic effect. (edu.au)

Enter the electron trans1

• Electron carriers (FADH 2 and NAD) enter the electron transfer chain to produce ATP. (oncohemakey.com)

Citric1

• Various metabolic pathways can feed into the citric acid cycle provided that they generate acetyl CoA. (histocutup.co.uk)

Acetate1

• Converts acetate to acetyl-CoA so that it can be used for oxidation through the tricarboxylic cycle to produce ATP and CO(2). (smpdb.ca)

Oxaloacetate1

• The two-carbon acetyl group in acetyl-CoA is transferred to the four-carbon compound of oxaloacetate to form the six-carbon compound of citrate. (easyomics.org)

Anaerobic2

• However, instead of proceeding through the remaining aerobic pathways, anaerobic respiration ends with the conversion of pyruvate into other compounds, such as lactate or ethanol. (microbiologynote.com)
• The excess pyruvate is converted to lactate under anaerobic metabolism. (veteriankey.com)

Coenzyme5

• Acetic acid (an acyl group carrier) is linked with coenzyme A (a thiol) to produce Acetyl-CoA. (medscape.com)
• To be available for TAG synthesis, carbons from sucrose must first be converted to pyruvate through cytosolic or plastidic glycolytic pathways and at some point be imported into the plastid to yield acetyl-coenzyme A (CoA) which feeds fatty acid (FA) synthesis with carbon backbones. (biomedcentral.com)
• A fatty acid coenzyme derivative which plays a key role in fatty acid oxidation and biosynthesis. (lookformedical.com)
• The electron transport chain consists of 4 multimeric complexes (I to IV) plus 2 small electron carriers, coenzyme Q10 (or ubiquinone) and cytochrome c . (medlink.com)
• These smaller molecules are then absorbed and further degraded in the second stage of catabolism to yield acetyl groups attached by a thioester bond to the large carrier molecule, coenzyme A. The resultant compound, acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA), is a key substance in the metabolism of food molecules and in many other biological pathways. (openstax.org)

Krebs3

• Acetyl-CoA can enter the Krebs cycle or form ketone bodies in the liver. (oncohemakey.com)
• Acetyl-CoA in excess of requirements for energy production via the Krebs cycle is converted via lipogenesis to stored lipids in adipocytes. (oncohemakey.com)
• Reducing equivalents produced in the Krebs cycle and in the beta-oxidation spirals are passed along a series of protein complexes embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane (the electron transport chain). (medlink.com)

Metabolism3

• We first review the basics of microglial metabolism and the effects of common metabolites, such as glucose, lipids, ketone bodies, glutamine, pyruvate and lactate, on microglial inflammatory and phagocytic properties. (biomedcentral.com)
• Thiamin pyrophosphate plays a key role in the stabilization of the acyl carbanion synthon in carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism. (tamu.edu)
• Beta-oxidation of fat is a critical process to normal daily energy metabolism, as fat is considered the preferred fuel during rest. (veteriankey.com)

Oxidative phosphorylation2

• Oxidative phosphorylation is the process by which oxidation reactions are coupled to the synthesis of ATP. (histocutup.co.uk)
• The electron carriers then enter the electron transport chain, located in the inner mitochondrial membrane, where oxidative phosphorylation takes place. (microbiologynote.com)

Mitochondrial1

• How do Fatty Acyl-CoA's pass the mitochondrial intermembrane space? (flashcardmachine.com)

Metabolic pathways1

• Through a series of interconnected metabolic pathways, the potential energy stored in the chemical bonds of these molecules is harnessed and transferred to energy carriers, which power other essential cellular processes. (microbiologynote.com)

Glycerol2

• Dietary fats, and lipids produced endogenously from acetyl-CoA, are initially hydrolysed by lipases into glycerol and free fatty acids. (oncohemakey.com)
• Glycerol is then oxidised to acetyl-CoA via pyruvate. (oncohemakey.com)

Undergo oxidation1

• The decreased insulin-to-glucagon ratio that occurs in starvation indirectly reduces the inhibition on CAT activity, thereby allowing more free fatty acids to undergo oxidation and ketone body formation. (medscape.com)

Protein1

• Carries out three functions: biotin carboxyl carrier protein, biotin carboxylase and carboxyltransferase. (smpdb.ca)

Substrate1

• b) They transfer hydrogen from one substrate to another by oxidation-reduction reac-tion not involving a respiratory chain (shown in Fig. 12.4. (biologydiscussion.com)

Metabolite1

• c) They perform oxidation of metabolite uti-lizing several components of a respiratory chain (shown in Fig. 12.5). (biologydiscussion.com)

Yield1

• These are further metabolized to yield acetyl-CoA, acetoacetate, and succinyl-CoA. (medscape.com)

Carbohydrates1

• Cellular respiration is a vital metabolic process that occurs within cells, enabling the conversion of energy stored in carbohydrates into energy carriers, most notably adenosine triphosphate (ATP). (microbiologynote.com)

Fatty acid2

• Organic acid disorders Fatty acid oxidation disorders MMBID 8th ed. 2001, chapter 100, p 2289 Zschocke/Hoffmann: Vademecum Metabolicum. (abcdocz.com)
• Using relatively simple tests involving the detection of amino acids and acylcarnitines in dried blood spots on filter paper, Tandem Mass Spectrometry (TMS) allows for rapid screening and diagnosis of more than 40 metabolic disorders in amino acids, organic acids, and fatty acid oxidation, substantially improving the efficiency and accuracy of early diagnosis [ 5 , 6 ]. (alliedacademies.org)

Cytosol2

• This process is governed by the ER acetylation machinery: the cytosol:ER-lumen acetyl-CoA transporter AT-1 (also known as SLC33A1), and the ER-resident lysine acetyltransferases ATase1 and ATase2 (also known as NAT8B and NAT8, respectively). (biologists.com)
• Both saturated and unsaturated FAs are released from acyl-ACP by acyl-ACP thioesterase (FAT) [ 10 ] and exported to cytosol. (researchsquare.com)

Methyl group2

• Isoform 1 catalyzes the transfer of a methyl group onto N-acetylserotonin, producing melatonin (N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine). (smpdb.ca)
• Organic, monobasic acids derived from hydrocarbons by the equivalent of oxidation of a methyl group to an alcohol, aldehyde, and then acid. (lookformedical.com)

Equivalents1

• In Phase 2, two equivalents of g3p are converted to two pyruvates. (wikipedia.org)

Cellular2

• These data suggest that following nutrient restriction, the structural integrity of the rumen wall is compromised and there is upregulation of genes involved in the production of ketone bodies and breakdown of pyruvate for cellular energy. (biomedcentral.com)
• The energy released during cellular respiration, in the form of ATP and other energy carriers, fuels various anabolic processes within the cell . (microbiologynote.com)

Adenosine2

• As noted in Section 21.8 , the acetyl group in acetyl CoA is linked to the sulfur atom of phosphopantetheine, which is itself linked to adenosine 3',5'-bisphosphate. (openstax.org)
• Like most oxidations, this stage releases a large amount of energy, which is used in the fourth stage, the electron-transport chain, to accomplish the endergonic phosphorylation of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) with hydrogen phosphate ion (HOPO 3 2- , abbreviated P i ) to give adenosine triphosphate (ATP). (openstax.org)

Catalyzes1

• b) It catalyzes the oxidation of uric acid to allantoin. (biologydiscussion.com)

Process1

• Most frequently the process consists of the reaction of an acid with an alcohol in the presence of a trace of mineral acid as catalyst or the reaction of an acyl chloride with an alcohol. (lookformedical.com)