• Pneumococcal pneumonia is a type of bacterial pneumonia that is caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus). (wikipedia.org)
  • It is the most common bacterial pneumonia found in adults, the most common type of community-acquired pneumonia, and one of the common types of pneumococcal infection. (wikipedia.org)
  • The estimated number of Americans with pneumococcal pneumonia is 900,000 annually, with almost 400,000 cases hospitalized and fatalities accounting for 5-7% of these cases. (wikipedia.org)
  • The symptoms of pneumococcal pneumonia can occur suddenly, presenting as a severe chill, followed by a severe fever, cough, shortness of breath, rapid breathing, and chest pains. (wikipedia.org)
  • In most cases, once pneumococcal pneumonia has been identified, doctors will prescribe antibiotics. (wikipedia.org)
  • A vaccine has been developed for the prevention of pneumococcal pneumonia, recommended to children under age five as well as adults over the age of 65. (wikipedia.org)
  • While it has been commonly known that the influenza virus increases one's chances of contracting pneumonia or meningitis caused by the streptococcus pneumonaie bacteria, new medical research in mice indicates that the flu is actually a necessary component for the transmission of the disease. (wikipedia.org)
  • Three stages can be used to categorize the infection process of pneumococcal pneumonia: transmission, colonization, and invasion. (wikipedia.org)
  • This sequence of events is then tested in mouse models of pneumonia and meningitis. (stjude.org)
  • Researchers at Karolinska Institutet have identified a new vaccine candidate against pneumococci, bacteria that can cause pneumonia, sepsis, and meningitis. (nordiclifescience.org)
  • Pneumonia, sepsis, meningitis, and empyema due to Streptococcus pneumoniae is a major cause of morbidity and mortality. (biomedcentral.com)
  • We provide a systemic overview of genetic variants associated with susceptibility, phenotype and outcome of community acquired pneumococcal pneumonia (CAP) and invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD). (biomedcentral.com)
  • Invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) is an infection confirmed by the isolation of Streptococcus pneumoniae from a normally sterile site, while non-invasive pneumococcal disease includes sinusitis, mastoiditis, acute otitis media, and community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). (biomedcentral.com)
  • Pneumonia with empyema and/or bacteraemia, meningitis, and bacteraemia are the commonest manifestations of IPD. (biomedcentral.com)
  • From the 1890s onward, this model of production - expose an animal (guinea pig, rabbit, cow, horse, etc.) to an identified microbial pathogen, generate antibodies (or use convalescent serum from former patients), and then 'passively' transfer the pre-formed antibodies to an exposed animal or person - could be expanded to such feared and prevalent diseases as pneumococcal pneumonia and meningococcal meningitis . (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Serotherapy was refined during the first half of the 20th century in controlled studies that focused on pneumococcal pneumonia, referred to by some as "the Captain of the Men of Death. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Pneumolysin (PLY) is a major virulence factor released by Streptococcus pneumoniae and has been implicated in the pathogenesis of pneumococcal pneumonia. (aai.org)
  • Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) frequently colonizes the human nasopharynx and is an important cause of pneumonia, meningitis, sinusitis, and otitis media. (harvard.edu)
  • Varieties of S. pneumoniae not covered by current immunizations are responsible for a small portion for example, 7 to 10 percent among U.S. children of pneumonia, meningitis and other cases of pneumococcal disease. (scind.org)
  • Areas of medical therapeutics applicable to this work include pneumococcal vaccine design, intervention in gram-positive sepsis/meningitis, new antibiotic development strategies, and interruption of the spread of genetic elements responsible for antibiotic resistance. (stjude.org)
  • Now, a new vaccine under development could deal another blow to the disease, lowering the number of deaths even further by targeting dozens of additional strains of S. pneumoniae, and anticipating future versions of the bacteria responsible for pneumococcal disease, which includes sepsis and meningitis. (scind.org)
  • A 2010 study examining co-infection of influenza in co-housed ferret pairs found that the influenza increased both incidence and severity of pneumococcal infection. (wikipedia.org)
  • A separate 2010 study examining intra-litter transmission, with influenza co-infection in infant mice, found that the influenza co-infection is a facilitator for pneumococcal susceptibility, transmission, and disease via bacterial shedding. (wikipedia.org)
  • A third study of note, from 2016, was able to examine pneumococcal transmission without co-infection of an URT infection. (wikipedia.org)
  • This study utilized intra-litter transmission in infant mice during bacterial mono-infection with pneumococcus. (wikipedia.org)
  • Although PspA hybrids were able to extend protection against pneumococcal infection with strains bearing diverse PspA fragments, the immunity elicited by family 2 was clade dependent, suggesting that PspA fragments from family 2 clades 3 and 4 should both be included in a comprehensive PspA vaccine. (bvsalud.org)
  • Apart from the pro-inflammatory effects of PLY on microglia [ 14 ], the migratory behavior of this highly motile surveillance phagocyte of the brain in the presence of pneumococcal infection remains unknown. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Bacterial meningitis is a severe infection of the central nervous system, which is caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae in 70 % of cases [ 1 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • This study suggests that E-cigarette vapour has the potential to increase susceptibility to pneumococcal infection. (ersjournals.com)
  • Previous studies suggest that upregulation of PAFR is a biologically plausible mechanism for the association between inhalation of toxins and vulnerability to pneumococcal infection. (ersjournals.com)
  • Lymphoid and myeloid cell populations involved in meningitis were studied by flow cytometric analysis and cytokines/chemokines mRNA levels were detected by RT-qPCR in brains 48 hours after infection. (lum.it)
  • People with weakened immune systems, like those with HIV infection or cancer, are at higher risk for developing fungal meningitis. (rxwiki.com)
  • 1 Clinical Issue of Meningitis An infection from the membranes encircling the central anxious system (meninges) leads to meningitis. (biobender.com)
  • The Severity of Infection Determines the Localization of Damage and Extent of Sensorineural Hearing Loss in Experimental Pneumococcal Meningitis. (otostem.org)
  • Bacterial counts from nasal lavage culture after pretreatment with 10 or 1 μg of RC-527 or vehicle and infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae in BALB/c mice at postinoculation days 2, 5, and 14 (n = 6 per time point). (jamanetwork.com)
  • Numbers of total CD11b + (A), GR1 + (B), CD4 + (C), and CD8 + (D) cells from sinus tissue of mice after pretreatment with 10 or 1 μg of RC-527 or vehicle and infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae in BALB/c mice at postinoculation days 2, 5, and 14. (jamanetwork.com)
  • Bacterial counts from nasal lavage culture after infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae in wild-type C3H/HeOuJ and TLR4 complex-deficient C3H/HeJ mice at postinoculation days 2 and 21. (jamanetwork.com)
  • Numbers of total CD11b + (A), GR1 + (B), CD4 + (C), and CD8 + (D) cells after infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae in wild-type C3H/HeOuJ and TLR4 complex-deficient C3H/HeJ mice at postinoculation days 2 and 21. (jamanetwork.com)
  • Age-related decline in the resistance of mice to bacterial infection and in LPS/TLR4 pathway-dependent neutrophil responses. (qcfail.com)
  • Investigators showed higher rates of infection in experimental mice deficient in the genes that control expression of these 2 agents. (medscape.com)
  • Febrile Neonate With Probable UTI: Likelihood of Meningitis How often do febrile infants with evidence of urinary tract infection also have meningitis? (medscape.com)
  • Risk of pneumococcal bacteremia in Kenyan children with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency. (cdc.gov)
  • To study the interactions between pneumococci and the vascular endothelium of the blood-brain barrier prior to meningitis we used an established bacteremia-derived meningitis model in combination with immunofluorescent imaging. (rug.nl)
  • 2007). A Mal functional variant is associated with protection against invasive pneumococcal disease, bacteremia, malaria and tuberculosis. (geneticsmr.com)
  • Bacteremia and the Pneumococcal Vaccines How has the introduction of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccines influenced bacteremia rates in young children? (medscape.com)
  • The most frequent pathogen causing meningitis worldwide is S. pneumoniae (pneumococcus) [ 3 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Streptococcus pneumoniae ) OR ( S. pneumoniae ) OR pneumococcal OR pneumococcus) AND (polymorphisms OR polymorphism OR (genetic variant) OR (genetic variants) OR (genetic association study) OR (single nucleotide polymorphism) OR (single nucleotide polymorphisms) OR SNP OR SNPs OR genotype OR genotypes) without language restrictions and with search date cut offs between Jan 1, 1983 and Jul 4, 2018. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The sponsor inflammatory response to the pneumococcus is initiated by pneumococcal toxins such as pneumolysin and hydrogen peroxide [14 15 Most of the cells damage associated with meningitis is definitely caused by sponsor responses including the action of phagocytes secreted granular toxins cytokines and leukotrienes matrix metalloproteinases and the direct pressure effect of cerebral oedema causing ischaemia [16]. (biobender.com)
  • Streptococcus pneumoniae (the pneumococcus) is a Gram-positive bacterium and the predominant cause of bacterial meningitis. (rug.nl)
  • By using these systems, a model of pneumococcal disease has been assembled. (stjude.org)
  • In the rabbit model of pneumococcal meningitis hippocampal apoptosis was found to become the predominant form of neuronal damage [19 20 Inhibition of phosphorylcholine synthesis in mitochondria of neurons in the hippocampal dentate gyrus prospects to mitochondrial launch of apoptosis inducing element (AIF) which in turn causes pyknosis of the hippocampus. (biobender.com)
  • Based on the success of Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccines, chemical conjugation has been applied to the development of pneumococcal and meningococcal polysaccharide conjugate vaccines. (bmj.com)
  • These results provide new information on these two important steps towards the development of pneumococcal meningitis. (rug.nl)
  • The vaccine molecules comprise nano-sized membrane vesicles produced by the bacteria and provide protection in mice, a new study published in PNAS reports. (nordiclifescience.org)
  • A pneumococcal vaccine has been included in Sweden's childhood vaccination programme since 2009. (nordiclifescience.org)
  • The vaccine has been developed to protect against severe infections in children, but only targets a fraction of the close to one hundred different types of pneumococcal bacteria that have been described so far. (nordiclifescience.org)
  • There is an urgent need for new vaccine strategies to protect the elderly from pneumococcal infections," says the study's last author Birgitta Henriques-Normark, professor at the Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet. (nordiclifescience.org)
  • In this present study, KI researchers examined the possibility of developing a vaccine based on nano-sized membrane vesicles that pneumococcal bacteria naturally produce from their cell membrane in order to communicate with their surroundings and affect other cells. (nordiclifescience.org)
  • Our vaccine candidate - membrane particles containing both these proteins - provide protection regardless of pneumococcal type," says Professor Henriques-Normark. (nordiclifescience.org)
  • PspA is an important pneumococcal vaccine candidate that is capable of inducing protection in different animal models. (bvsalud.org)
  • One of the candidate proteins for a mucosal vaccine antigen against Streptococcus pneumoniae is PsaA (pneumococcal surface antigen A). Vaccines targeting mucosal immunity may raise concerns as to possible alterations in the normal microbiota, especially in the case of PsaA, which was shown to have homologs with elevated sequence identity in other viridans group streptococci. (bvsalud.org)
  • Haemophilus vaccine (HiB vaccine) in children helps prevent one type of bacterial meningitis. (rxwiki.com)
  • The pneumococcal conjugate vaccine can prevent pneumococcal meningitis. (rxwiki.com)
  • Behavioral abnormalities in young female mice following administration of aluminum adjuvants and the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine Gardasil. (sanevax.org)
  • We sought to evaluate the effects of Al adjuvant and the HPV vaccine Gardasil versus the true placebo on behavioral and inflammatory parameters in young female mice. (sanevax.org)
  • According to tests performed on mice and rabbits, the new vaccine stimulated an immune response to 72 of the more than 90 known strains of S. pneumoniae. (scind.org)
  • Nitric oxide synthase 2A (NOS2A) polymorphisms are not associated with invasive pneumococcal disease. (cdc.gov)
  • Association of Polymorphisms in IRAK1, IRAK4 and MyD88, and Severe Invasive Pneumococcal Disease. (cdc.gov)
  • Since invasive pneumococcal strains adhere to, and translocate across, respiratory tract epithelial cells, adhesion is a prerequisite for establishing pneumococcal disease [ 4 ]. (ersjournals.com)
  • Moreover, the mice developed protection not only against the pneumococcal strain/type from which the particles were isolated but also against other pneumococcal strains/types. (nordiclifescience.org)
  • The MLST studies of serotype 6C isolates suggest that the 6C cps locus is incorporated into many different pneumococcal genomic backgrounds but that, interestingly, 6C cps may have preferentially entered strains of the same genomic backgrounds as those of serotype 6A. (bvsalud.org)
  • While antibiotic therapy has improved the outcome substantially, lethality, especially by some more pathogenic strains (e.g., the endemic ST217 virulent clone in the African meningitis belt), still remains very high, exceeding 60% in some parts of the world [ 2 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • for example, capsule mutants are rapidly eliminated, while the PLY-deficient strains still cause meningitis but with a greatly reduced lethality and a milder disease course. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Studies have identified several host genetics factors influencing risk of pneumococcal disease, but many result in non-reproducible findings due to methodological limitations. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In this work, we demonstrate that intranasal immunization with a cholera toxin B subunit-PsaA fusion protein is able to protect mice against colonization with S. pneumoniae but does not significantly alter the natural oral or nasopharyngeal microbiota of mice. (bvsalud.org)
  • Nicotine-containing E-cigarette vapour increased mouse nasal PAFR expression, and nasopharyngeal pneumococcal colonisation. (ersjournals.com)
  • Here, we have performed a prospective nationwide genetic association study using the Human Exome BeadChip and identified gene variants in encoding dynactin 4 ( DCTN4 ), retinoic acid early transcript 1E ( RAET1E ), and V-akt murine thymoma viral oncogene homolog 3 ( AKT3 ) to be associated with unfavourable outcome in patients with pneumococcal meningitis. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Whole-genome association studies, using an unbiased approach, may identify new candidate genes and pathophysiological mechanisms leading to an unfavourable outcome in pneumococcal meningitis [ 17 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The results of this study indicated higher rates of shedding for infections in younger mice. (wikipedia.org)
  • Since childhood vaccination was introduced, the incidence of severe pneumococcal infections in infants has decreased, an effect that has not been observed in adults. (nordiclifescience.org)
  • The number of severe pneumococcal infections in adults has not decreased significantly and most of the infections are now caused by pneumococcal bacteria that today's vaccines do not protect against. (nordiclifescience.org)
  • They found that immunization with these membrane vesicles protected mice from getting severe infections with pneumococci. (nordiclifescience.org)
  • The results suggest that membrane particles can be used as a platform for producing vaccines against pneumococcal infections and perhaps other bacterial infections, and this is something we are now working on. (nordiclifescience.org)
  • The most common causes of meningitis are viral infections that usually get better without treatment. (rxwiki.com)
  • Bacterial meningitis infections are usually severe. (rxwiki.com)
  • Meningitis is commonly caused by viral infections. (rxwiki.com)
  • Bacterial meningitis infections are very serious, and may result in death or brain damage, even if treated. (rxwiki.com)
  • Herniation can sometimes occur in acute bacterial meningitis and other CNS infections as the consequence of severe cerebral edema or acute hydrocephalus. (medscape.com)
  • The first two time points represent the acute and sub-acute phase of bacterial meningitis, whereas the latter represent the recovery phase of the disease. (biomedcentral.com)
  • We identified five studies with a hypothesis free approach of which one resulted in one genome wide significant association in a gene coding for lincRNA with pneumococcal disease susceptibility. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In the past 20 years several genetic association studies investigated host genetics in relation to susceptibility and outcome of pneumococcal disease, sometimes showing conflicting results. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Here we systematically review these studies, perform a meta-analysis and discuss the potential of these findings for understanding the pathophysiological mechanisms of pneumococcal disease. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The study represents the "most comprehensive" coverage of pneumococcal disease to date, researchers say. (buffalo.edu)
  • Pneumococcal meningitis (PM) in a life-threatening disease with high rates of mortality and neurological sequelae. (lum.it)
  • This study shows that IFN-γ produced by NK cells during meningitis by S. pneumoniae exerts a negative effect on the disease outcome. (lum.it)
  • Meningitis is a disease caused by the inflammation of the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord known as the meninges. (rxwiki.com)
  • There are various different types of meningitis, so it should not be viewed as just one disease! (pasteur.fr)
  • In addition to killing 20 percent of its victims, pneumococcal disease can cause brain damage, deafness and epilepsy in those who survive. (medicalxpress.com)
  • Researcher Dimitri Diavatopoulo from the Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre in the Netherlands describes his observations in mice, stating that in these animals, the spread of the bacteria only occurs between animals already infected with the influenza virus, not between those without it. (wikipedia.org)
  • The researchers isolated such vesicles, called membrane particles, from cultivated pneumococcal bacteria. (nordiclifescience.org)
  • MATERIALS AND METHODS PM was induced in C57BL/6 mice by intracranial injection (subarachnoidal) of bacteria. (lum.it)
  • Bacteria meningitis is an emergency and will require immediate treatment in a hospital. (rxwiki.com)
  • Bacteria meningitis is an emergency which requires immediate treatment in a hospital. (rxwiki.com)
  • Invasion of the central nervous system (CNS) by colonising pneumococci follows an alteration in the balance … 2 Pathogenesis of Meningitis Invasion of the central nervous system (CNS) by colonising pneumococci follows an alteration in the balance between the virulence of the bacteria and the defences of the patient. (biobender.com)
  • A diverse set of bacteria cause bacterial meningitis. (pasteur.fr)
  • Brain tissue of mice infected with S. pneumoniae strain TIGR4, a clinical meningitis isolate, was investigated for the location of the bacteria in relation to the brain vasculature in various compartments. (rug.nl)
  • We determined the effect of vapour on oxidative stress-induced, PAFR-dependent pneumococcal adhesion to airway epithelial cells in vitro , and on pneumococcal colonisation in the mouse nasopharynx. (ersjournals.com)
  • The cholesterol-dependent cytolysin pneumolysin and the bacterial capsule are key pathogenic factors, known to exacerbate the course of pneumococcal meningitis. (biomedcentral.com)
  • We utilized live imaging and immunostaining of glial cells in dissociated and acute brain slice cultures to study the effect of pneumococcal factors, including the cholesterol-dependent cytolysin pneumolysin and the pneumococcal capsule, on microglial motility and taxis. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Our data indicate that microglia possess the capacity for a very agile response towards bacterial pathogens, but key pathogenic factors, such as pneumococcal capsules and pneumolysin, inhibited this response shortly after a bacterial challenge. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Effect of Serotype on Pneumococcal Competition in a Mouse Colonization Model. (harvard.edu)
  • Identification of pneumococcal colonization determinants in the stringent response pathway facilitated by genomic diversity. (harvard.edu)
  • Despite the availability of effective antibiotic therapies, pneumococcal meningitis (PM) has a case fatality rate of up to 30% and causes neurological sequelae in up to half of the surviving patients. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Crucial factors for improving outcome are a quick diagnostic work-up, the swift start of empiric antibiotic treatment and, in pneumococcal meningitis, adjunctive therapy with dexamethasone. (escmid.org)
  • The unencapsulated mutant did not cause meningitis and did not produce IFN-γ, whereas the PspC- mutant behaved as the wild type. (lum.it)
  • British health officials are beginning an immunization program designed to prevent infants and young children from contacting meningitis and septicemia. (medicalxpress.com)
  • No clinical replication cohort is available, so we validated the role of one of these targets, AKT3 , in a pneumococcal meningitis mouse model. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Although addition of genetic risk factors did not significantly improve the clinical prediction model for post-meningitis hearing loss, AUC's of the pre-existing model remain high after addition of genetic factors. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Acute bacterial meningitis is a medical emergency, and delays in instituting effective antimicrobial therapy result in increased morbidity and mortality. (medscape.com)
  • We have taken this opportunity to provide a reminder of meningitis signs and symptoms and the importance and effectiveness of vaccination. (pasteur.fr)
  • Improve bacterial meningitis prevention (raise vaccination awareness among teenagers and young adults, extend vaccination recommendations, and improve prevention campaigns, etc. (pasteur.fr)
  • 3 Neuronal Cell Death in the Hippocampus Animal models have been used to determine the mechanism of pneumococcal related neuronal apoptosis. (biobender.com)
  • The association announced a list of proposals to reduce the incidence of bacterial meningitis and improve care conditions. (pasteur.fr)
  • Early diagnosis and treatment of bacterial meningitis is important in preventing serious complications. (rxwiki.com)
  • The severity of illness and the treatment for meningitis will differ depending on the cause. (rxwiki.com)
  • Akt3 deficient mice had worse survival and increased histopathology scores for parenchymal damage (infiltration) and vascular infiltration (large meningeal artery inflammation) but similar bacterial loads, cytokine responses, compared to wild-type mice. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Sera from mice immunized with these hybrid PspA fragments were able to increase C3 deposition on pneumococci bearing PspA fragments from both families, in contrast with sera made against the PspA family 1 (PspA1ABC) and PspA family 2 (PspA3ABC) fragments, which were effective only within the same family. (bvsalud.org)
  • Since oxidative stress in airway cells increases platelet-activating factor receptor (PAFR) expression, and PAFR is co-opted by pneumococci to adhere to host cells, we hypothesised that E-cigarette vapour increases pneumococcal adhesion to airway cells. (ersjournals.com)
  • IFN-γ was found to enhance bacterial pathogenesis in a murine model of meningitis induced by type 4 S. pneumoniae. (lum.it)
  • This minireview will summarize the known pathogenesis of meningitis and current spaces in knowledge that might be loaded by proteomic evaluation. (biobender.com)
  • The essential role Fas plays in maintaining lymphocyte homeostasis and peripheral immune tolerance to prevent autoimmunity was first clarified by studying Fas-deficient MRL/lpr-/- mice. (medscape.com)
  • If meningitis is suspected, your doctor will order a lumbar puncture (spinal tap). (rxwiki.com)
  • In general, whenever the diagnosis of meningitis is strongly considered, a lumbar puncture should be promptly performed. (medscape.com)
  • However, the often unpredictable outcome of interventional studies suggests that the current concept of the pathophysiologic events during bacterial meningitis is fragmentary. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Thus, our results show that AKT3 influences outcome of pneumococcal meningitis. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Here, we report our genome wide association study on the host side, analysing the associations between human genome variants and functional outcome in patients with pneumococcal meningitis using the Human Exome BeadChip. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In addition pneumococcal proteins have been shown to contribute to neuronal cell death in animal models [17]. (biobender.com)
  • RESULTS Intracranial inoculation of 3x104 colony-forming units of wild type TIGR4 caused 70% of mice to develop meningitis within 48 hours. (lum.it)
  • He says that these findings have only been inclusive in mice, however, he believes that the same could be true for humans. (wikipedia.org)
  • Complement factor H contributes to mortality in humans and mice with bacterial meningitis. (cdc.gov)
  • meningitis in Malawi includes a high fatality price of 65% [6] and survivors may develop long-term neurological sequelae including hearing reduction and various other focal neurological deficits [7]. (biobender.com)
  • The effects on microglia were not mediated by astrocytes because pure microglial cells responded to various pneumococcal lysates similarly with distinct cell shape changes as seen in mixed cultures. (biomedcentral.com)
  • "The term 'meningitis' relates to inflammations of the meninges - membranes that envelop the central nervous system, i.e. the brain and spinal cord. (pasteur.fr)
  • These findings exhibited pneumococcal strain dependence. (wikipedia.org)
  • The aim of this work is to describe the transcriptomic changes underlying the complex mechanisms of the host response to pneumococcal meningitis in a temporal and spatial context using a well characterized infant rat model. (biomedcentral.com)