• For all patients with either a positive microscopy or RDT result, species confirmation by nested PCR was performed for Plasmodium falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale, and P. malariae . (cdc.gov)
  • Review and recent progress: the mathematical modeling of mixed species Plasmodium infections. (nih.gov)
  • Although transgenerational immune protection has been described in a dozen invertebrate species, we still lack a complete picture of the incidence and importance of transgenerational effects of infection in most invertebrate groups. (datadryad.org)
  • monkey species such as long-tailed macaques ( Macaca gov/EID/article/27/2/19-1660-App1.pdf), target- fascicularis ) and pig-tailed macaques ( M. nemestrina ), ex- ing the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene ( mtCytb ) of perimental and accidental transmissions have been im- 5 human malaria species for molecular detection, as plicated in symptomatic infections in humans ( 1 ). (cdc.gov)
  • P. cynomolgi , posing the risk of cross-species transmis- infections (Table 1). (cdc.gov)
  • Plasmodium species. (cdc.gov)
  • Plasmodium gallinaceum is a species of the genus Plasmodium (subgenus Haemamoeba) that causes malaria in poultry. (wikipedia.org)
  • Plasmodium falciparum ( P. falciparum ) and Plasmodium vivax ( P. vivax ) pose the greatest health threat among the five malaria species. (nih.gov)
  • Malaria in humans is caused by parasites of five Plasmodium species, of which Plasmodium falciparum ( P. falciparum ) and Plasmodium vivax ( P. vivax ) pose the greatest health threat. (nih.gov)
  • The authors report that their ANN classifier achieves an accuracy of 96.2% in recognizing P. vivax from other plasmodium species on 205 infected images. (nih.gov)
  • We compared the distribution patterns of individual Plasmodium species and mixed-species infections in two geographically close endemic areas, but showing environmental differences. (ijbs.com)
  • Plasmodium falciparum was the predominant species, being found in the vast majority of infected individuals regardless of the presence of other species. (ijbs.com)
  • However this was strongly dependent on age and when analysing infections at the individual level, a different pattern between co-infecting species was unveiled. (ijbs.com)
  • Experimental studies with humans [reviewed in 8 and 9] and rodents [ 10 , 11 ] indicated that different parasite species seem to interact, affecting mortality, pathology and infection dynamics. (ijbs.com)
  • In addition, different associations of Plasmodium species seemed to occur in infections detected in the human host or in the mosquito vector [ 20 ]. (ijbs.com)
  • For the purpose, we compared prevalence of different Plasmodium species and mixed-infections in two very close areas, but with slightly distinct environmental characteristics. (ijbs.com)
  • Monocytes play a role in host defense against Plasmodium vivax infection and represent the main source of inflammatory cytokines and reactive oxygen species . (bvsalud.org)
  • Infection occurs when a person is bitten by a mosquito harboring 1 of 4 species of Plasmodium . (nih.gov)
  • Half of the endemic prevalence in Asian countries is largely due to Plasmodium vivax among the four malarial species. (atmph.org)
  • As such, ARDS and pulmonary edema can be seen with P. falciparum infestation and on rare occasions with infection due to other species including P . vivax . (atmph.org)
  • Malaria caused by Plasmodium vivax species has shown signs of severity, recorded with increasing frequency in the medical literature. (scielo.br)
  • Contributors discuss the unique features and challenges presented at key stages of the malaria life cycle and by different Plasmodium species, malaria transmission and its interruption, the challenge of drug resistance, the future of malaria vaccine strategies, epigenetic regulation of malaria-associated genes, and new approaches in malaria research, including genomics and modeling. (cshlpress.com)
  • Malaria is infection of red blood cells with one of five species of the protozoa Plasmodium . (msdmanuals.com)
  • Various antimalarial medications are used to treat and to prevent infection (which medication is used depends on the malaria species causing the infection, the likelihood of drug resistance in the area where the infection was acquired, and the medication's side effects and cost). (msdmanuals.com)
  • Records of 560 male patients with Plasmodium vivax and P. falciparum infection, who were admitted to a military hospital in the northeastern sector of India during the period from June, 1978, to June, 1980, have been analysed to establish the prevalence of pernicious syndromes. (nih.gov)
  • Transgenerational effects of infection have a huge potential to influence the prevalence and intensity of infections in vectors and, by extension, disease epidemiology. (datadryad.org)
  • The existence of transgenerational infection effects in mosquito vectors is of particular interest because of their potential for influencing parasite prevalence and intensity and, by extension, disease transmission. (datadryad.org)
  • The aim of the present study was to evaluate the prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum , Plasmodium vivax and mixed infections in the Djiboutian population by using serological tools and to identify potential determinants of the disease and hotspots of malaria transmission within the country. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Monoinfection with P. knowle- infection, albeit at low prevalence ( 6 , 7 ). (cdc.gov)
  • In Malawi, scale up of malaria control measures has not resulted in expected decreases in Plasmodium falciparum prevalence. (umaryland.edu)
  • Thus, treatment of asymptomatic infections may be a viable strategy to decrease prevalence in Malawi. (umaryland.edu)
  • Both areas revealed a very high overall prevalence of infection, all year-round and in all age groups. (ijbs.com)
  • Regarding transmission patterns, in both areas, P. falciparum gametocytes predominated in single infections regardless of age and P. malariae gametocyte carriage increased when its overall prevalence decreased. (ijbs.com)
  • When prevalence of mixed Plasmodium infections in humans is analysed in endemic areas, the pair falciparum - vivax seems to be under-represented [ 13 , 16 , 17 ]. (ijbs.com)
  • Prevalence and Level of Antibodies Anti- Plasmodium spp. (hindawi.com)
  • The prevalence of PCR-confirmed infections was calculated at increasing distance around index infections (and growing time intervals in the cohort studies). (edu.au)
  • Statistical significance was defined as prevalence outside of a 95%-quantile interval of a bootstrap null distribution after random re-allocation of locations of infections. (edu.au)
  • Prevalence of Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum infections was elevated in close proximity around index infections and decreased with distance in most study sites, e.g. from 21.3% at 0 km to the global study prevalence of 6.4% for P. vivax in the Cambodian survey. (edu.au)
  • The distance from index infections to a 50% reduction of prevalence ranged from 25 m to 3175 m, tending to shorter distances at lower global study prevalence. (edu.au)
  • Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium ovale are often considered the malaria parasites best adapted to long-term survival in the human host because of their latent exo-erythrocytic forms. (medscape.com)
  • Here we present what we believe to be the first study on transgenerational infection effects in a mosquito vector infected with malaria parasites. (datadryad.org)
  • However, unlike Plasmodium falciparum, well-characterized P. vivax parasites that are safe and suitable for use in modern CHMI models are limited. (jci.org)
  • This protective efficacy is estimated to result from a 96.1% (95% CI, 93.4%-97.8%) reduction in the liver-to-blood parasite inoculum, indicating that in volunteers who developed P. falciparum infection, a small number of parasites (often the progeny of a single surviving sporozoite) are responsible for breakthrough blood-stage infections. (pasteur.fr)
  • Malaria, caused by Plasmodium parasites, continues to be a major burden on global health. (nih.gov)
  • Asymptomatic infections were associated with decreased risk of disease, but did not appear to be protective against clinical disease when new parasites were introduced. (umaryland.edu)
  • This work identifies Drosophila S2 cells as a clinically-relevant platform suited for the production of 'difficult-to-make' proteins from Plasmodium parasites, and identifies a PfRH5 sequence variant that can be used for clinical production of a non-glycosylated, soluble full-length protein vaccine immunogen. (nature.com)
  • Plasmodium falciparum parasites are the causative agent of the most severe form of human malaria, and the development of an effective vaccine remains a key strategic goal to aid the control, local elimination and eventual eradication of this disease. (nature.com)
  • Although the preva- malaria and pregnant women are more like- lence and density of P. falciparum parasites ly to develop clinical attacks of malaria and are higher in pregnant women than in non- serious complications than non-pregnant pregnant women, most infections remain women of the same age. (who.int)
  • These confounding variations can be potentially overcome with parasites derived from controlled-human malaria infection (CHMI) studies. (ntu.edu.sg)
  • Significant transcriptome heterogeneity exits between parasites derived from human infections and the pre-mosquito strain, implying that the malaria parasites undergo a change in functional state to adapt to its host environment. (ntu.edu.sg)
  • Peripheral blood smear was sent for examination for malarial parasites as the symptoms also pointed toward the possible infection with malaria. (atmph.org)
  • The Mosquito Immunity and Vector Competence Section investigates the interactions between the mosquito immune system and Plasmodium parasites to understand how they affect malaria transmission. (nih.gov)
  • After infection, the parasites (called sporozoites) travel through the bloodstream to the liver. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Plasmodium malariae and Plasmodium ovale occurred almost exclusively in mixed infections. (ijbs.com)
  • Plasmodium ovale malaria is often neglected due to its less severe course compared to Plasmodium falciparum. (itg.be)
  • Eight cases (seven P. ovale infections and one P. ovale-falciparum coinfection) were identified. (itg.be)
  • Non-specific symptoms, the less severe presentation, the lack of sensitive parasitological tools in the field and long delays between infection and symptoms probably lead to underestimation of P. ovale cases. (itg.be)
  • mosquito, although a probable source of infection for mosquitoes was not confirmed. (cdc.gov)
  • Co-infections of Plasmodium knowlesi, P. falciparum, and P. vivax among Humans and Anopheles dirus Mosquitoes, Southern Vietnam. (qxmd.com)
  • Further sampling of humans and mosquitoes in this area during 2009-2010 showed P. knowlesi infections in 32 (26%) persons with malaria (n = 125) and in 31 (43%) sporozoite-positive An. (qxmd.com)
  • Co-infections of P. knowlesi and P. vivax were predominant in mosquitoes and humans, while single P. knowlesi infections were found only in mosquitoes. (qxmd.com)
  • no additional smear-positive malaria infections were identified from May 1 through July 1, 1996 -- a period defining the time interval required for two complete parasite life cycles and during which climatic conditions would have supported local, mosquitoborne transmission. (cdc.gov)
  • Etude Expérimentale du Plasmodium gallinaceum Parasite de la Poule Domestique. (wikipedia.org)
  • Transmission de ce Germe par Stegomyia fasciata et Stegomyia albopicta" [Experimental Study on the Plasmodium gallinaceum Parasite of the Domesticated Chicken : Transmission of the Pathogen by Stegomyia fasciata and Stegomyia albopicta]. (wikipedia.org)
  • In natural parasite populations of Plasmodium inter-specific (mixed) infections commonly occur. (ijbs.com)
  • The Plasmodium falciparum reticulocyte-binding protein homolog 5 (PfRH5) has recently emerged as a leading candidate antigen against the blood-stage human malaria parasite. (nature.com)
  • Plasmodium vivax is the most widespread malaria parasite worldwide, with up to two billion people at risk of infection. (outbreaknewstoday.com)
  • As well as causing illness and death in its 'active' stage of infection, the parasite can hide as hypnozoites, a dormant stage, in the liver, and is a significant cause of 'relapsing' malaria. (outbreaknewstoday.com)
  • Plasmodium falciparum is a protozoan parasite that causes human malaria. (ox.ac.uk)
  • infection triggers the production of inflammatory cytokines that are essential for parasite control , and conversely responsible for symptoms of malaria . (bvsalud.org)
  • An inappropriate immune response to parasite infection is one of the primary drivers of malaria pathogenesis. (psu.edu)
  • Malaria is caused by the Plasmodium parasite. (nih.gov)
  • The PfSPZ Vaccine, developed by scientists at Sanaria Inc., is composed of a live but weakened version of Plasmodium falciparum, the most deadly malaria-causing parasite. (nih.gov)
  • Osteopontin participates in Th1-mediated host resistance against nonlethal malaria parasite plasmodium chabaudi chabaudi infection in mice. (nii.ac.jp)
  • Overview of Parasitic Infections A parasite is an organism that lives on or inside another organism (the host) and benefits (for example, by getting nutrients) from the host at the host's expense. (msdmanuals.com)
  • In this study, we transiently depleted Tregs (CD25 + T cells) using an anti-CD25 mAb (7D4 clone) at different time points following Plasmodium chabaudi chabaudi AS infection in BALB/c mice and investigated the effect of depletion of Tregs in this model. (psu.edu)
  • Using a biologically-motivated mathematical model of sporozoite infection fitted to data from malaria-naive adults vaccinated with RTS,S and subjected to experimental P. falciparum challenge, we characterised the relationship between antibodies, CD4(+) T cell responses and protection from infection. (pasteur.fr)
  • Methods We performed CHMI studies in healthy and immunologically naïve volunteers receiving the same P. falciparum strain ((Sanaria® PfSPZ Challenge (NF54)), but with different sporozoite dosage and route of infection. (ntu.edu.sg)
  • Two potential sources of mosquito infection were considered: persons who recently had immigrated from regions where malaria is endemic, including migrant farm workers, and travelers returning from countries where malaria is endemic. (cdc.gov)
  • Comparisons concerned circulating Plasmodium infections in both human and mosquito vector populations in the dry and wet seasons, at a micro-epidemiological level (households). (ijbs.com)
  • A single Anopheles dirus mosquito carrying sporozoites of Plasmodium knowlesi, P. falciparum, and P. vivax was recently discovered in Khanh Phu, southern Vietnam. (qxmd.com)
  • Background The transcriptome of Plasmodium falciparum clinical isolates varies according to strain, mosquito bites, disease severity and clinical history. (ntu.edu.sg)
  • High mosquito biting rates, living in a house with someone else with malaria, or having an asymptomatic malaria infection were also predictors of clinical episodes. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Mosquito immune responses that limit Plasmodium infection. (nih.gov)
  • Plasmodium evasion of the mosquito immune system. (nih.gov)
  • Mosquito antiviral immunity and susceptibility to dengue infection. (nih.gov)
  • We recently characterized a new subpopulation of giant mosquito granulocytes, the Megacytes (large cell in the center), and show that they are key mediators of mosquito immunity against bacteria and Plasmodium. (nih.gov)
  • In collaboration with the Wellcome Sanger Institute, we used single cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) to analyze the transcriptional profiles of individual mosquito immune cells (hemocytes) in response to blood feeding or infection with Plasmodium . (nih.gov)
  • The transcriptional profile of 8506 hemocytes of Anopheles gambiae and Aedes aegypti, mosquito vectors of human malaria and viral infections respectively, revealed the functional diversity of these immune cells. (nih.gov)
  • This atlas of medically relevant invertebrate immune cells at single cell resolution identified key cells populations that mediate mosquito immune responses to malaria infection. (nih.gov)
  • Malaria is a protozoa infection that is spread by the bite of an infected female mosquito. (msdmanuals.com)
  • The cycle of malarial infection begins when a female mosquito bites a person with malaria. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Case reports and series investigating blood donors following accidental malaria infection of blood transfusion recipients and other sporadic malaria cases in non-endemic countries have shown clearly that asymptomatic P. falciparum infections may persist for up to a decade or longer (maximum confirmed 13 years). (medscape.com)
  • Science, Pitsanulok, Thailand (S. Seethamchai) molgi infections among malaria cases in each malaria- endemic area (0.52%-0.87%) was comparable. (cdc.gov)
  • In Africa each year around 24 million wom- women have acquired substantial protec- en become pregnant in malaria-endemic ar- tive immunity to malaria through repeated eas. (who.int)
  • In contrast, an excess of mixed infections is often correlated with the pair falciparum - malariae [ 6 , 18 , 19 , 20 ]. (ijbs.com)
  • However, the number of Plasmodium falciparum malaria cases is declining, even in Africa. (biomedcentral.com)
  • METHODS: We conducted a systematic search in August 2012 of three major scientific databases, PubMed, Embase and Africa Wide Information, for articles describing bacterial infection among children with P. falciparum malaria using the search string '(malaria OR plasmodium) AND (bacteria OR bacterial OR bacteremia OR bacteraemia OR sepsis OR septicaemia OR septicemia). (kemri-wellcome.org)
  • CDC has recently reviewed data on the reported incidence in the United States of Plasmodium falciparum malaria and has evaluated information on the effective management of severe life-threatening infections. (cdc.gov)
  • development of parasitologic and clinical immunity during primary infection. (ajtmh.org)
  • This immunity was found to be non-transferrable to the offspring as babies born to such parents exhibited the normal course of infection as other baby mice. (edu.ng)
  • We hypothesized that P. falciparum infection compromises the humoral and cellular immunity of the host to NTS, which increases the susceptibility of the host to iNTS infection. (liverpool.ac.uk)
  • P. falciparum infection impairs humoral and cellular immunity to S. Typhimurium in children during malaria episodes, which may explain the increased risk of iNTS observed in children from settings of malaria endemicity. (liverpool.ac.uk)
  • Malaria infection in possible that protective immunity may be the mother is also a risk factor for perinatal acquired in the reproductive tract through mortality and morbidity by reducing the ba- malaria infection during the first pregnan- by's birth weight [ 7 ]. (who.int)
  • Although severe malaria by Plasmodium vivax has been increasingly reported, there are marked variations in the type and rate of the complications by geographic area. (altmetric.com)
  • Plasmodium vivax infection can be severe to be fatal and is frequently associated with various complications in non-immune adults. (altmetric.com)
  • 1984 discovery of CSP which contains the 5-length CSP Region I.: 395-396 Infection produces severe changes in blood plasma composition. (wikipedia.org)
  • No severe side effects or malaria infections developed. (nih.gov)
  • This study aimed to characterize the signs of severe malaria by Plasmodium vivax in the State of Maranhão, Brazil. (scielo.br)
  • Coartem Tablets are a combination of artemether and lumefantrine, both antimalarials, indicated for treatment of acute, uncomplicated malaria infections due to Plasmodium falciparum (P. falciparum) in patients 2 months of age and older with a bodyweight of 5 kg and above. (nih.gov)
  • PfHPRT: a new biomarker candidate of acute Plasmodium falciparum infection. (ox.ac.uk)
  • These transcriptional variation signature clusters were also observed in the transcriptome of P. falciparum isolates from acute clinical infections. (ntu.edu.sg)
  • Among various complications associated with malaria, pulmonary complications are rare and the possibility of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is even rarest with vivax infection. (atmph.org)
  • CONCLUSIONS: The accumulated evidence suggests that children with recent or acute malaria are at risk of bacterial infection, which results in an increased risk of mortality. (kemri-wellcome.org)
  • The Biology of Plasmodium yoelli nigeriensis in rodents and the reaction of rats and mice to the infection were studied. (edu.ng)
  • In investigations into the course of infection of Plasmodium yoelli nigeriensis in rats and mice, it was found that adult mice and baby rats were susceptible to the infection, while adult rats were totally resistant. (edu.ng)
  • In investigations correlating the quantity of food to the course of infection of Plasmodium yoelli nigeriensis in adult mice, it was found that animals which had adequate food were in better condition to withstand infections with Plasmodium yoelli nigeriensis. (edu.ng)
  • In challenges made to animals which had worms that would have reached sexual maturity, the course of Plasmodium yoelli nigeriensis was comparable to that of normal mice. (edu.ng)
  • Fagbenro-Beyioku, F.A (1988), Plasmodium Yoelii Nigeriensis Infection and Immune Response in Mice and Rats, University of Lagos School of Postgraduate Studies Phd Thesis and Dissertation Abstracts, 157pp. (edu.ng)
  • In the initial vaccine trial, Plasmodium falciparum TCTP (PfTCTP) was expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and used to immunize BALB/c mice. (johnshopkins.edu)
  • A significant reduction in parasitemia in the early stages of infection was observed in BALB/c mice challenged with P. yoelii YM. (johnshopkins.edu)
  • In control mice, Tregs proliferated significantly and their suppressive function was enhanced after infection. (psu.edu)
  • When Tregs were depleted prior to or during the early phase of infection, most mice survived and had a robust Th1 immune response. (psu.edu)
  • Pregnancy increases susceptibility to prior infections [ 8 ]. (who.int)
  • Whether a biological relationship exists between malaria infection and IBI susceptibility remains unclear. (kemri-wellcome.org)
  • Incident infections and length of infection persistence did not significantly differ between SAC and children under five. (umaryland.edu)
  • Following challenge with Plasmodium yoelii YM, parasitemia was significantly reduced during the early stages of infection. (johnshopkins.edu)
  • Here, the spatial signature method is introduced as a tool to quantify the distance around an index infection within which other infections significantly cluster. (edu.au)
  • Newly acquired infections were associated with increased risk of clinical disease. (umaryland.edu)
  • In clinical, microscopically-based diagnostics, mixed malaria infections are often missed but sensitive PCR-based techniques [ 4 , 5 ] and/or longitudinal studies have demonstrated that mixed infections are remarkably common [ 6 , 7 ]. (ijbs.com)
  • A candidate malaria vaccine is safe and protects against infection in adults, according to the results of an early-stage clinical trial. (nih.gov)
  • Infections with Leucocytozoon spp can occasionally cause clinical and rarely fatal disease in turkeys, ducks, and chickens. (merckvetmanual.com)
  • Infections with Leucocytozoon spp are most often subclinical but can occasionally cause clinical and even fatal disease. (merckvetmanual.com)
  • Interpretation Our work identifies a previously unrecognized transcriptional pattern in malaria infections in a non-immune background. (ntu.edu.sg)
  • Plasmodium falciparum infection dysregulates placental autophagy. (nih.gov)
  • Controlled human malaria infection (CHMI) provides a highly informative means to investigate host-pathogen interactions and enable in vivo proof-of-concept efficacy testing of new drugs and vaccines. (jci.org)
  • Therefore, it remains a challenge to directly interpret the parasite's transcriptomic information into a more general biological signature in a natural human malaria infection. (ntu.edu.sg)
  • These results provide insights into the proteomic features of antigens that underlie the variation in antibody responses during a natural infection, information that could inform vaccine strategies. (nih.gov)
  • Led by Dr. Robert A. Seder at the Vaccine Research Center of NIH's National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), researchers enrolled 57 healthy adults, ages 18-45, with no previous malaria infection. (nih.gov)
  • Translationally controlled tumour protein (TCTP) may play an important role in the establishment or maintenance of parasitemia in a malarial infection. (johnshopkins.edu)
  • I am an infectious diseases epidemiologist and lead the Emerging Infections and Climate Change Research Unit and Masters' and Doctoral programs in Epidemiological Research at Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia. (researchgate.net)
  • En aquesta tesi es presenta una aproximació teòrica al procés d'infecció a eritròcits en cultius in vitro amb Plasmodium falciparum, un dels protozous paràsits causants de la malària. (upc.edu)
  • infections cluster spatially so that interventions need to be spatially informed, e.g. spatially targeted reactive case detection strategies. (edu.au)
  • This study developed a panel of serological exposure markers capable of classifying individuals with P. vivax infections within the previous 9 months who have a high likelihood of harboring hypnozoites. (outbreaknewstoday.com)
  • The first symptoms usually occur 2 to 4 weeks after infection, though they can appear as early as 8 days or as long as a year after infection. (medlineplus.gov)
  • In a study of 267 individuals exposed to intense seasonal malaria transmission, we examined the relationship between the magnitude of IgG responses to 1087 Plasmodium falciparum antigens and several features of these antigens including their subcellular location, relative abundance, molecular weight, whether or not they contain predicted MHC class II epitopes, their degree of polymorphism and whether they are predicted to have human orthologs. (nih.gov)
  • Background: Climate change may affect Plasmodium vivax malaria transmission in a wide region including both subtropical and temperate areas. (nih.gov)
  • Invasive nontyphoidal Salmonella (iNTS) infections are commonly associated with Plasmodium falciparum infections, but the immunologic basis for this linkage is poorly understood. (liverpool.ac.uk)
  • Williams 2005 finds large changes in plasma proteins at 8 days post infection. (wikipedia.org)
  • One hundred and seventy-eight patients (31.8%) had P. vivax malaria, 309 (55.1%) had P. falciparum malaria, and the remaining 73 (13.1%) were found to have mixed infection (P. vivax and P. falciparum). (nih.gov)
  • A convenience sampling of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from Plasmodium vivax -infected patients and healthy donors were tested for the characterization of cytokine and adenosine production and the expression of ectonucleotidases and purinergic receptors . (bvsalud.org)
  • The monitoring of malaria patients with Plasmodium vivax showed the possibility of aggravation, the intensity of which varied in different circumstances, especially the interval time between falling ill and diagnostic confirmation. (scielo.br)
  • We discuss the implications of our results and we call for more studies looking at transgenerational effects of infection in disease vectors. (datadryad.org)