• ipRGCs use vesicular glutamate transporter 2 (vGlut2) to package glutamate into synaptic vesicles and light-evoked resetting of the SCN circadian clock is widely attributed to ipRGC glutamatergic neurotransmission. (eneuro.org)
  • Further, we used a conditional knock-out mouse lacking vesicular glutamate transporter 2 (VGLUT2) specifically in dopamine neurons to determine whether VGLUT2 is required for the exocytotic release of glutamate from dopamine neurons. (jneurosci.org)
  • This study examined glutamatergic signaling by intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) of mice in which vesicular glutamate transporter 2 (vGlut2) was knocked out using Cre recombination. (eneuro.org)
  • Soon after the introduction of atypical antipsychotics, which antagonize serotonin receptors and dopamine D 2 receptors (D 2 R), numerous case reports appeared showing that the use of these drugs were associated with increased obesity and the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) ( 5 ). (frontiersin.org)
  • Previous work has suggested that some midbrain dopamine neurons are themselves capable of glutamate corelease, but this phenomenon remains poorly understood. (jneurosci.org)
  • Here, we expressed the light-activated cation channel Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) in genetically defined midbrain dopamine neurons to stimulate exocytosis specifically from dopaminergic terminals in both the nucleus accumbens (NAc) shell and dorsal striatum of brain slices from adult mice. (jneurosci.org)
  • These results provide definitive physiological evidence for VGLUT2-mediated glutamate release by mature dopamine neurons projecting to the NAc shell, but not to the dorsal striatum. (jneurosci.org)
  • Thus, the unique ability of NAc-projecting dopamine neurons to synchronously activate both dopamine and glutamate receptors may have crucial implications for the ability to respond to motivationally significant stimuli. (jneurosci.org)
  • Midbrain dopamine neurons project to a variety of forebrain targets, including the dorsal striatum and nucleus accumbens, where the release of dopamine is thought to contribute to the generation of motor function and motivated behaviors ( Wise, 2004 ). (jneurosci.org)
  • However, this possibility has generated controversy due to difficulty stimulating selectively dopamine neurons or their terminals. (jneurosci.org)
  • However the histochemical evidence for VGLUT2 expression by dopamine neurons in vivo remains less clear. (jneurosci.org)
  • To determine whether dopamine neurons release synaptically relevant amounts of glutamate in the adult brain, a method to selectively stimulate exocytotic release from dopamine terminals is required. (jneurosci.org)
  • We therefore used a multifaceted strategy, combining optogenetics and conditional gene disruption to selectively stimulate dopaminergic terminals while recording postsynaptic currents from medium spiny neurons (MSNs) in either the ventral or dorsal striatum of control or conditional knock-out mice lacking VGLUT2 specifically in dopamine neurons. (jneurosci.org)
  • Amphetamines increase the amount of norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine in the brain by increasing the neuronal release of these neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft (the tiny gap between neurons. (madinamerica.com)
  • Methylphenidate exposure induces dopamine neuron loss and activation of microglia in the basal ganglia of mice. (madinamerica.com)
  • One of the more notable drugs in the stimulant class is amphetamine , which acts as a dopamine and norepinephrine analog, reuptake inhibitor, as well as an agent that increases the amount of global catecholamine signaling throughout the nervous system by reversing transporters in the synapses. (wikipedia.org)
  • Their norepinephrine and serotonin levels in the dentate gyrus of the brain were reduced immediately following treatment, showing evidence of reduced neurogenesis, or new neuron growth, but the levels did not remain low by the end of the study. (madinamerica.com)
  • 3) Somkuwar SS, Kantak KM, Dwoskin LP. Effect of methylphenidate treatment during adolescence on norepinephrine transporter function in orbitofrontal cortex in a rat model of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. (madinamerica.com)
  • [2] "Norepinephrine" is also the international nonproprietary name given to the drug . (wikipedia.org)
  • In the rest of the body, norepinephrine increases heart rate and blood pressure , triggers the release of glucose from energy stores, increases blood flow to skeletal muscle , reduces blood flow to the gastrointestinal system, and inhibits voiding of the bladder and gastrointestinal motility . (wikipedia.org)
  • Traditionally this has involved studying both central and peripheral molecules involved in hunger and satiety, such as leptin, orexin (also known as hypocretin), insulin, alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH), glucagon-like peptide -1 (GLP-1), amylin, glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP, also known as a gastric inhibitory polypeptide), adiponectin and cholecystokinin (CCK). (frontiersin.org)
  • Importantly, inducible knockout (iKO) mice and Gpr17 null intestinal organoids respond to glucose or lipid ingestion with increased secretion of GLP-1, but not the other incretin glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP). (bvsalud.org)
  • Optical activation resulted in robust glutamate-mediated EPSCs in all medium spiny neurons examined in the NAc shell. (jneurosci.org)
  • [6] Data suggest that astrocytes also signal to neurons through Ca 2+ -dependent release of glutamate . (atozwiki.com)
  • These data suggest that the activation of VMH EphA5 receptors by ephrinA5 may act in concert with β-cell Eph receptor forward signaling to restore glucose homeostasis during acute hypoglycemia via alterations in glutamate/glutamine cycling ( 7 , 8 ). (diabetesjournals.org)
  • and changes in the density of transporter molecules involved in the reuptake of the neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft. (madinamerica.com)
  • These data suggest that changes in ephrinA5/EphA5 interactions and synaptic plasticity within the VMH, a key glucose-sensing region in the brain, may contribute to the impairment in glucagon secretion and counterregulatory responses caused by recurrent hypoglycemia. (diabetesjournals.org)
  • Conversely, the D 2 R agonist bromocriptine, which has been used for over 40 years to treat Parkinson's disease and hyperprolactinemia ( 6 ), was found to lower blood glucose levels and improve insulin sensitivity in patients with T2DM ( 7 ). (frontiersin.org)
  • The American Physiological Society (2018) Retraction: Acute exercise suppresses hypothalamic PTP1B protein level and improves insulin and leptin signaling in obese rats. (timelineorganizing.com)
  • Acute genetic ablation of Gpr17 in intestinal epithelium improves glucose tolerance and glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS). (bvsalud.org)
  • Insulin resistance impairs postprandial glucose uptake through glucose transporter type 4 (GLUT4) and is the primary defect preceding type 2 diabetes. (bvsalud.org)
  • Frequent episodes of acute hypoglycemia represent the principal obstacle to achieving optimal glycemic control during insulin treatment in patients with type 1 diabetes and long-standing type 2 diabetes ( 1 , 2 ). (diabetesjournals.org)
  • Overweight or obese individuals (body mass index 25-30) have an increased risk of developing diabetes, coronary heart disease, and hypertension [ 2 , 3 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and depression are significant public health and socioeconomic issues. (frontiersin.org)
  • Metformin (MF), a first-line drug to treat type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), alone and in combination with other drugs, shows positive effect on steroidogenesis and spermatogenesis in men with T2DM and metabolic syndrome, thus MF treatment indicates prospective use for improvement of male reproductive functions and fertility in these disorders. (encyclopedia.pub)
  • In pathological conditions, like type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and metabolic syndrome (MetS), the activity of AMPK is reduced. (encyclopedia.pub)
  • The greatly increased prevalence of type 2 diabetes and some metabolic diseases closely related with the rapidly growing obesity epidemic around the world, which due to an energy imbalance caused by unhealthy lifestyles and nutrient overload [ 1 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Mechanism exploitation of energy homeostasis is urgently required because of the worldwide prevailing of obesity-related metabolic disorders in human being. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The molecule of MF, a small hydrophilic cation, is transported from the extracellular space to the cytoplasm of the target cell through organic cation transporters-1 and -2 (OCT1, OCT2), multidrug and toxin extrusion transporters (MATE), and ATM (ataxia telangiectasia mutated) transporter, and OCT1 and OCT2 are considered as the main functional units of MF transmembrane transport [ 7 ] . (encyclopedia.pub)
  • After collecting behavioral data, hypothalamic slices were prepared and evoked EPSCs (eEPSCs) were recorded from SCN neurons by stimulating the optic chiasm. (eneuro.org)
  • Alzheimer's disease is one of the neurodegenerative diseases, characterized by the accumulation of abnormal protein deposits, which disrupt the signal transduction in neurons and other glia cells. (preprints.org)
  • Here we uncover structural motifs required for ceramide interaction with the four membrane spanning Lysosome Associated Protein Transmembrane 4B (LAPTM4B). (sphingolipidclub.com)
  • Lipid synthesis requires bulk carbon skeleton acyl-CoAs, the transport of which depends on the acyl-CoA binding protein (ACBP). (biomedcentral.com)
  • Before entering lipid synthesis pathways, different kinds of acyl-CoA transporters which acts as the major carrier of acyl-CoAs, such as fatty acid binding protein (FABP), sterol carrier protein 2 (SCP2) and acyl-CoA-binding protein (ACBP), would activate and convert fatty acids to fatty acyl-CoA esters via a reaction catalyzed by fatty acyl-CoA synthetase and transported to various metabolic locations [ 11 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Cerebellar parallel fibers implement therefore the readout connections, and recurrent connections between neurons. (proftimobrien.com)
  • In this study, we examined whether recurrent hypoglycemia alters the capacity of the ephrinA5 ligand to activate VMH EphA5 receptors, and if so, whether these changes could contribute to pathogenesis of defective glucose counterregulation in response to a standard hypoglycemic stimulus. (diabetesjournals.org)
  • Activation of VMH EphA5 receptors via targeted microinjection of ephrinA5-Fc before a hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemic clamp study caused a reduction in the glucose infusion rate in nondiabetic rats exposed to recurrent hypoglycemia. (diabetesjournals.org)
  • Rasmussen CLM, Hede E, Routhe LJ, Körbelin J, Helgudottir SS, Thomsen LB, Schwaninger M, Burkhart A, Moos T. A novel strategy for delivering Niemann-Pick type C2 proteins across the blood-brain barrier using the brain endothelial-specific AAV-BR1 virus . (uni-luebeck.de)
  • Lipid extraction from ΔNcACBP or the wild-type of N. caninum was analyzed by GC-MS or TLC. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In Neospora caninum , the causative agent of neosporosis, the FASII pathway is required for growth and pathogenicity. (biomedcentral.com)
  • A milestone in metabolism field is the discovery in 1994 made by Friedman and his colleagues, which convincingly showed that leptin are essential in regulating food intake and energy expenditure [ 2 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Despite recent progress in our understanding of the physiological mechanisms regulating body weight and energy expenditure, obesity remains a major worldwide health crisis with an array of vascular, metabolic, and psychosocial consequences [ 1 , 2 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • Obesity has become endemic in the developed world and is on its way to becoming so in developing nations, producing many health-related problems ( 2 ). (frontiersin.org)
  • In this study, we characterized the metabolic phenotypes of the adult GIRKO mice acutely switched to high-fat diet (HFD) feeding in order to identify additional metabolic challenges required for disease progression. (bvsalud.org)
  • Furthermore, GIRKO mice also had impaired oral glucose tolerance and a limited glucose-lowering benefit from exendin-4, suggesting that the blunted incretin effect contributed to hyperglycemia. (bvsalud.org)
  • We systematically profiled the metabolic parameters, the gut microbiome composition, and hippocampal gene expression in 5xFAD and wild type (WT) mice fed normal chow diet and HFD. (bvsalud.org)
  • 5xFAD mice on HFD had elevated circulating lipids and worsened glucose intolerance. (bvsalud.org)
  • Research since the mid-1990s has shown that astrocytes propagate intercellular Ca 2+ waves over long distances in response to stimulation, and, similar to neurons, release transmitters (called gliotransmitters ) in a Ca 2+ -dependent manner. (atozwiki.com)
  • [3] Another study reports that astrocytes are the most numerous cell type in the brain. (atozwiki.com)
  • [4] Apolipoprotein E transports cholesterol from astrocytes to neurons and other glial cells, regulating cell signaling in the brain. (atozwiki.com)
  • The molecular mechanisms underlying this phenomenon remain uncertain but are likely to involve the key brain glucose-sensing region, the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) ( 5 , 6 ). (diabetesjournals.org)
  • Pollen tube growth at flomax online no prescription 2 time points. (proftimobrien.com)
  • The role that a neuron plays within a circuit depends to a large extent on the neurotransmitter(s) released. (jneurosci.org)
  • The clinical role of quantitative EEG and brainstem auditory-evoked potential testing also is undetermined and requires further evidence. (medscape.com)
  • Radial glia are mostly present during development, playing a role in neuron migration . (atozwiki.com)
  • When psychosine was supplied to proliferating cells, cells underwent special type of mitosis, endomitosis, which sustains cellular content duplication without segregation, resulted in the giant and multiploid cell formation. (sphingolipidclub.com)
  • Alpha-2 agonists often have a sedating effect and are commonly used as anesthesia enhancers in surgery, as well as in treatment of drug or alcohol dependence . (wikipedia.org)
  • For reasons that are still unclear, some Alpha-2 drugs, such as guanfacine , have also been shown to be effective in the treatment of anxiety disorders and ADHD . (wikipedia.org)
  • S1P is generated intracellularly by two sphingosine kinases (SphK1, SphK2) and is exported out of cells by Spinster 2 (Spns2) to exert its effects through activation of five specific cell surface S1PRs in autocrine or paracrine manners. (sphingolipidclub.com)
  • [2] Astrocytes are the major source of cholesterol in the central nervous system. (atozwiki.com)
  • Astrocytes are a sub-type of glial cells in the central nervous system . (atozwiki.com)
  • Early assessments of energy use in gray matter signaling suggested that 95% was attributed to neurons and 5% to astrocytes. (atozwiki.com)
  • LFP vector, (26) In order to simulate an explicit strategy, the model replicates a randomly selected outcome for three individual neurons. (timelineorganizing.com)
  • It was reported that SM could form cluster in outer leaflet of the membrane, where juxtapose inner leaflet region could recruit phosphatidylinositol-5-kinase to form PIP 2 . (sphingolipidclub.com)
  • Some of the oscillation in the absence or presence of 125 nM CDPK16, as shown in Fig 2, the predicted class, patients were retained. (proftimobrien.com)
  • If you log out, you will be required to enter your username and password the next time you visit. (medscape.com)
  • This sensitivity requires hypochlorite solutions and amitriptyline to be shielded from light. (pharmacology2000.com)