Here, we expressed the light-activated cation channel Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) in genetically defined midbrain dopamine neurons to stimulate exocytosis specifically from dopaminergic terminals in both the nucleus accumbens (NAc) shell and dorsal striatum of brain slices from adult mice. (jneurosci.org)
The molecule of MF, a small hydrophilic cation, is transported from the extracellular space to the cytoplasm of the target cell through organic cation transporters-1 and -2 (OCT1, OCT2), multidrug and toxin extrusion transporters (MATE), and ATM (ataxia telangiectasia mutated) transporter, and OCT1 and OCT2 are considered as the main functional units of MF transmembrane transport [ 7 ] . (encyclopedia.pub)
Homeostasis1
RESULTS: Insulin upregulates ENT2 uptake activity by increasing the Vmax, thus counteracting decreased adenosine uptake due to high d-glucose and achieving extracellular adenosine homeostasis. (bvsalud.org)
Neurons1
Further, we used a conditional knock-out mouse lacking vesicular glutamate transporter 2 (VGLUT2) specifically in dopamine neurons to determine whether VGLUT2 is required for the exocytotic release of glutamate from dopamine neurons. (jneurosci.org)
Protein2
Acute exercise lipitor sales 2020 suppresses hypothalamic PTP1B protein level and improves insulin and leptin signaling in obese rats. (crownconstructionsolutions.com)
The American Physiological Society (2018) Retraction: Acute exercise suppresses hypothalamic PTP1B protein level and improves insulin and leptin signaling in obese rats. (crownconstructionsolutions.com)
Insulin1
Because kidney cells are responsive to insulin, this study aims to determine how DN affects insulin regulation of the equilibrative nucleoside transporter-2 (ENT2). (bvsalud.org)
Selectively1
Reverse T3 (rT3) is an inactive metabolite of T4, generated by the action of type 3 deiodinase[4,5], which selectively removes an iodine atom from the inner ring of T4[5]. (myendoconsult.com)
Cellular2
A major contribution to the maintenance of physiological extracellular adenosine levels relies on cellular uptake activity through plasma membrane nucleoside transporters. (bvsalud.org)
When psychosine was supplied to proliferating cells, cells underwent special type of mitosis, endomitosis, which sustains cellular content duplication without segregation, resulted in the giant and multiploid cell formation. (sphingolipidclub.com)
Liver1
CONCLUSION: Salvianolic acid B and tanshinone IIA can synergistically improve glucose and lipid disorders, liver and kidney damage, and resist kidney inflammation in early DN rats, and the mechanism may be related to regulating PI3K/Akt/NF-κB signaling pathway. (bvsalud.org)
Metabolic3
Despite recent progress in our understanding of the physiological mechanisms regulating body weight and energy expenditure, obesity remains a major worldwide health crisis with an array of vascular, metabolic, and psychosocial consequences [ 1 , 2 ]. (hindawi.com)
Metformin (MF), a first-line drug to treat type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), alone and in combination with other drugs, shows positive effect on steroidogenesis and spermatogenesis in men with T2DM and metabolic syndrome, thus MF treatment indicates prospective use for improvement of male reproductive functions and fertility in these disorders. (encyclopedia.pub)
In pathological conditions, like type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and metabolic syndrome (MetS), the activity of AMPK is reduced. (encyclopedia.pub)
Diabetes1
Overweight or obese individuals (body mass index 25-30) have an increased risk of developing diabetes, coronary heart disease, and hypertension [ 2 , 3 ]. (hindawi.com)
Brain2
Another study reports that astrocytes are the most numerous cell type in the brain. (wikipedia.org)
Rasmussen CLM, Hede E, Routhe LJ, Körbelin J, Helgudottir SS, Thomsen LB, Schwaninger M, Burkhart A, Moos T. A novel strategy for delivering Niemann-Pick type C2 proteins across the blood-brain barrier using the brain endothelial-specific AAV-BR1 virus . (uni-luebeck.de)
3) Somkuwar SS, Kantak KM, Dwoskin LP. Effect of methylphenidate treatment during adolescence on norepinephrine transporter function in orbitofrontal cortex in a rat model of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. (madinamerica.com)
Cells3
Astrocytes are a sub-type of glial cells in the central nervous system. (wikipedia.org)
This type often has astrocytic endfoot processes that physically connect the cells to the outside of capillary walls when they are in proximity to them. (wikipedia.org)
S1P is generated intracellularly by two sphingosine kinases (SphK1, SphK2) and is exported out of cells by Spinster 2 (Spns2) to exert its effects through activation of five specific cell surface S1PRs in autocrine or paracrine manners. (sphingolipidclub.com)
Activity1
It should be noted that T4 is, in fact, a prohormone with relatively low biological activity compared to T3[1,2]. (myendoconsult.com)
Time2
In humans, a single astrocyte cell can interact with up to 2 million synapses at a time. (wikipedia.org)
Pollen tube growth at flomax online no prescription 2 time points. (proftimobrien.com)
Source1
[2] Astrocytes are the major source of cholesterol in the central nervous system. (atozwiki.com)
Blood glucose levels3
It must be appreciated however that any high-capacity glucose transport process would suffice because glucokinase can serve as a glucose sensor in cells that have intracellular glucose in the low range of 2-3 mmol/l approaching blood glucose levels and exhibiting rapid equilibration between outside and inside water spaces. (medscape.com)
Red rice koji (RRK), prepared by growing Monascus species on steamed rice, has been reported to lower blood glucose levels in diabetic animal models. (foodandnutritionresearch.net)
[ 58 ] The proposed role of glucokinase as glucose sensor of entero-endocrine, pancreatic α, and pituitary cells also remains to be fully established. (medscape.com)
In some of these cases (e.g., pancreatic α cells and certain hypothalamic neurons), glucose inhibits cellular function, and a mechanism differing from that accepted to operate in glucose sensing of pancreatic ß-cells has to be postulated. (medscape.com)
However, it has been shown that the pancreatic α-cells that lack Glut-2 maintain intracellular glucose between 1/2 and 2/3 of the serum level, sufficient to engage glucokinase as glucose sensor. (medscape.com)
Metabolism2
In fact, there is compelling evidence from physiological studies with conscious dogs and work with knockout and transgenic mice that specific glucose sensor cells of unknown identity exist in the hepato-portal vasculature, project to the central nervous system through vagal afferents, and modify metabolism via the automomic nervous system. (medscape.com)
For example, enhanced glucose metabolism might enhance an electrogenic Na + pump or augment an hyperpolarizing K + current, to mention two possibilities. (medscape.com)
The glucose intolerance in DIO TLR5(-/-) mice was more significant than that in DIO C57BL/6 mice and was not attenuated by a switch to the LFD. (omicsdi.org)
Concentrations1
Furthermore, fluoxetine increased the concentrations of glucose-6-phosphate (G6Pase substrate) and acetyl CoA (the substrate for de novo lipogenesis) in mouse livers. (nih.gov)
Implications1
Although ACTH-expressing cells appear to be the predominant glucokinase-expressing cells in the pituitary, it remains to be established which other cell types may also express glucokinase and what the physiological implications might be. (medscape.com)
Obesity4
Obesity is recognized as a risk factor for lifestyle-related diseases such as type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. (hindawi.com)
In 2010, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) released a report on the current state of obesity and the cost-effectiveness of preventive measures [ 2 , 3 ]. (hindawi.com)
It is widely known that obesity is a risk factor for various "lifestyle-related diseases" such as type 2 diabetes and hypertension, and that obesity and diabetes cause increases in atherosclerotic disease. (hindawi.com)
Human obesity reflects an imbalance between energy expenditure and caloric intake resulting from an increase in either the number or the size of fat cells, or both, and is induced by the enlargement of adipocytes as well as the generation of new adipocytes from precursor cells [ 2 ]. (ijbs.com)
Expression3
Considering decreased expression or function of glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase), a key enzyme in gluconeogenesis, or the upregulation of fatty acid uptake, causes hepatic lipid accumulation. (nih.gov)
Further, at E19.5 labyrinth trophoblast had reduced glucose transporter 1 ( GLUT1 ) and glucocorticoid receptor ( GR ) expression in response to Δ9-THC exposure. (nature.com)
Astrocytes are a sub-type of glial cells in the central nervous system. (wikipedia.org)
Desipramine (Norpramin), protriptyline (Vivactil), amoxapine (Ascendin), and nortriptyline (Pamelor) are examples of agents that inhibit more selectively the norepinephrine transporter system. (pharmacology2000.com)
Drugs2
Examples of drugs that inhibit both transporters (serotonin and norepinephrine) are imipramine (Tofranil) and amitriptyline (Elavil). (pharmacology2000.com)
Studies in preclinical models show that calorie restricted ketogenic diets (KD-R), anti-glycolytic drugs, and hyperbaric oxygen therapy can reduce availability of glucose and glutamine in the tumor microenvironment while enhancing oxidative stress in tumor cells. (touchoncology.com)
Major2
It is well documented that glucose and glutamine are major metabolic fuels that drive tumor progression. (touchoncology.com)
Glucose and glutamine are major fuels for myeloid cells as well as for the more rapidly proliferating cancer cells. (touchoncology.com)
Process1
PMID- 19410256 TI - Influence of the activating agent and the inert gas (type and flow) used in an activation process for the porosity development of carbon nanofibers. (nih.gov)
Cell types1
This is supported by 3D neuropil reconstructions indicating similar mitochondrial densities in both cell types, as well as cell-specific transcriptomic and proteomic data, and tricarboxylic acid cycle rates. (wikipedia.org)
Report1
Moreover, more than half of individuals with MS report fatigue to be their worst symptom ( 2 ). (frontiersin.org)
Treatment2
The results showed that the surface area increased by a factor of 3.3, 2.0 and 1.8 referred to the parent CNFs after the treatment with KOH, K(2)CO(3) and KHCO(3), respectively. (nih.gov)
The current standard treatment strategy for GBM increases availability of glucose (from steroids) and glutamine (from radio-necrosis) in the tumor microenvironment. (touchoncology.com)
Risk1
These data suggest that a cutoff point of 155 mg/dl for the 1-h post-load glucose during OGTT may be helpful in the identification of NGT subjects at increased risk for cardiovascular disease. (nih.gov)
Agents1
The side effect profile of TCAs is likely related to these agents also blocking other receptor types including histamine (H 1 ), 5-HT 2 (serotonin receptor type 2), α 1 -adrenergic, and muscarinic cholinergic. (pharmacology2000.com)
Properties1
The effects of different activations conditions, including type of protector gas (He, Ar and N(2)) and helium flow rate on the properties of activated carbon nanofibers were studied. (nih.gov)