• To directly test these questions, we disrupted the murine nrf2 gene in vivo. (elsevierpure.com)
  • While the expression of phase II enzymes (e.g., glutathione S-transferase and NAD(P)H: quinone oxidoreductase) was markedly induced by a phenolic antioxidant in vivo in both wild type and heterozygous mutant mice, the induction was largely eliminated in the liver and intestine of homozygous nrf2-mutant mice. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Nrf2 was found to bind to the ARE with high affinity only as a heterodimer with a small Maf protein, suggesting that Nrf2/small Maf activates gene expression directly through the ARE. (elsevierpure.com)
  • These results demonstrate that Nrf2 is essential for the transcriptional induction of phase II enzymes and the presence of a coordinate transcriptional regulatory mechanism for phase II enzyme genes. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Resveratrol inhibits paraquat-induced oxidative stress and fibrogenic response by activating the Nrf2 pathway. (cdc.gov)
  • Nrf2 is an antioxidant-activated transcription factor that recently emerged as a critical regulator of cellular defense against oxidative and inflammatory lesions. (cdc.gov)
  • Here we analyzed the molecular mechanism of the fibrogenic response to PQ and its inhibition by Res and Nrf2. (cdc.gov)
  • Res strongly activated the Nrf2 signaling pathway and induced antioxidant response element-dependent cytoprotective genes. (cdc.gov)
  • The multifunctional regulator nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor (Nrf2) is considered not only as a cytoprotective factor regulating the expression of genes coding for anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and detoxifying proteins, but it is also a powerful modulator of species longevity. (springer.com)
  • The major characteristics of Nrf2 are to some extent mimicked by Nrf2-dependent genes and their proteins including heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), which besides removing toxic heme, produces biliverdin, iron ions and carbon monoxide. (springer.com)
  • The discovery of the antioxidant response element (ARE) have led to the conclusion that the battery of genes, including glutamate-cysteine ligase (GCL), thioredoxin reductase 1 (Txnrd1), NAD(P)H-quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) and heme oxygenase-1 (HMOX1) is regulated through Nrf2 binding to this consensus binding sequence [ 3 ]. (springer.com)
  • Nrf2 stabilization and increase in its half-life even to 200 min [ 9 ] allows nuclear translocation and activation of transcription of cytoprotective genes (Fig. 1 ). (springer.com)
  • Immunoflourescence images of expression of Nrf2 and HO-1 showing thealteration of key protein markers of antioxidant gene expression, read more in 'Melatonin targets ferroptosis through bimodal alteration of redox environment and cellular pathways in NAFLD model' from Saha et al, in this edition of Bioscience Reports. (portlandpress.com)
  • Because NRF2 binds ARE, suggesting it helps regulate oxidative stress responses, Pickett and his team focused on it next and helped uncover key aspects of how NRF2 itself is regulated. (asbmb.org)
  • 2012. Cap-independent Nrf2 translation is part of a lipoic acid-stimulated detoxification stress response. . (oregonstate.edu)
  • Gene knockout studies have demonstrated the primary regulatory role that an Nrf2:Maf dimer plays by binding to nucleotides within the EpRE consensus sequence. (nih.gov)
  • Here, we hypothesized that multiple transcriptional regulators, including: (i) a primary Nrf2-Maf heterodimer, (ii) a proposed secondary, EpRE-specific, p160 family coactivator, ARE-binding protein-1, and (iii) a tertiary coactivator, CBP/p300, nucleate to form a complex at the EpRE that regulates transcription of the dependent gene. (nih.gov)
  • Moreover, we found that the same anti-MafK antibody that blocked induction of the EpRE-regulated GFP gene completely ablated the gel-shift complex that we hypothesize contains an Nrf2:Maf dimer, ARE-binding protein-1, and CBP or p300. (nih.gov)
  • OBJECTIVE- Sulforaphane is an activator of transcription factor NF-E2-related factor-2 (nrf2) that regulates gene expression through the promoter antioxidant response element (ARE). (diabetesjournals.org)
  • RESULTS- Activation of nrf2 by sulforaphane induced nuclear translocation of nrf2 and increased ARE-linked gene expression, for example, three- to fivefold increased expression of transketolase and glutathione reductase. (diabetesjournals.org)
  • CONCLUSIONS- We conclude that activation of nrf2 may prevent biochemical dysfunction and related functional responses of endothelial cells induced by hyperglycemia in which increased expression of transketolase has a pivotal role. (diabetesjournals.org)
  • The nuclear factor erythroid-derived two-like 2-antioxidant response element (Nrf2-ARE) pathway and its downstream antioxidant enzyme heme oxygenase-1 (HMOX1 or HO-1) play essential roles in H2 O2 -induced oxidative damage in human melanocytes. (nih.gov)
  • This study evaluated the association of the Nrf2 and HO-1 genes polymorphisms with vitiligo susceptibility. (nih.gov)
  • In this case-control study of 1136 Han Chinese vitiligo patients and 1200 controls, Nrf2 (rs35652124 and rs6721961) and HO-1 (rs2071746) genes were genotyped by PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. (nih.gov)
  • These findings indicate that the C allele of rs35652124 located in the promoter region of Nrf2 gene is associated with protective effect on vitiligo in a Han Chinese population. (nih.gov)
  • The nuclear factor erythroid-derived 2-related factor 2 (NRF2) plays a pivotal role in the regulation of genes involved in oxidative stress and drug detoxification. (gnu.ac.kr)
  • Keap1 may be viewed as the regulator of Nrf2, and reactive species/free radicals and electrophiles react with the Nrf2-Keap1 complex causing the release of Nrf2, which migrates to the cell nucleus and triggers the expression of selected genes whose products, i.e. proteins with or without enzymatic activity, participate in the antioxidant defense and in the metabolism of xenobiotics in mammals. (databasefootball.com)
  • Nrf2 is a key transcription aspect for genes coding for antioxidants, cleansing enzymes, and multiple medication level of resistance and it confers level of resistance to anticancer medications also. (researchtoactionforum.org)
  • Among the Nrf2 downstream genes, Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL lead more highly to Nrf2-mediated cisplatin level of resistance in comparison to heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1). (researchtoactionforum.org)
  • Cox regression evaluation showed that sufferers with high-Nrf2, high-Bcl-2, high-Bcl-xL mRNA tumors had been even more occurred unfavorable response to cisplatin-based chemotherapy than their counterparts typically. (researchtoactionforum.org)
  • Collectively, mutant p53 might confer cisplatin level of resistance via upregulation of Nrf2 appearance, and Nrf2 mRNA level may predict chemotherapeutic outcomes and response in NSCLC. (researchtoactionforum.org)
  • Gene appearance of antioxidants that remove ROS is marketed by an NF-E2-related aspect 2 (Nrf2), which binds to antioxidant response components (ARE) from the promoters of the genes [7C11]. (researchtoactionforum.org)
  • Mutant k-ras confers chemoresistance by upregulating Nrf2 transcription through a TPA response element [24]. (researchtoactionforum.org)
  • P53 inhibits Nrf2 downstream appearance of genes, such as for example NQO1 and heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) by straight getting together with ARE-containing promoters [29]. (researchtoactionforum.org)
  • Dimethyl fumarate (DMF), an Nrf2 activator, exhibits antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects and is used to treat multiple sclerosis. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The expression of Nrf2 and its related genes in vehicle or DMF treated rats were determined via RT-PCR and Western blot analysis. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The pathophysiological features associated with an imbalance between harmful ROS and protective antioxidant defenses are primarily controlled by endogenous cytoprotective pleiotropic transcription factor nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) [ 21 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In response to oxidative stress, electrophile metabolites inhibit activity of the BCR(KEAP1) complex, promoting nuclear accumulation of NFE2L2/NRF2, heterodimerization with one of the small Maf proteins and binding to ARE elements of cytoprotective target genes (PubMed:19489739, PubMed:29590092). (bicnirrh.res.in)
  • The NFE2L2/NRF2 pathway is also activated in response to selective autophagy: autophagy promotes interaction between KEAP1 and SQSTM1/p62 and subsequent inactivation of the BCR(KEAP1) complex, leading to NFE2L2/NRF2 nuclear accumulation and expression of cytoprotective genes (PubMed:20452972). (bicnirrh.res.in)
  • Fumarate is cardioprotective via activation of the Nrf2 antioxidant pathway. (ox.ac.uk)
  • In addition, by stabilizing the transcriptional regulator Nrf2, Fh1 KO hearts upregulate protective antioxidant response element genes. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Supporting the importance of the latter mechanism, clinically relevant doses of dimethylfumarate upregulated Nrf2 and its target genes, hence protecting control hearts, but failed to similarly protect Nrf2-KO hearts in an in vivo model of myocardial infarction. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Activated-Nrf2 and PPARγ translocate in the nucleus, where they bind to their target genes via their respective binding sites,the anti-oxidant response element (ARE) for Nrf2 and the peroxisome proliferator response element (PPRE) for PPARγ. (biomedcentral.com)
  • On the other hand, PPARγ (solid arrows) and perhaps Nrf2 (dashed arrows) could exert their anti-inflammatory activities by inhibiting NF-κB activation, thereby downregulating proinflammatory cytokine responses and adhesion molecule expression which are all implicated in the pathology of CM. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Now, NRF2 is yet another molecule that goes down to your nucleus and turns on something called the antioxidant response element, which is, some people have estimated at the very least 200 genes, but possibly as many as 500 genes, that are instrumental in decreasing your oxidative stress. (brainwarriorswaypodcast.com)
  • Each of these ingredients contain substances that may be considered to be polyphenols, antioxidants, and Nrf2 activators. (integratedhealthblog.com)
  • Curcuminoids exert both direct and indirect antioxidant effects by scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS) and inducing the expression of cytoprotective proteins in an Nrf2-dependent way. (integratedhealthblog.com)
  • The nuclear-factor-erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), is a ubiquitous master transcription factor which induces the endogenous production of cytoprotective proteins/enzymes through binding to antioxidant response elements (AREs) at the DNA/gene level. (integratedhealthblog.com)
  • Transcription factor that plays a key role in the response to oxidative stress: binds to antioxidant response (ARE) elements present in the promoter region of many cytoprotective genes, such as phase 2 detoxifying enzymes, and promotes their expression, thereby neutralizing reactive electrophiles (PubMed:11035812, PubMed:19489739, PubMed:29018201, PubMed:31398338). (bicnirrh.res.in)
  • Current models of transcription regulation have also shown the involvement of higher-order transcriptional coactivators, proteins that nucleate around DNA sequence-specific transcription factors, enhancing transcription of the target gene by interacting with components of the basal transcriptional apparatus and by enabling chromatin remodeling. (nih.gov)
  • This gene encodes a transcription factor which is a member of a small family of basic leucine zipper (bZIP) proteins. (bicnirrh.res.in)
  • many of these genes encode proteins involved in response to injury and inflammation which includes the production of free radicals. (bicnirrh.res.in)
  • The activation of cell proliferation pathways in Ttpa -/- livers was indicated by the induction of genes that encode growth factor-binding proteins, mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 3, and apoptosis inhibitor 6. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Cortex of Ttpa -/- mice revealed repression of genes encoding synaptic proteins, protein kinase C family members, and myelin proteins. (elsevierpure.com)
  • encoded by Nfe2l2 gene) is a transcription factor responsible for the regulation of cellular redox balance and protective antioxidant and phase II detoxification responses in mammals [ 1 , 2 ]. (springer.com)
  • This protein-coding gene is a member of the NAD(P)H dehydrogenase (quinone) family and encodes a 2-electron reductase (enzyme). (wikipedia.org)
  • The antioxidant response element, or ARE, present in the promoters of many antioxidant protein genes is a major regulatory lynchpin in this cellular response. (asbmb.org)
  • In the present study, we demonstrate that a N-terminal fragment of the SP from a type II membrane protein, human placental secreted alkaline phosphatase (SEAP), is contained in exosomes and secreted into the extracellular fluid using HEK-Blue hTLR3 cells, which express both a human toll-like receptor 3 gene and an inducible SEAP reporter gene. (bvsalud.org)
  • Unfortunately, protein and some elements in existing dispersion media are suboptimal for potential nose-to-brain transport of nanomaterials because olfactory transport has size- and ion-composition requirements. (cdc.gov)
  • While this group of enzymes is believed to be under the transcriptional control of antioxidant response elements (AREs), this contention is experimentally unconfirmed. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Activities of antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPX) were measured in ellagic acid-treated V79-4 cells. (nutrimedical.com)
  • These antioxidant enzymes include glutathione S -transferase, or GST, NADPH:quinone oxidoreductase 1, thioredoxin and hemeoxygenase-1. (asbmb.org)
  • The electrophile response element (EpRE), also referred to as the antioxidant responsive element (ARE), is found in the 5'-regulatory region of a number of genes encoding phase II, drug-metabolizing enzymes. (nih.gov)
  • The plasmid contains a luciferase gene (reporter gene) which is under transcriptional control of an antioxidant response element (ARE) of the rat NQO1 gene. (europa.eu)
  • CONCLUSION: Ellagic acid exhibited both antioxidant activity in V79-4 cells and apoptosis-inducing activity in HOS cells through the up-regulation of Bax and activation of caspase-3. (nutrimedical.com)
  • 2009. Transcriptional regulation of rat gamma-glutamate cysteine ligase catalytic subunit gene is mediated through a distal antioxidant response element. . (oregonstate.edu)
  • To identify the involvement of specific, primary and higher-order transcriptional regulators in the EpRE-mediated regulation of the GFP reporter gene, we microinjected antibodies directed against specific transcription factors into the HepG2/GFP cells and determined their effect upon tBHQ-induced expression of the GFP gene. (nih.gov)
  • Molecular characterization and regulation of a Nicotiana tabacum S-domain receptor-like kinase gene induced during an early rapid response to lipopolysaccharides. (uj.ac.za)
  • We determined an active concentration (25 µM) of each compound and then measured its effects on anti-oxidant gene expression and regulation, enzyme activity, and cellular anti-oxidant activity. (oatext.com)
  • How catechin and chlorogenic acid affect the balance of reactive oxygen species (ROS) regulation by the CAT, SOD, and GPX pathways in less diseased or normal cells is not known, nor is the effect of these compounds on the activity of miRNAs regulating anti-oxidant gene expression [ 18 ]. (oatext.com)
  • Little is known about the molecular mechanisms driving their extended longevity particularly at the levels of gene expression and post-transcriptional regulation. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Since the first miRNA, lin-4 , was discovered in 1993 [ 7 ], a multitude of miRNA have subsequently been identified, and implicated in the regulation of the vast majority of biological pathways including cell cycle regulation, metabolism, tumorigenesis, as well as immune response. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Here, by comparing exercise and antioxidant intervention on type 2 diabetic rats, we found moderate exercise upregulated compensatory antioxidant capability and reached a higher level of redox balance in the liver. (elifesciences.org)
  • In contrast, antioxidant intervention achieved a low-level redox balance by inhibiting oxidative stress. (elifesciences.org)
  • Overall, our results illustrate that both exercise and antioxidant intervention improve blood glucose control in diabetes by promoting redox balance, despite different levels of redox state(s). (elifesciences.org)
  • Utilizing the in-vitro studies as well as rats models, this manuscript illustrates the different regulatory mechanisms of exercise and antioxidant intervention on redox balance/redox state(s) that are linked to improved glucose control and thereby effective management of diabetes. (elifesciences.org)
  • With the GST gene sequences in hand, the researchers could home in on surrounding DNA regions that regulate the expression of the genes and identify the regulatory motifs in their promoters . (asbmb.org)
  • Their work made it clear that antioxidant genes such as GST have multiple regulatory elements in their promoters that are responsive to specific cellular stressors. (asbmb.org)
  • Since the ARE resembles the binding sequence of erythroid transcription factor NF-E2, we investigated the possibility that the phase II enzyme genes might be regulated by transcription factors that also bind to the NF-E2 sequence. (elsevierpure.com)
  • NAD(P)H dehydrogenase [quinone] 1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the NQO1 gene. (wikipedia.org)
  • Evidence for its initiation of stress signaling pathways that promote endogenous antioxidant capacity. (oregonstate.edu)
  • The assay measures the induction of a stably transfected luciferase gene under the control of the antioxidant response element (ARE) derived from the human AKR1C2 gene. (iivs.org)
  • To explore how screening for potential nutrient bio-activity could be improved by integrating biological and chemical markers of cellular responses, we assessed the effect of the known anti-oxidants, catechin and chlorogenic acid, on anti-oxidant activity in vitro . (oatext.com)
  • However, most of the preliminary biological studies investigating the capacity of these compounds, or their metabolites, to affect the cellular response to oxidative damage have used highly transformed cancer cell models. (oatext.com)
  • Recent evidence suggests that sera from patients with glycogen-storage disease Ia are able to more efficiently promote scavenger receptor class B type I-mediated cellular cholesterol efflux and that an increased antioxidant effect of these sera is directly related to the increased urate concentration. (medscape.com)
  • Cells co-transfected with an estrogen response element (ERE)-driven luciferase (Luc) reporter gene and an ERalpha- or ERbeta-expression vector were exposed to graded concentrations of ellagic acid. (nutrimedical.com)
  • KeratinoSensTM is a cell-based reporter gene assay that models the second key event in the Adverse Outcome Pathway for Dermal Sensitization (keratinocyte activation). (iivs.org)
  • One widespread single-nucleotide polymorphism of the NQO1 gene (NQO1*2), found homozygous in 4% to 20% of different populations, has found to be connected with different forms of cancer and a lowered efficiency of some chemotherapeutics like mitomycin C. This single nucleotide polymorphism leads to a proline serine exchange on position 187. (wikipedia.org)
  • Genes dependent on the ARE such as NQO1 are known to be up-regulated by contact sensitisers (OECD 442D). (europa.eu)
  • But anyway, so this antioxidant response element turns on all these genes that have a lot to do, again, as I mentioned, antioxidation, detoxification, anti-inflammation. (brainwarriorswaypodcast.com)
  • The resulting damage cannot be overcome by the antioxidant system to protect the cell from oxidative damage, leading to necrosis, apoptosis, or autophagy of the target cell and tissue ( 10 , 11 ). (spandidos-publications.com)
  • Hormesis is a process through which moderate stress induces a body response that is protective against insults, confers health and possibly even longevity benefits. (anti-agingfirewalls.com)
  • More than half of these miRNA (65.1 %) were regarded as bat-specific, regulating genes involved in the immune, ageing and tumorigenesis pathways. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Our comprehensive and integrative analyses revealed bat-specific and differentially expressed miRNA and mRNA that function in key longevity pathways, producing a distinct bat gene expression pattern. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Our previous study showed that the inflammatory pathways of chicken NOD-like receptor 3 (ChNLRP3) and chicken interleukin 1 beta (ChIL-1β) are strictly related to the activation of chicken Toll-like receptor 15 (ChTLR15), chicken myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (ChMyD88) and the chicken nuclear transcription factor-κB (ChNF-κB) pathway, which is specifically activated by E. tenella sporozoites [ 4 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • To counter high ROS levels, cells have antioxidant mechanisms that reduce the excess ROS in the cell and keep the 'redox' (from reduction and oxidation) balance of the cell. (elifesciences.org)
  • 127 up-regulated genes were enriched mainly in mitotic cell cycle and DNA repair mechanisms, while 364 down-regulated genes were involved primarily in mitochondrial activity. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The immune responses and detailed mechanisms stimulated by Eimeria in different stages has not been very clear until now. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were seared by combing the TCGA database and the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database, and the key molecule AKR1B10 was identified by weighted gene coexpression network analysis (WGCNA). (portlandpress.com)
  • The NAC transcription factor gene ANAC072 is differentially expressed in Arabidopsis thaliana in response to microbe-associated molecular pattern (MAMP) molecules. (uj.ac.za)
  • Taken together, these findings demonstrate the polarization of M1 macrophages by Mitsui-7 MWCNTs invitro and that induction of Alox5 is an important mechanism by which the MWCNTs promote proinflammatory responses by boosting M1 polarization and production of proinflammatory LMs. (cdc.gov)
  • For example, a study in Mexico of children with asthma found that supplementation with the antioxidant vitamins C and E improved lung function in children with a common polymorphism of glutathione S-transferase M1 ( GSTM1 ) who are exposed to ozone ( 16 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Pickett and his team treated rats with various chemicals to induce genes involved in xenobiotic metabolism and breakdown. (asbmb.org)
  • Additionally, a genome-wide comparison of mRNA transcriptomes across species also revealed specific gene expression patterns in bats. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Genomics is the study of the entire genome, including all genes and their interactions with each other and with the environment ( 1 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Pickett's team reported that ARE is one of the motifs required for xenobiotics-induced activation of transcription of the GST Ya gene and also defined the ARE consensus sequence . (asbmb.org)
  • Numerous lines of evidence indicate that curcuminoids are highly pleiotropic with anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, antioxidant, wound healing, and antimicrobial activities. (integratedhealthblog.com)
  • Moreover, carnosic acid exhibits the ability to modulate the immune response, acting as an anti-inflammatory agent. (databasefootball.com)
  • Distinct carbohydrate and lipid-based molecular patterns within lipopolysaccharides from Burkholderia cepacia contribute to defense-associated differential gene expression in Arabidopsis thaliana. (uj.ac.za)
  • 2005. Dietary supplementation with (R)-alpha-lipoic acid reverses the age-related accumulation of iron and depletion of antioxidants in the rat cerebral cortex. . (oregonstate.edu)
  • The induction of synuclein-α and repression of synuclein-β genes was detected in Ttpa -/- cortex. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Carnosic acid is an antioxidant, meaning that it may decrease the impact of reactive species/free radicals in biological systems. (databasefootball.com)
  • Deletion of the TTP gene (Ttpa) in mice results in systemic deficiency of α-T and neurological dysfunctions described in patients with mutated Ttpa. (elsevierpure.com)
  • The repression of specific genes that determine synaptic plasticity and neuronal development may account for suppressed electrophysiological activities of cortex and impaired behavior in Ttpa -/- mice. (elsevierpure.com)
  • The ability of carnosic acid in exerting antioxidant effects is not associated only with its chemical structure, i.e. carnosic acid is not just a scavenger of reactive species. (databasefootball.com)
  • They occasionally exhibit toxic, mutagenic or carcinogenic effects, or they modulate immune responses. (cdc.gov)
  • Below we provide a few relevant scientific studies on the antioxidant effects and potential health benefits of curcumin/curcuminoids. (integratedhealthblog.com)
  • systematic review of epidemiologic data on birth defects in relation to folic acid intake and variation in the methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase ( MTHFR ) gene illustrates 'Mendelian randomization' ( 14 ), in which the effects of specific environmental exposures, such as dietary elements, drugs or toxins, are either accentuated or mitigated in persons with different variants of genes involved in physiologic response. (cdc.gov)
  • The antioxidant status was disturbed with the decrease in SOD, GST and catalase in the liver and membrane-ATPases as well. (nature.com)
  • Because alpha-lipoic acid seems to work like an antioxidant, it might provide protection to the brain and also be helpful in certain liver diseases. (medlineplus.gov)
  • If confirmed by other studies, this finding might suggest a simple intervention---antioxidant vitamin supplementation---for children with asthma who are exposed to ozone. (cdc.gov)
  • Multiple transcript variants encoding different isoforms have been characterized for this gene. (bicnirrh.res.in)
  • This gene is a member of the NAD(P)H dehydrogenase (quinone) family and encodes a cytoplasmic 2-electron reductase. (wikipedia.org)
  • Furthermore, reduced forms of ubiquinone and vitamin E quinone have been shown to possess antioxidant properties that are superior to their non-reduced forms. (wikipedia.org)