AnatomyOrganismsDiseasesChemicals and DrugsPhenomena and ProcessesTechnology, Industry, AgricultureHealth Care
FusariumTrichothecenesZearalenoneMycotoxinsT-2 ToxinFusariosisCholera ToxinFumonisinsPlant DiseasesGibberellaTetanus ToxinEye Infections, FungalBotulinum Toxins, Type AMarine ToxinsTriticumFusaric AcidShiga ToxinsFungiShiga Toxin 2Shiga Toxin 1Spores, FungalZea maysDNA, FungalKeratitisFood ContaminationCicerAntifungal AgentsCerealsMusa
GraminearumMycotoxinsAspergillusZearalenoneFungiDeoxynivalenolTrichothecenesFumonisinFungusWheatToxicityMaizePathogenContaminationNatural Toxins2018AflatoxinsMoldsVerticillioidesMold ToxinsOccurrencePathogensInfectionMouldCerealsDetoxificationResistanceGenomicsPseudograminearumGenesSpecies complexEquisetiCornCropsVenomsToxicHumansKernelsClimateRoot rotCropDosesHeadProducesBiologicalGenus
Graminearum11
  • Fusarium graminearum (FG) and Fusarium verticillioides (FV) co-occur in infected plants and plant residues. (usda.gov)
  • Fusarium graminearum is ranked among the five most destructive fungal pathogens that affect agroecosystems. (uky.edu)
  • Fungi within the Fusarium graminearum species complex cause a variety of diseases on cereal crops worldwide, including scab of wheat and barley, and ear and stem rots of maize. (usda.gov)
  • We have cloned cosmids containing the trichothecene gene cluster from Fusarium graminearum F15 (i.e. (usda.gov)
  • With the availability of the genome sequence of Fusarium graminearum our focus is now on identification of new metabolites corresponding to the predicted secondary metabolite biosynthetic genes and the elucidation of the biochemical effects of such compounds. (boku.ac.at)
  • 2007): The Fusarium graminearum genome reveals a link between localized polymorphism and pathogen specialization. (boku.ac.at)
  • Güldener U, Mannhaupt G, Münsterkötter M, Haase D, Oesterheld M, Stümpflen V, Mewes H-W, Adam G (2006) FGDB: a comprehensive fungal genome resource on the plant pathogen Fusarium graminearum . (boku.ac.at)
  • Fusarium head blight (FHB), which is mainly caused by Fusarium graminearum , is a destructive wheat disease that threatens global wheat production. (nature.com)
  • The fungus responsible for FHB, Fusarium graminearum infects the entire spike through the florets of wheat and causes single and multiple mycotoxin contamination, including deoxynivalenol (DON) and nivalenol (NIV) [ 4 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Se han aislado las formas cis, trans, dextro y levo del hongo Gibberella zeae (antiguamente Fusarium graminearum). (bvsalud.org)
  • Cis, trans, dextro and levo forms have been isolated from the fungus Gibberella zeae (formerly Fusarium graminearum). (bvsalud.org)
Mycotoxins25
  • Girgis revealed a negative influence of diets normally polluted with Fusarium mycotoxins on the cell-mediated immune response against coccidiosis in griddles. (770waterdamageca.com)
  • Following primary infection of broilers with Eimeria, Fusarium mycotoxins decreased the percent of CD4+ and also CD8+ T-cells in the jejunal mucosa. (770waterdamageca.com)
  • Furthermore, it was shown that moderate levels of Fusarium mycotoxins negatively affect digestive tract morphology and also disrupt intestinal tract recuperation from an enteric coccidial infection, suggested by a lower villus height as well as apparent villus area. (770waterdamageca.com)
  • Although Girgis showed that Fusarium mycotoxins impair the Eimeria-induced immune action, no result was seen on fecal oocyst counts. (770waterdamageca.com)
  • Maize is frequently contaminated with multiple mycotoxins, especially those produced by Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium verticillioides. (usda.gov)
  • Formation of toxin-glucosides is an important detoxification mechanism in plants, but potentially leads to formation of masked mycotoxins. (boku.ac.at)
  • ausgewählte Publikationen (seit 2003) Berthiller F., Hametner C., Krenn P., Schweiger W., Ludwig R., Adam G. , Krska R., Schuhmacher R. (2009): Preparation and characterization of the masked Fusarium mycotoxins zearalenone-4O-beta-D-glucopyranoside, alpha-zearalenol-4O-beta-D-gluco pyranoside and beta-zearalenol-4O-beta-D-glucopyranoside by MS/MS and 2D-NMR. (boku.ac.at)
  • Currently the assessment of individual exposure to mycotoxins in man and animals is usually based on the analysis of toxin and/or metabolite contamination in the blood or urine. (frontiersin.org)
  • Mycotoxins are low-molecular-weight naturally occurring organic contaminants and are secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi, mainly Aspergillus , Penicillium, and Fusarium ( Bennett and Klich, 2003 ). (frontiersin.org)
  • Mycotoxins (mould toxins) and plant toxins (toxins produced by plants) are among the natural toxins whose occurrence in food and animal feed is undesirable, but not completely avoidable. (bund.de)
  • Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites formed by moulds (including Fusarium , Alternaria , Claviceps , Aspergillus and Penicillium species). (bund.de)
  • Mycotoxins (mould toxins) and plant toxins (natural plant toxins, also phytotoxins) are among the undesirable substances in food and feed. (bund.de)
  • Remember that mycotoxins are produced by molds like Aspergillus (Afla) or Fusarium (DON). (envirologix.com)
  • You can learn more about mycotoxins in general and find more detail on the most common individual toxins here . (envirologix.com)
  • Fusarium itself is not a major threat to the animals, but in stressful conditions it produces mycotoxins: trichothecenes (DON, T-2/HT-2 toxins), zearalenone, and fumonisins. (allaboutfeed.net)
  • Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by a variety of fungi, including Aspergillus, Penicillium , and Fusarium species. (frontiersin.org)
  • The toxicity of emerging mycotoxins such as the Alternaria toxins alternariol (AOH), its monomethyl ether (AME) or tentoxin (TEN) has not been fully assessed or data are clearly lacking to classify these toxins. (frontiersin.org)
  • Not only are there hundreds of different mycotoxins, all produced by different fungi and environmental factors, but each category of toxins and each toxin within those categories can impact animals and birds differently. (kemin.com)
  • For producers, that means becoming aware of the major toxins and knowing the signs and symptoms of toxin exposure are critical to reduce the risk of mycotoxins eroding animal health and performance. (kemin.com)
  • Of the hundreds of known mycotoxins, the five main profit-robbing mycotoxins of concern to livestock and poultry producers are: aflatoxin, deoxynivalenol, T-2 Toxin, zearalenone and fumonisin. (kemin.com)
  • Together this means low level toxin exposure and/or mycotoxin co-contamination may have a greater effect in animal production systems than the acute toxic effects associated with consumption of high levels of mycotoxins. (kemin.com)
  • Furthermore, inclusion of mold inhibitors, to control mold growth, as well as use of flow agents to neutralize toxins in diets can help producers minimize the impacts of mycotoxins on animal health and performance. (kemin.com)
  • Although infection by fusarium species can cause poor establishment and lower yields, the most important issue is the production of mycotoxins in the grain by some species (see mycotoxin section below). (ahdb.org.uk)
  • Whilst working from home, I wrote what I could of my thesis, authored a review on how fungal pathogens sense and acquire nutrients for Fungal Biology Reviews and conducted a study using publicly available data to reveal the threat of fungal toxins (mycotoxins) to the European food and feed supply chains. (bspp.org.uk)
  • Silage that is dry, poorly packed or has a significant amount of soil contamination can allow Pencillium to produce PR toxin, patulin, mycophenolic acid, roquefortine C, penicilic acid and several other mycotoxins. (lanereport.com)
Aspergillus9
  • Screening of a soil sample from a cotton field infested with Reniform nematode and Fusarium identified and isolated an Aspergillus niger strain with high tolerance to FA. (usda.gov)
  • Aspergillus , Penicillium , and Fusarium spp. (frontiersin.org)
  • Most of them belonged to the Penicillium, Aspergillus and Fusarium genera. (aaem.pl)
  • The aim of this study by Tatiana S Barbosa, Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, et al was to determine species of the fungal genera Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium and fumonisin B1 (FB1), aflatoxin B1(AFB1), and ochratoxin A (OTA) contamination from feed intended for fish farms. (thefishsite.com)
  • The aim of the present study was to determine species of the fungal genera Aspergillus , Penicillium , and Fusarium and FB 1 , AFB 1 , and OTA contamination from finished feed intended for fish farms. (thefishsite.com)
  • Several strains of Aspergillus and Penicillium produce this toxin. (essentialformulas.com)
  • Aspergillus or Fusarium will be the most likely fungi to be contaminating harvested grain from storm-damaged corn in south central Nebraska. (unl.edu)
  • Molds in corn grain of concern could be either Aspergillus or Fusarium. (unl.edu)
  • While Aspergillus , the mold responsible for aflatoxins, has been the most notorious culprit in the 2012 harvest because of its carcinogenic properties, other toxins may show up this year. (lanereport.com)
Zearalenone6
Fungi4
  • The Fusarium incarnatum-equiseti species complex is a species-rich complex formed by the association of more than 40 possible fungi species. (wikipedia.org)
  • The disease is caused mainly by fungi of the genus Fusarium . (mdpi.com)
  • As for all fungi, Fusarium growth depends on moisture level and temperature, climate conditions after blooming determine the development of the mould on the crop. (allaboutfeed.net)
  • Fumonisin is a mycotoxin produced by two species of Fusarium fungi and can be toxic to livestock and humans at high levels, so regulatory limits are set on the amount corn can contain. (tscra.org)
Deoxynivalenol6
  • Different types of resistance were evaluated, including head infection, kernel damage, Fusarium biomass content and trichothecenes B (deoxynivalenol (DON), and nivalenol (NIV)) accumulation in grain. (eurekamag.com)
  • Previously the model systems S. cerevisiae and Arabidopsis have been utilized to study resistance mechanisms of plants against toxins of the class of trichothecenes (e.g. the Fusarium metabolite deoxynivalenol), such as target alterations (amino-acid changes in ribosomal protein L3) and detoxification (by UDP-glucosyltransferases and acetyltransferases). (boku.ac.at)
  • 26: 207-213 Abolmaali S, Mitterbauer R, Spadiut O, Peruci M, Weindorfer H, Lucyshyn D, Ellersdorfer G, Lemmens M, Moll WD, Adam G (2008) Engineered bakers yeast as a sensitive bioassay indicator organism for the trichothecene toxin deoxynivalenol. (boku.ac.at)
  • 2014): What is the effect of the Fusarium toxin deoxynivalenol on the primary wheat metabolome? (boku.ac.at)
  • 1 Trichothecenes, like deoxynivalenol (DON) and T-2 Toxin , are produced on many different grains like wheat, oats or corn by various Fusarium species. (kemin.com)
  • The timing affects fusarium head blight and deoxynivalenol (DON). (countryfolks.com)
Trichothecenes1
  • Finally, the occurrence of the trichothecenes T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin in the three years under study was limited to a few isolated cases, with consistently low concentrations. (boku.ac.at)
Fumonisin8
  • A "perfect storm" brewed up a batch of fumonisin in corn many High Plains producers won't soon forget, but experts do not think the toxin will be a major recurrence in in years to come due to expected normal weather conditions. (tscra.org)
  • For fumonisin to develop, the plant must first be predisposed to fusarium ear rot, Bell said. (tscra.org)
  • Later in the season, the fusarium fungus releases the fumonisin only if environmental conditions are conducive for the mycotoxin to be produced. (tscra.org)
  • In some years, it is not uncommon for producers to have fusarium ear rot and not have any fumonisin produced. (tscra.org)
  • But, ear mold presence does not mean the fumonisin toxin is there. (tscra.org)
  • The fusarium fungus needs the correct moisture and amylopectin, or starch, to form fumonisin," Bell said. (tscra.org)
  • In fields with hybrids that had poor fusarium ear rot ratings, there seemed to be very high fumonisin levels associated with smut. (tscra.org)
  • The hot and dry growing season provides just the right climate for the mold Fusarium verticillioides , which causes fumonisin B1 and can have serious effects on horses and swine. (lanereport.com)
Fungus1
  • So Gressel's team decided to give the anthracnose fungus (Colletotrichum coccodes) a killer punch by adding a gene for a toxin from another fungus, Fusarium. (dhushara.com)
Wheat10
  • Winter wheat lines were evaluated for their reaction to Fusarium head blight (FHB) after inoculation with Fusarium culmorum in two field experiments. (eurekamag.com)
  • Cases of Fusarium head blight in wheat caused by FIESC have been reported in Mexico. (wikipedia.org)
  • Buerstmayr, H., Ban, T. & Anderson, J. A. QTL mapping and marker‐assisted selection for Fusarium head blight resistance in wheat: a review. (nature.com)
  • Bai, G. & Shaner, G. Management and resistance in wheat and barley to Fusarium head blight. (nature.com)
  • A unified effort to fight an enemy of wheat and barley: Fusarium head blight. (nature.com)
  • This microorganism generates toxins in cereal grains like wheat, oats, and corn. (essentialformulas.com)
  • Wheat infected by Fusarium head blight cannot be fed to animals as it raises the risk of toxins, said Jan Cortenbach, technical manager at Wellhope Foods. (xm.com)
  • Fusarium head blight (FHB) is a devastating fungal disease that poses a significant threat to wheat production, causing substantial yield losses. (biomedcentral.com)
  • This study aimed to investigate the mechanisms of FHB resistance and the patterns of toxin accumulation in three wheat cultivars, Annong8455, Annong1589, and Sumai3, with different levels of resistance, ranging from low to high respectively, under natural field conditions. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Results found that toxin concentration was inversely correlated with varietal resistance but not correlated with disease phenotypes, indicating that toxin analysis is a more accurate measure of disease status in wheat ears and grains. (biomedcentral.com)
Toxicity3
  • The main toxicity of Fusarium incarnatum comes from the mycotoxin produced. (wikipedia.org)
  • Toxicity of T-2 toxin, a Fusarium mycotoxin, to alveolar macrophages in vitro. (cdc.gov)
  • They are of major concern to the worldwide economy because of annual revenue lost due to contamination, the toxicity of the toxins to both animals and humans (many are known carcinogens), and because they are persistent throughout multiple food processing steps. (thermofisher.com)
Maize1
  • Since in the middle term the EU is likely to set maximum admissible values for fumonisins as well as other Fusarium toxins, one urgent task was to obtain a representative picture of Fusarium infestation and the toxin content of domestic maize. (boku.ac.at)
Pathogen5
  • Fusarium incarnatum is a fungal pathogen in the genus Fusarium, family Nectriaceae. (wikipedia.org)
  • Fusarium incarnatum is a widespread fungal pathogen that severely impacts crop yield in many places in the world. (wikipedia.org)
  • The fungal pathogen Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. (usda.gov)
  • Fusarium equiseti is a plant pathogen with a wide range of hosts and diverse effects, including probiotic activity. (researchsquare.com)
  • Conversely, F. equiseti itself also acts as a plant pathogen with a broad host range and produces various toxins. (researchsquare.com)
Contamination3
  • En principe, la contamination par les mycotoxines pourrait être diminuée chez les hybrides commerciaux de maïs par des saisons de croissance plus courtes en plantant à des dates qui minimisent le stress sur les plantes au moment de la période critique du remplissage des grains. (erudit.org)
  • De même, la contamination supérieure aux niveaux légalement acceptés a été moindre en 2005 et dans l'ensemble pour les semis de la mi-avril. (erudit.org)
  • Adequate knowledge of the toxin and proper food storage is essential to avoid contamination and further health and economic implication of citrinin poisoning. (researchgate.net)
Natural Toxins3
  • in german) and thus assesses the health risk for humans and animals from the occurrence of these natural toxins in food and animal feed. (bund.de)
  • Natural toxins are chemicals that are naturally produced by living organisms. (thermofisher.com)
  • Thermo Scientific has many rugged and sensitive techniques for the analysis on natural toxins and biotoxins. (thermofisher.com)
20181
Aflatoxins1
  • Potent toxins called aflatoxins are associated with mold exposure, as they can occur in water-damaged buildings where mold loves to grow. (essentialformulas.com)
Molds3
  • Toxin produced by Fusarium molds which causes livestock feed refusal, vomiting and interferes with growth and development. (vicam.com)
  • Additionally, current guidelines only factor in the effects of single toxin exposure, which is rarely the case since molds produce multiple toxins under the same environmental conditions. (kemin.com)
  • Toxins produced by molds are extremely stable, therefore if a significant level is found, the level will not decrease over time. (unl.edu)
Verticillioides1
  • On one hand, minimal adverse effects have been reported in channel catfish fed with Fusarium verticillioides culture material containing 313 ppm of FB 1 for 5 weeks (Brown et al. (thefishsite.com)
Mold Toxins2
  • Some mold toxins interfere with the hormones that regulate the various steps of pregnancy. (curezone.org)
  • Mold toxins are noted for interfering with biological processes. (curezone.org)
Occurrence1
  • There is little correlation between fusarium-damaged grains and mycotoxin occurrence. (ahdb.org.uk)
Pathogens2
  • Transcriptomic data showed that Sumai3 exhibited a stronger immune response during all stages of grain filling by upregulating genes involved in the active destruction of pathogens and removal of toxins. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The seed-borne pathogens Microdochium nivale and M. majus (formerly known collectively as Fusarium nivale ) are also included in this group. (ahdb.org.uk)
Infection7
  • Head infection (FHB index) and Fusarium damaged kernels (FDK) were visually scored. (eurekamag.com)
  • Additionally, preying on a Fusarium mycotoxin-contaminated diet regimen raised IFN-γ genetics expression in the cecal tonsils of Eimeria-challenged birds, however, without being linked to the apparent resistance to coccidial infection in terms of adjustments in oocyst yield. (770waterdamageca.com)
  • Susceptibility increases when kernel integrity issues, insect damage, hail, wind, husk coverage or smut causes stress and acts as a doorway to fusarium infection on the ear, she said. (tscra.org)
  • On older plants, fusarium infection can produce a true foot rot, where the stem base becomes brown and rotten, resulting in lodging and whiteheads. (ahdb.org.uk)
  • Primary infection by fusarium is from infected seed, soil, crop debris and volunteers or host weed species. (ahdb.org.uk)
  • For some fusarium species, spores are also wind-spread, although this is not an important infection source. (ahdb.org.uk)
  • Warm, wet, humid conditions during flowering favours infection by fusarium species, causing ear blights and seed-borne infection. (ahdb.org.uk)
Mould1
Cereals1
Detoxification2
  • Recently we also started to study the interaction of Fusarium with the new monocot model system Brachypodium distachyon and the detoxification of Fusarium metabolites by Brachypodium . (boku.ac.at)
  • An additional area of the working group is the elucidation of the molecular mechanisms of detoxification of Fusarium toxins by microbes, which is mostly done in collaboration with the industry partner Biomin . (boku.ac.at)
Resistance2
  • Many fungicides are developed to treat Fusarium, but there is also a risk that drug resistance could be introduced. (wikipedia.org)
  • Phenamacril-resistant mutants of Fusarium incarnatum are easily induced with high resistance levels. (wikipedia.org)
Genomics1
  • These research directions required the establishment of firm interdisciplinary collaborations with chemists and plant breeders, which was achieved by obtaining funding for a larger consortium from the Austrian genome programme GEN-AU (coordinator: G. Adam) The establishment of Fusarium genomics resources (e.g. (boku.ac.at)
Pseudograminearum1
  • F. equiseti was most closely related to Fusarium pseudograminearum based on a phylogenetic analysis at the whole-genome level. (researchsquare.com)
Genes3
  • FgTri5-cluster) and characterized the toxin cluster genes. (usda.gov)
  • have analyzed the tef-1α sequences of F. equiseti , as well as the toxin-related genes PKS13 , PKS4, and TRI5 [26], and Kari has successfully cloned a protease gene [27]. (researchsquare.com)
  • In contrast, Annong1589 showed a passive prevention of the spread of toxins into cells by the upregulation of genes involved in tyramine biosynthesis at the early stage (5 DPA), which may be involved in cell wall strengthening. (biomedcentral.com)
Species complex5
  • It is usually associated with over 40 phylogenetic species in the natural environment to form the Fusarium incarnatum-equiseti species complex(FIESC). (wikipedia.org)
  • Development of PCR-RFLP Technique for Identify Several Members of Fusarium incarnatum-equiseti Species Complex and Fusarium fujikuroi Species Complex. (wikipedia.org)
  • Fusarium incarnatum-equiseti species complex associated with Brazilian rice: Phylogeny, morphology and toxigenic potential. (wikipedia.org)
  • Numbers to names - restyling the Fusarium incarnatum-equiseti species complex. (wikipedia.org)
  • Morphology, phylogeny, and sexual stage of Fusarium caatingaense and Fusarium pernambucanum, new species of the Fusarium incarnatum-equiseti species complex associated with insects in Brazil. (wikipedia.org)
Equiseti5
  • In humans, an implanted polytetrafluoroethylene dialysis graft with Fusarium incarnatum/equiseti has been reported. (wikipedia.org)
  • Fusarium incarnatum-equiseti complex from China, Persoonia. (wikipedia.org)
  • In this study, the Illumina HiSeq 4000 and PacBio platforms were used to sequence and assemble the whole genome of Fusarium equiseti D25-1. (researchsquare.com)
  • Fusarium equiseti , also known as Gibberella intricans in its sexual stage, has complex and diverse beneficial or pathogenic properties. (researchsquare.com)
  • In this study, the complete genomic sequence of Fusarium equiseti D25-1 was determined using multiple sequencing platforms. (researchsquare.com)
Corn1
Crops2
  • iv) After fulfilling these three criteria, the product must be biosafe: not produce mammalian toxins that affect users and consumers, and have a host range that does not include crops and beneficial organisms, and in most cases that it will not spread from application sites or have environmental residues beyond those needed to control the target pest. (weizmann.ac.il)
  • Most cereal crops develop fusarium symptoms each year. (ahdb.org.uk)
Venoms1
  • There are numerous other instances of the use of plant toxins, venoms, and other poisonous substances to create biological weapons in antiquity. (wikipedia.org)
Toxic2
  • 1998). Although ochratoxin A (OTA) has not been studied to the same extent as AFB 1 in aquaculture, there are several studies demonstrating the toxic effects of this toxin in different fish species (Manning et al. (thefishsite.com)
  • Before the 20th century, biological warfare took three main forms: (1) deliberate poisoning of food and water with infectious or toxic material, (2) use of microorganisms or toxins in some form of weapon system, and (3) use of biologically inoculated fabrics. (medscape.com)
Humans3
  • With different combinations of fungal and bacteria species involved in FIESC, Fusarium incarnatum can be found in soil, plants, and animals including humans. (wikipedia.org)
  • In addition, animals who eat affected food can pass the toxin on to humans through their milk. (essentialformulas.com)
  • These toxins can quickly cause skin and intestinal mucosa irritation in humans, causing diarrhea and potentially esophageal cancer. (essentialformulas.com)
Kernels1
  • Symptoms may occur over the entire head or on just a few spikelets (Figure 1A), which leads to the formation of Fusarium-damaged kernels (FDK) that are shriveled and appear chalky white and/or pink (Figure 1B). (mdpi.com)
Climate1
  • Del Ponte, E. M., Fernandes, J., Pavan, W. & Baethgen, W. E. A model‐based assessment of the impacts of climate variability on Fusarium head blight seasonal risk in southern Brazil. (nature.com)
Root rot1
  • 2014). Antagonistic Bacillus species as a biological control of ginseng root rot caused by Fusarium cf. (wikipedia.org)
Crop3
  • Other plant toxins can occur as contaminants in food or feed if plant parts containing toxins are harvested unintentionally together with the main crop. (bund.de)
  • Some cultivation methods have been identified for their impact on Fusarium development, like crop rotation but also no-till farming. (allaboutfeed.net)
  • Selecting varieties resistant to Fusarium helps controlling the risk on the crop. (allaboutfeed.net)
Doses2
  • U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and feed regulatory officials have published reference advisory doses for each toxin, and exposure below these regulated levels is usually considered safe. (kemin.com)
  • The results obtained in the present study indicate that even low doses of T2 toxin are not neutral for living organisms because they may change the neurochemical characterization of the enteric neurons. (bvsalud.org)
Head1
  • Fusarium head blight (FHB, syn. (mdpi.com)
Produces1
Biological1
  • Biological weapons include any organism or toxin found in nature that can be used to incapacitate, kill, or otherwise impede an adversary. (medscape.com)
Genus2
  • In 1809 Link introduced the genus Fusarium. (wikipedia.org)
  • Starting from the 1990s, DNA evidence helped introduce new Fusarium species, leading to the publication by Leslie and Summerell in 2006 describing 70 species in the genus. (wikipedia.org)