Found in chloroplasts. Medical search. Frequent questions

Chloroplasts, like mitochondria, contain their own DNA, which is thought to be inherited from their ancestor-a photosynthetic cyanobacterium that was engulfed by an early eukaryotic cell. (wikipedia.org)
As many of you are no doubt aware, both mitochondria and chloroplasts are thought to have come to us via microbial endosymbiosis (that is one cell living within another) with prokaryokes. (scienceblogs.com)
There is compelling evidence that mitochondria and chloroplasts were once primitive bacterial cells. (utah.edu)
Over millions of years of evolution, mitochondria and chloroplasts have become more specialized and today they cannot live outside the cell. (utah.edu)
Mitochondria and chloroplasts have striking similarities to bacteria cells. (utah.edu)
A double membrane surrounds both mitochondria and chloroplasts, further evidence that each was ingested by a primitive host. (utah.edu)
Like mitochondria, chloroplasts also have their own DNA and ribosomes. (pressbooks.pub)
Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have outer and inner membranes, but within the space enclosed by a chloroplast's inner membrane is a set of interconnected and stacked, fluid-filled membrane sacs called thylakoids ( Figure 2 ). (pressbooks.pub)
We have mentioned that both mitochondria and chloroplasts contain DNA and ribosomes. (pressbooks.pub)
Scientists have long noticed that bacteria, mitochondria, and chloroplasts are similar in size. (pressbooks.pub)
We also know that mitochondria and chloroplasts have DNA and ribosomes, just as bacteria do. (pressbooks.pub)
Through evolution, these ingested bacteria became more specialized in their functions, with the aerobic bacteria becoming mitochondria and the photosynthetic bacteria becoming chloroplasts. (pressbooks.pub)
In plant cells, ATP is produced in the cristae of mitochondria and chloroplasts. (enchantedlearning.com)
Peroxisomes differ from mitochondria and chloroplasts in many ways. (nih.gov)
Like mitochondria and chloroplasts, however, peroxisomes are thought to acquire their proteins by selective import from the cytosol . (nih.gov)
Both diseases are possibly caused by the accumulations of damaged mitochondria, an organelle found in the brain's neurons. (shepherd.edu)
We discovered when chloroplasts are damaged they are removed by a similar process to which damaged mitochondria are removed," he said. (shepherd.edu)
By developing innovative methods to visualize energy changes in subcellular compartments in live plants, the team of Dr Boon Leong LIM, Associate Professor of the School of Biological Sciences of The University of Hong Kong, after showing how chloroplasts optimizes its energy efficiency 2 years ago, recently solved a controversial question in photosynthesis: what is the source of NADH (Reduced Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) for mitochondria to generate ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)? (hku.hk)
By employing these energy sensors, we found that photorespiration supplies a large amount of NADH to mitochondria during photosynthesis, which exceeds the NADH-dissipating capacity of the mitochondria. (hku.hk)
F-type ATPases are found in eukaryotic mitochondria and chloroplasts as well as in bacteria. (tcdb.org)
Electron cryoEM structures of mitochondrial, chloroplast, and bacterial ATP synthases have revealed the architecture of the FO region, helping to explain the mechanisms of proton translocation, dimerization of the enzyme in mitochondria, and cristae formation. (tcdb.org)
All eukaryotic F-type ATPases pump 3-4 H + out of mitochondria, or into thylakoids of chloroplasts, per ATP hydrolyzed. (tcdb.org)

A chloroplast (/ˈklɔːrəˌplæst, -plɑːst/) is a type of membrane-bound organelle known as a plastid that conducts photosynthesis mostly in plant and algal cells. (wikipedia.org)
What roll does chlorophyll play in photosynthesis and where is chlorophyll found? (answers.com)
Plants, algae and a few other organisms rely on a process known as photosynthesis to fuel themselves, as they can harness cellular structures called chloroplasts to convert light into usable energy. (elifesciences.org)
Animals typically lack chloroplasts, making them unable to use photosynthesis to power themselves. (elifesciences.org)
Redifferentiation into tannin-generating chloroplasts showed multiple signs of loss of photosynthesis capacity. (scirp.org)
Indeed, the scientists discovered that the chloroplasts, the plant-specific organelles that perform photosynthesis, were the reason why plants do not show toxic protein deposits. (phys.org)
Chloroplasts function in photosynthesis and can be found in eukaryotic cells such as plants and algae. (pressbooks.pub)
The chloroplasts contain a green pigment called chlorophyll , which captures the energy of sunlight for photosynthesis. (pressbooks.pub)
Some bacteria also perform photosynthesis, but they do not have chloroplasts. (pressbooks.pub)
A chloroplast is the biological part of a photosynthetic organism that is responsible for photosynthesis. (naturalnews.com)
Photosynthesis (in which energy from sunlight is converted into chemical energy - food) takes place in the chloroplasts. (enchantedlearning.com)
The dwarfed Arabidopsis doesn't express BRI1 at all, unlike normal Arabidopsis, which expresses BRI1 on both the outer waxy, protective epidermis (covering the whole leaf and shoot), and the inner sub-epidermal layer, which contains the chloroplasts that conduct photosynthesis. (science20.com)
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages: the light-dependent stage that occurs in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast and harvests solar energy, and the light-independent stage that takes that energy and makes sugar from carbon dioxide. (visionlearning.com)
Chloroplasts, found in plant cells, are used in the process of photosynthesis. (artscolumbia.org)
Chloroplasts are organelles in plant leaves that use light energy to turn water and carbon dioxide into food used in the process of photosynthesis. (shepherd.edu)
Photosynthesis utilizes light as an energy source for plant chloroplasts to synthesize carbohydrates from water and CO 2 molecules. (hku.hk)

A chloroplast is characterized by its two membranes and a high concentration of chlorophyll. (wikipedia.org)
The first definitive description of a chloroplast (Chlorophyllkörnen, "grain of chlorophyll") was given by Hugo von Mohl in 1837 as discrete bodies within the green plant cell. (wikipedia.org)
What elements are found in chlorophyll? (answers.com)
Where is chlorophyll found in the plant? (answers.com)
Chlorophyll is found in chloroplasts present in the leaves. (answers.com)
Chlorophyll is found inside the leaves. (answers.com)
How are chlorophyll and chloroplasts relates and where are they found? (answers.com)
Chlorophyll is inside chloroplast.They are found in eukariyotes. (answers.com)
Is chlorophyll found in plants only? (answers.com)
Where is chlorophyll found in plants cell structure? (answers.com)
Chlorophyll is found in it's leaves. (answers.com)
Where is chlorophyll and chloroplasts found? (answers.com)
In what type of cell plant or animal is chlorophyll found? (answers.com)
Chlorophyll is found only in plant cells. (answers.com)
Thylakoid disks are disk-shaped membrane structures in chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll. (enchantedlearning.com)
In plants, chloroplasts contain chlorophyll that absorbs light in the red and blue-violet regions of the spectrum. (visionlearning.com)
Chlorophyll is housed within organelles called chloroplasts , usually found inside leaf cells. (coursehero.com)

The two innermost lipid-bilayer membranes that surround all chloroplasts correspond to the outer and inner membranes of the ancestral cyanobacterium's gram negative cell wall, and not the phagosomal membrane from the host, which was probably lost. (wikipedia.org)
The major subunits of the TOC complex (Toc75, Toc90 and Toc34) and TIC complex (Tic214, Tic20, Tic100 and Tic56), three chloroplast translocon-associated proteins (Ctap3, Ctap4 and Ctap5) and three newly identified small inner-membrane proteins (Simp1-3) have been located in the supercomplex. (nature.com)
Uncovering the protein translocon at the chloroplast inner envelope membrane. (nature.com)
Proanthocyanidins are formed in the chlorophyllous organs of Tracheophyta from a redifferentiation of chloroplasts involving the thylakoidal membrane and lumen. (scirp.org)
Unlike MCCs (Note 1), GCCs take up cytosolic ATP via the nucleotide transporters (NTTs) on chloroplast membrane to energise starch synthesis in daytime. (sciencedaily.com)
Figure 2 This simplified diagram of a chloroplast shows the outer membrane, inner membrane, thylakoids, grana, and stroma. (pressbooks.pub)
Part of the chloroplasts in plant cells, located within the inner membrane of chloroplasts, between the grana. (enchantedlearning.com)
Rotor ATPases are large multisubunit membrane protein complexes found in all kingdoms of life. (jyu.fi)

In chloroplasts, Cpn60 has two subunit types-Cpn60α and Cpn60β and the rice genome encodes three α and three β plastid chaperonin subunits. (isaaa.org)
In an effort to develop identification methods for fescues, we used flow cytometry to estimate genome size and ploidy level and sequenced the chloroplast genome of all five taxa. (umn.edu)
Fine fescue chloroplast genome sizes ranged from 133,331 to 133,841 bp and contained 113-114 genes. (umn.edu)
Phylogenetic relationship reconstruction using whole chloroplast genome sequences agreed with previous work based on morphology. (umn.edu)
A cloned, 500 base pair (bp) restriction fragment from the chloroplast genome of Pinus contorta hybridized to restriction fragments of a previously known polymorphism when used in molecular mapping experiments with total cellular DNAs of P. banksiana and P. contorta. (researchgate.net)
Wang B, Han L, Chen C, Wang Z. The complete chloroplast genome sequence of Dieffenbachia seguine (Araceae). (medscape.com)

Sacoglossan sea slugs are able to maintain functional chloroplasts inside their own cells, and mechanisms that allow preservation of the chloroplasts are unknown. (elifesciences.org)
In another surprising development, the researchers found the algal gene in E. chlorotica's sex cells, meaning the ability to maintain functional chloroplasts could be passed to the next generation. (sott.net)

Early chloroplasts were probably independent bacteria that were captured and 'domesticated' by other cells for their ability to extract energy from the sun. (elifesciences.org)
You will find bacteria in this kingdom. (yahoo.com)
V-type ATPases are found in vacuoles of eukaryotes and in bacteria. (tcdb.org)

Some of its proteins were then synthesized in the cytoplasm of the host cell, and imported back into the chloroplast (formerly the cyanobacterium). (wikipedia.org)
This differential localization is consistently observed using confocal microscopy of GFP-tagged proteins, chloroplast fractionation, and western blotting, and immunodetection by electron microscopy. (unboundmedicine.com)
Chloroplasts only contain enough DNA to encode about 10% of the proteins needed to keep themselves running. (sott.net)
The genes are then incorporated into the sea slug's own DNA, allowing the animal to produce the necessary proteins for the stolen chloroplasts to continue working. (sott.net)
The concept does not include proteins found in vegetables for which PLANT PROTEINS, DIETARY is available. (bvsalud.org)

Soll, J. & Schleiff, E. Protein import into chloroplasts. (nature.com)
Li, H. M. & Chiu, C. C. Protein transport into chloroplasts. (nature.com)
Shi, L. X. & Theg, S. M. The chloroplast protein import system: from algae to trees. (nature.com)
Chen, L. J. & Li, H. M. Stable megadalton TOC-TIC supercomplexes as major mediators of protein import into chloroplasts. (nature.com)
Coexpressed subunits of dual genetic origin define a conserved supercomplex mediating essential protein import into chloroplasts. (nature.com)
Rochaix, J.-D. Chloroplast protein import machinery and quality control. (nature.com)
Chaperonin 60 (Cpn60) protein has been known to control the folding of several chloroplast protein polypeptides. (isaaa.org)
In contrast to animal and human models, they found that Arabidopsis thaliana plants actively removed huntingtin protein clumps and avoid harmful effects. (phys.org)
Llamas said, "Unlike humans, plants have chloroplasts, an extra cellular type of organelle that could provide an expanded molecular machinery to get rid of toxic protein aggregates. (phys.org)
The multidisciplinary team identified the chloroplast plant protein SPP as the reason why plants are unaffected by the problematic human protein. (phys.org)
Using the expression of E. coli β-glucuronidase (gus) in C. reinhardtii chloroplast, the overall aim of the project was to address if the low recombinant gus yield in C. reinhardtii was due to limitations that affect growth and protein production, and if the fluxes for recombinant gus production were suboptimal (limiting). (bl.uk)
The finding was used to implement a strategy for a more predictable recombinant protein yield in C. reinhardtii. (bl.uk)
Further characterization of Trp-14 using chloroplast transformation in Chlamydomonas indicated that substitution of D1 Trp-14 to Phe, mimicking Trp oxidation enhanced FtsH-mediated D1 degradation under high light, although the substitution did not affect protein stability and PSII activity. (elifesciences.org)
By employing in planta fluorescence protein sensors, the team of Dr Boon Leong Lim at HKU was able to visualise real-time production of ATP and NADPH in the mesophyll cell chloroplasts (MCCs) of a model plant, Arabidopsis thaliana . (sciencedaily.com)
According to the Salk Institute website, the research team noticed that the cells, through a protein called PUB4, were marking the damaged chloroplasts so they could be removed or recycled. (shepherd.edu)
Gilkerson said it was previously not known that ubiquitin, which is a protein found in all tissue, was used to remove and recycle damaged chloroplasts from cells. (shepherd.edu)

A range of methods, including measuring fluorescence from the chloroplasts, was used: this revealed that the slug changes the inside of the stolen chloroplasts, making them more resistant to damage. (elifesciences.org)
First, when exposed to light the stolen chloroplasts can quickly switch on a mechanism that dissipates light energy to heat, which is less damaging. (elifesciences.org)

The number of chloroplasts per cell varies from one, in unicellular algae, up to 100 in plants like Arabidopsis and wheat. (wikipedia.org)
Chloroplasts are only found in plants, algae, and three species of amoeba - Paulinella chromatophora, P. micropora, and marine P. longichromatophora. (wikipedia.org)
500 individuals) and their prey algae, we show that the plastoquinone pool of slug chloroplasts remains oxidized, which can suppress reactive oxygen species formation. (elifesciences.org)
The sea slug Elysia timida , however, can steal whole chloroplasts from the cells of the algae it consumes: the stolen structures then become part of the cells in the gut of the slug, allowing the animal to gain energy from sunlight. (elifesciences.org)
In addition, conditions inside animal cells are widely different to the ones found inside algae and plants. (elifesciences.org)
She has known for some time that E. chlorotica acquires chloroplasts - the green cellular objects that allow plant cells to convert sunlight into energy - from the algae it eats, and stores them in the cells that line its gut. (sott.net)
Young E. chlorotica fed with algae for two weeks, could survive for the rest of their year-long lives without eating, Rumpho found in earlier work. (sott.net)
One possibility is that, as the algae are processed in the sea slug's gut, the gene is taken into its cells as along with the chloroplasts. (sott.net)

Chloroplasts are one of many types of organelles in the plant cell. (wikipedia.org)
Which of the following organelles would you expect to find in a prokaryotic cell? (visionlearning.com)
The MIT researchers found a way to make the non-living organelles in the gel last for much longer. (naturalnews.com)
These single-celled organisms have a cell wall, but they do not have organelles, chloroplasts or a nucleus. (yahoo.com)
Plants are multicellular, and have organelles and chloroplasts. (yahoo.com)
These are single-celled organisms that have organelles and may have a cell wall and chloroplasts. (yahoo.com)

They found that when they drive the expression of the BRI1 receptor in the epidermis of a dwarf Arabidopsis, while leaving the sub-epidermal layer as it was (without BRI1 receptors), the tiny plant morphed into a full-sized plant. (science20.com)
Using the Arabidopsis, which is a type of mustard plant, Gilkerson and his colleagues discovered how plant cells deal with damaged chloroplasts. (shepherd.edu)
It had been a general belief that mature plant chloroplasts can import ATP from cytosol since 1969, but it was shown to be untrue by Dr Lim and his team in 2018 (Note 1), through introducing a novel ATP sensor in the subcellular compartments of a C3 model plant, Arabidopsis thaliana . (hku.hk)

From genomes that probably originally contained over 3000 genes only about 130 genes remain in the chloroplasts of contemporary plants. (wikipedia.org)
The other necessary genes are found in the algae's nuclear DNA. (sott.net)
In their latest experiments, Rumpho and colleagues sequenced the chloroplast genes of Vaucheria litorea, the alga that is the sea slug's favourite snack. (sott.net)
They confirmed that if the sea slug used the algal chloroplasts alone, it would not have all the genes needed to photosynthesise. (sott.net)
They then turned their attention to the sea slug's own DNA and found one of the vital algal genes was present. (sott.net)

Like chloroplasts, they have thylakoids within them. (wikipedia.org)

Cyanobacteria are relative simple unicellular photosynthetic prokaryotes, considered ancestors of higher plant chloroplasts. (lu.se)

What specialized structures are found inside the chloroplast? (answers.com)

Which organelle below would you expect to find in abundance in macrophages? (visionlearning.com)
The damaged chloroplast organelle is coated with this ubiquitin and that tells the cell to remove it. (shepherd.edu)

When the leaves were observed under an electron microscope, it was found that the chloroplasts were severely disrupted. (isaaa.org)
Finally, our results suggest that chloroplasts inside E. timida rely on oxygen-dependent electron sinks during rapid changes in light intensity. (elifesciences.org)

Phycobilins are also common cyanobacterial pigments, usually organized into hemispherical phycobilisomes attached to the outside of the thylakoid membranes (phycobilins are not shared with all chloroplasts though). (wikipedia.org)
It is shown that all enzymes of the lipoxygenase pathway differentially localize within chloroplasts, and are largely found associated to thylakoid membranes. (unboundmedicine.com)

Using a network reconstruction algorithm, we predict that known chloroplast gene expression regulators are differentially involved across those developmental stages. (biomedcentral.com)

In mesophyll chloroplasts, ATP and NADPH (nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate) are generated from photosystems, which are used as fuel for fixing CO 2 . (sciencedaily.com)
Taking advantage of the developmental gradient in the bread wheat leaf, we provide a simultaneous quantitative analysis for the development of mesophyll cells and of chloroplasts as a cellular compartment. (biomedcentral.com)
Leaves are the primary photosynthetic organs, within which mesophyll cells differentiate to become chloroplast-filled. (biomedcentral.com)

Find regions of similarity between this sequence and other sequences using BLAST. (nih.gov)
Finds sub-sequences or patterns in the sequence and highlights the matching regions. (nih.gov)
Molecular phylogeny based on nuclear and chloroplast DNA sequences tends to merge Cimicifuga Wernisch. (researchgate.net)

Here tools are used from the fields of biology, optics, and imaging to investigate the distributions of calcium oxalate, silica minerals, and chloroplasts in okra leaves, in relation to their functions. (lu.se)
Nonsoluble calcium oxalate crystals are found in plant stems, roots, and leaves. (medscape.com)

While MCs fix CO 2 in chloroplasts via the Calvin-Benson-Bassham (CBB) cycle, CO 2 fixation in the cytosol is the main pathway of CO 2 assimilation in GCs, where the downstream product malate, is also an important solute to increase turgor pressure for stomatal opening. (sciencedaily.com)

This finding has revised our understanding on chloroplast bioenergetics during daytime and nighttime and how mature chloroplasts optimize energy efficiency. (hku.hk)

The sea slug Elysia timida is capable of stealing chloroplasts from its algal prey ( Figure 1 ). (elifesciences.org)
Another explanation is that a virus found in the sea slug carries the DNA from the algal cells to the sea slug's cells. (sott.net)

Once stolen, the chloroplasts, now termed kleptoplasts, remain functional inside the slug's cells for several weeks, essentially creating a photosynthetic slug. (elifesciences.org)
With the purpose to help researchers of concerned disciplines to identify such chloroplasts, we described herein the morphologies of functional and redifferentiating chloroplasts in various members of Tracheophyta. (scirp.org)

Researchers find a cause of Parkinson's disease , University of Copenhagen - The Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, ScienceDaily, October 2, 2023. (washington.edu)

The second phase is marked by the development of photosynthetic chloroplasts which occupy the available cellular space. (biomedcentral.com)

The developmental gradient in monocot leaves has been exploited to uncover leaf developmental gene expression programs and chloroplast biogenesis processes. (biomedcentral.com)
Our analysis generates both the first wheat leaf transcriptional map and one of the most comprehensive descriptions to date of the developmental history of chloroplasts in higher plants. (biomedcentral.com)
These minerals are found at different locations within the leaf, and there is little conclusive evidence about the functions they perform. (lu.se)
A correlative approach is developed to simultaneously visualize calcium oxalates, silica minerals, chloroplasts, and leaf soft tissue in 3D without affecting the minerals or the organic components. (lu.se)

Protons are positively charged particles located in the nucleus of an atom, while neutrons are neutral particles also found in the nucleus. (proprofs.com)
They have their own DNA, which is separate from the DNA found in the nucleus of the cell. (utah.edu)

Chloroplasts carry out a number of other functions, including fatty acid synthesis, amino acid synthesis, and the immune response in plants. (wikipedia.org)
Amyloplasts are found in starchy plants like tubers and fruits. (enchantedlearning.com)
Currently, plants containing oxalate are admired for their ornamental beauty and found in public places and homes. (medscape.com)

Furthermore, they incorporated intact but non-living spinach chloroplasts into the gel to serve as catalysts for the carbon-fixing process. (naturalnews.com)
Dinoflagellates can be found in large numbers in the ocean, and as a result consume a considerable amount of carbon dioxide. (kenyon.edu)
Type-f TRXs interact specifically with targets in the chloroplast, controlling photosynthetic carbon fixation by the Calvin⁻Benson cycle. (rcsb.org)

Researchers from Zhejiang University and Zhejiang Academy elucidated the role of OsCpn60β1 in chloroplast development in rice . (isaaa.org)
Based on the findings, the researchers concluded that OsCpn60β1 is essential for chloroplast development in rice. (isaaa.org)
With the aim to provide detailed morphological data concerning scientific community which will, in the future, enable researchers to identify them, we present a monograph of large-size micrographs of photosynthetic chloroplasts from the Tracheophyta and their counterparts, the redifferentiating chloroplasts producing tannins. (scirp.org)
Researchers at the University of Cologne's CECAD Cluster of Excellence for Aging Research and the CEPLAS Cluster of Excellence for Plant Sciences have found a promising synthetic plant biology approach for the development of a therapy to treat human neurodegenerative diseases, especially Huntington's disease. (phys.org)
Now researchers have found how one animal does just that. (sott.net)
What did the researchers do and find? (bvsalud.org)

Despite this, chloroplasts can be found in an extremely wide set of organisms, some not even directly related to each other-a consequence of many secondary and even tertiary endosymbiotic events. (wikipedia.org)
These organisms are found throughout the world's oceans, concentrating at the top euphotic zone of the ocean's water column 7. . (kenyon.edu)

Chloroplasts are highly dynamic-they circulate and are moved around within plant cells, and occasionally pinch in two to reproduce. (wikipedia.org)
Understanding the build-up of photosynthetic capacity requires detailed knowledge of how these cells, and chloroplasts within, are produced and develop. (biomedcentral.com)
Like plant cells, photosynthetic protists also have chloroplasts. (pressbooks.pub)
Peroxisomes are found in all eucaryotic cells. (nih.gov)
A second remarkable finding from the study is that "cells in the outer layer talk to the cells in the inner layers, telling them when to grow or to stop growing. (science20.com)

Dr. Jonathan Gilkerson helped with the groundbreaking research described in the article "Ubiquitin facilitates a quality-control pathway that removes damaged chloroplasts" that was published October 23, 2015. (shepherd.edu)

Chloroplasts cannot be made by the plant cell and must be inherited by each daughter cell during cell division. (wikipedia.org)
Earlier studies suggested that guard cell chloroplasts (GCCs) cannot fix CO2 but later studies argued otherwise. (sciencedaily.com)

More triterpenoid saponins have been found in various species, among which the cimigenol type (type A) is predominant. (researchgate.net)
A few species are found in freshwater environments, however 90% of dinoflagellate species are marine. (kenyon.edu)

They are also improving the characteristics of the material, such as non-biological catalysts that can replace the chloroplasts. (naturalnews.com)

OsCpn60β1 was found in the chloroplast and OsCpn60β1 is constitutively expressed in different tissues especially in the green tissues. (isaaa.org)

Slug chloroplasts also rapidly build up a strong proton-motive force upon a dark-to-light transition, which helps them to rapidly switch on photoprotective non-photochemical quenching of excitation energy. (elifesciences.org)

For more than a century, scientists have tried to find out which part of the plant both drives and curbs growth: is it a shoot's outer waxy layer? (science20.com)

P. fusiformis' bioluminescence, or emitted blue-green light, originates from microsources found evenly distributed throughout the cytoplasmic layer surrounding the large central vacuole. (kenyon.edu)

We found that the slug Elysia timida induces changes to the photosynthetic light reactions of the chloroplasts it steals from the alga Acetabularia acetabulum . (elifesciences.org)

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