• Here, the notion of "natural capital" was viewed in terms of the stock of physical properties and natural-material use values constituting real wealth and was seen as opposed to the growing "sense of capitalism" as a system of mere exchange value or cash nexus. (monthlyreview.org)
  • Therefore, the correct answer, "allocation," encompasses the concept of distributing resources in both capitalism and free enterprise. (proprofs.com)
  • Capitalism promotes private ownership, entrepreneurship, and the accumulation of capital. (proprofs.com)
  • The Marxian concept of the transition from capitalism to socialism can be meaningfully discussed only within the international, global framework in which the system of advanced capitalism actually operates. (autodidactproject.org)
  • These factors have made possible the continued growth of capitalism, and the vital need for revolution no longer prevails among those classes that as the immediate producers would be capable of stopping the capitalist production. (autodidactproject.org)
  • I develop these concepts of "general intellect" and "immaterial labour," and connect them to other Marxist concepts, such as that of "species being, " to examine the historical trajectory and future possibilities of insurgencies in and alternatives to high capitalism amidst of a cyborg world of digital networks and biotechnologies. (uwo.ca)
  • Though they speak of a "new paradigm," they readily acknowledge their debt to Joseph Schumpeter, the Austrian economist who first advanced the concept and coined the term in his 1942 book, Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy . (city-journal.org)
  • As revolutionary Marxists, however, we understand capitalism not merely as a collection of economic processes but as an integrated system of socioeconomic relationships. (isreview.org)
  • Both the ideas as well as the actions of the new critique are essentially negative, as the processing of the experience of suffering in crisis-ridden capitalism, insofar as positive determinations can only be developed on the basis of that negation, by means of a historical movement of mediation, but not as an a priori stipulation. (libcom.org)
  • Capitalism also promotes the concept of free enterprise and competition. (jittery.com)
  • Wealth accumulation at the level of individuals, households, and family lines. (theconversation.com)
  • The social inequalities of wealth accumulation inherent have been exacerbated in our current food systems. (theconversation.com)
  • Agriculture made wealth accumulation possible. (medium.com)
  • Moreover, human resources have evolved from traditional personnel management to today's strategic human resource management in response to environmental changes and organizational needs. (hindawi.com)
  • The so-called strategic human resource management refers to planning the allocation and activities of human resources to assist the organization in achieving organizational goals. (hindawi.com)
  • Nonetheless, we explain why developing solutions to utilise this knowledge for climate finance by integrating climate impact assessments into routine lending processes remains a particularly challenging task. (degruyter.com)
  • At the same time, the effectiveness of human resource management as an important evaluation indicator of human resource management practice can enable enterprises to find serious problems in internal human resource management and solve them in time, thereby improving the effect of human resource management and achieving organizational goals better and faster. (hindawi.com)
  • The Avoidance of growing pains: Success factors for a healthy organizational development of young SME's going public. (diplomarbeiten24.de)
  • In the new development state and cycle, China will continue to emerge a series of problems such as insufficient labor supply, reduction of human resources, lack of talents, and low quality of talents. (hindawi.com)
  • Wealth' refers to some accumulation of resources (net asset value), whether abundant or not. (wikipedia.org)
  • The term "allocation" refers to the process of distributing resources, such as money, goods, or services, in a systematic and organized manner. (proprofs.com)
  • Division of labor refers to the process of breaking down a complex task into smaller, more specialized tasks, each performed by different individuals or groups. (proprofs.com)
  • In other words, not only is the economy dependent on oil for its insertion into the world market but, for nearly a century now, capital accumulation in the country has been driven by the oil rent. (links.org.au)
  • [ 2 ] His second insight was that growth was driven not only by factor accumulation but also by technological progress. (europa.eu)
  • This decentralized decision-making process is driven by individual self-interest and profit motives. (jittery.com)
  • The main purpose of the journal is to research the formation and use of the fundamental asset of the organization that provides the efficiency of its operations - knowledge (intellectual capital). (businessperspectives.org)
  • In order to improve the monitoring effect of corporate human resource efficiency under the smart city management model, this paper establishes an evaluation model for the human resource management model between different growth stages of the organization, different organizations in different industries, and different organizations in the same industry. (hindawi.com)
  • Moreover, this paper uses the three-factor vector evaluation model to modify the management efficiency of the human resource model and designs the corresponding intelligent enterprise human resource efficiency monitoring model. (hindawi.com)
  • Through experimental testing, it can be seen that the enterprise human resource efficiency monitoring system under the smart city management mode proposed in this paper has good practical results. (hindawi.com)
  • Human resource management efficiency is the effect of human resource management or the degree of tasks and expectations that can be completed for the organization. (hindawi.com)
  • The improvement of human resource management efficiency can provide the organization with more competitive advantages in the market. (hindawi.com)
  • Thus, the unity of human resource management efficiency with the company's development strategy goals has become the key basis for the company to make important decisions [ 3 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • All these can be achieve through an increase in the efficiency of production factors which depend on the quality of raw-material handled such as technology and human resources. (auladeeconomia.com)
  • His soon-to-be-published book La Larga Depresión Venezolana [The Long Venezuelan Depression], pinpoints the origins of the crisis in a closing cycle of capital accumulation that was based on oil exports. (links.org.au)
  • Davidson's is an outstanding comprehensive account of the involved and often contradictory processes that went into the making of neoliberalism as a "political-economic" strategy developed by ruling class "vanguards" (such as Margaret Thatcher in the UK) from the mid-1970s in response to capitalism's crisis of profitability. (isreview.org)
  • He shows neoliberalism to be both (a) a new economic strategy of capital accumulation adopted after the crisis of 1973-1974, and (b) a set of political policies to enable capital to accumulate and to smash the working class and its organizations. (isreview.org)
  • If the answer is yes, then human survival is indeed at stake in the environmental crisis. (transcend.org)
  • Humanity, therefore, is facing issues of ecological survival on two levels: (1) a still reversible but rapidly worsening Earth System crisis, threatening to undermine civilization as a whole and make the planet uninhabitable for the human species, and (2) accelerating extreme weather and other ecological disasters associated with climate change that are now unavoidable in the coming decades, affecting localities and regions throughout the globe. (transcend.org)
  • As the IEG told its investors, while the asset value of the world economy is $512 trillion, the asset value of the earth's natural capital is estimated at $4 quadrillion ($4,000 trillion), all potentially for the taking. (monthlyreview.org)
  • Scarcity is a fundamental factor for wealth. (wikipedia.org)
  • In this stage there are two fundamental processes: globalization and regionalization. (auladeeconomia.com)
  • The United Nations definition of inclusive wealth is a monetary measure which includes the sum of natural, human, and physical assets. (wikipedia.org)
  • Capital stock: Capital available for production in terms of monetary value at one point of time. (ipl.org)
  • Smith answers that the individual, in the process of providing for personal interests, unintentionally contributes to the economic wellbeing of society. (cliffsnotes.com)
  • The resulting hypoalbuminemia contributes to extravascular fluid accumulation. (medscape.com)
  • The Venezuelan economy became part of the international division of labor as a supplier of energy during [what Giovanni Arrighi called] the US' systemic cycle of accumulation . (links.org.au)
  • Each kind belongs to a factor of production: profit to capital, wages to labor, and rent to property. (links.org.au)
  • It has managed to break down the economy growth into 3 different categories in terms of Capital, labor and technology. (ipl.org)
  • Here, Q represents GDP while L stands for Labor, K stands for Capital and H stands for Human capital. (ipl.org)
  • the basis of production, then, is the social relation between wage labor and capital. (libcom.org)
  • The shortage of both types of capital can result in poor mental conditions, making it difficult for refugees to look for employment and integrate into the local labor market. (lu.se)
  • With the advent of the era of the knowledge economy, knowledge workers have replaced physical capital such as traditional labor, capital, and land and have become the key to enterprise success. (hindawi.com)
  • Particularly, "labor" ("abstract labor" in Marx), as the substance of the value form, assumed over the course of this process a trans-historical status. (libcom.org)
  • The central tenet of binary economics is that there are two components to productive output and to income: (1) that generated by human labor, and (2) that generated by capital. (cesj.org)
  • Classical economic theory, on the other hand, regards all output and income to be derived from labor whose productivity is enhanced by capital. (cesj.org)
  • Additional studies are required to identify causes of epilepsy, human and porcine cysticercosis, the role of spatial clustering, and protective factors like host-pathogen immunity. (cdc.gov)
  • Do the dynamics of private capital accumulation inevitably lead to the concentration of wealth in fewer hands? (corkfilmcentre.com)
  • This represents the culmination of a theoretical shift in the dominant economic paradigm aimed at the unlimited accumulation of total capital, now seen as including "natural capital. (monthlyreview.org)
  • In order to develop a critical analysis of the current capitalist expropriation of world ecology, it is necessary to explore the concept of natural capital in the work of Marx and other early radical critics within classical political economy. (monthlyreview.org)
  • In somewhat plainer English: the factors which have led to the passing and obsolescence of some decisive concepts of Marx are anticipated in Marxian theory itself as alternatives and tendencies of the capitalist system. (autodidactproject.org)
  • We depart from Marx, however, in suggesting that the critical factor determining the fate of a post-Fordist, Gatesian regime is not the accumulation of fixed capital in machinery, but the propensities of the variable capital-the human subjects or "immaterial labour"--necessary to create, support and operate this high technology apparatus. (uwo.ca)
  • This concept is widely recognized as a key factor in improving productivity and economic growth. (proprofs.com)
  • This is a novel approach-a departure from the typical, almost exclusive focus on capital accumulation that characterizes explanations for development found not only in standard economic texts but also even in Marxist thinking. (city-journal.org)
  • The following summary conclusion is drawn: knowledge in modern economic system is a key factor of a sustained growth since it is a strategic economic resource which is revealed in qualitative and quantitative parameters of production factors and materialized in the originating social product. (sibran.ru)
  • In terms of binary economics, a barrier is anything in the "invisible architecture" of society's laws, or in the rules or customs of an institution, that inhibits or prevents full participation in the economic process for any or all otherwise qualified individuals. (cesj.org)
  • Binary economics holds that broad-based affluence and economic freedom, as opposed to financial insecurity and economic dependency for the many, is made possible through the widespread ownership of constantly improved capital instruments and social institutions to produce more and more consumable goods with less and less input and resources. (cesj.org)
  • The economic development needs the support of human capital. (scirp.org)
  • W. Schultz Theodore (1963) indicates that the human capital is a significant source of the economic growth in the book, Economic Value of Education. (scirp.org)
  • The modern concept of wealth is of significance in all areas of economics, and clearly so for growth economics and development economics, yet the meaning of wealth is context-dependent. (wikipedia.org)
  • In the early years of the oil century, in the 30s, it was decided that the international rent would be internally distributed to promote national development and non-rentier capital accumulation. (links.org.au)
  • Yet while the far-right have provided some focus for anti-racist activity they remain a small factor in the development of racism in society. (socialismtoday.org)
  • Central to this process was the development of the black slave trade from the late 16th century. (socialismtoday.org)
  • Moreover, he points out that an increase in women's participation does not only generate results for women in general-a reward on its own merit-but it also provides social benefits as women are a major influence on social change, innovation and the development process (pp. 201-2). (mdpi.com)
  • Therefore a reexamination and even reformulation of Marxian theory cannot simply mean adjusting this theory to new facts but must proceed as an internal development and critique of Marxian concepts. (autodidactproject.org)
  • Life cycle of EGIP realization consists of four stages concept and development, realization, completion and operation. (sibran.ru)
  • With the advent of the information age, smart cities will surely become the direction of future urban development, and human resource management on this basis must also keep pace with the times [ 1 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • Prior to this, China's enterprise development had relatively low management requirements, and the investment and management of various resources such as human, financial, and material were relatively extensive. (hindawi.com)
  • Planetary boundaries: Guiding human development on a changing planet. (everestgroupusa.com)
  • Planetary boundaries: Guiding human how to get trandate without prescription development on a changing planet. (everestgroupusa.com)
  • This discussion took us through the logic of violence, the associated bootstrapping process of societal development, and the evolutionary game theory embedded in human affairs. (medium.com)
  • This article describes our efforts from June 2020 through June 2022 in developing and implementing ARC4JSTC (Anti-racist Community for Justice and Social Transformative Change), a comprehensive, multiyear antiracist change initiative encompassing faculty and workforce development, student experience, curriculum and pedagogy, community engagement outreach, and business processes. (cdc.gov)
  • My biological anthropology professor used to tell the class that once we humans developed agriculture, it all went downhill. (theconversation.com)
  • The first major shift toward a more wealthy society came in the transition from hunting and gathering as the predominant mode of human existence to a more settled lifestyle centered on agriculture. (medium.com)
  • In more recent decades, however, mainstream neoclassical economics (sometimes with the help of ecological economists), together with corporate finance, have completely separated the concept of natural capital from its original use-value-based critique, the memory of which has long receded, conceiving natural capital instead entirely in exchange-value terms, as just another form of financialized capital. (monthlyreview.org)
  • With the eco as a unifying concept, we can also redefine ecology as the study or knowledge of the ecos and economics as the mangement of ecos. (bahai-library.com)
  • Indeed, the book ultimately sets out the framework for a bold new theory that integrates concepts from a wide range of fields - ecology, biology, economics, systems theory, sociology and even religion - and then elaborates a set of universal principles based on this integration. (bahai-library.com)
  • It is the information content that is the most critical characteristic of an eco," he writes, adding that the "information on the organization and integration of the eco is the critical factor determining its value or 'wealth,' a wealth that has been largely missed in economics. (bahai-library.com)
  • Throughout human history the role of maps has changed in a dialectic relationship with developments in science, technology, economics and military concerns, all within a shifting socio-political landscape and its philosophic underpinning. (media-culture.org.au)
  • why the proletariat are central to Marxist political theory, why Marcuse argues that the proletariat have been integrated into capitalist society, how Marcuse constructs his revolutionary theory in the apparent absence of a mass-basis for revolutionary change, and how Marcuse's model of revolution relates to the concepts of revolution to be found in more 'traditional' Marxist perspectives. (marcuse.org)
  • In his book "Understanding Media, The Extensions of Man", media theorist Marshall McLuhan suggested that "the medium is the message" , and that all human artefacts and technologies are media. (wikipedia.org)
  • Another factor which promotes the unification and integration of the society is a highly effective scientific management of needs, demand and satisfaction. (autodidactproject.org)
  • Excluding the effects of pesticides, the toxicity associated with garment life cycles is mainly attributed to the long-term effects of metallic pollutants resulting from combustion processes for energy production. (researchgate.net)
  • LOR-2040 has shown significant anticancer activity and low toxicity in a variety of human tumor types in preclinical studies. (iptoday.com)
  • Global societal evolution is an open process with no fixed asymptotic point in the future: there is no final equilibrium state to reach for the world. (springer.com)
  • Physical (or "manufactured") capital includes such things as machinery, buildings, and infrastructure. (wikipedia.org)
  • This nineteenth-century notion of "natural capital," conceived in physical, use-value terms, was to be revived in the 1970s and '80s as part of an emerging ecological critique. (monthlyreview.org)
  • It's a simple and basic model which focuses on physical capital per worker. (ipl.org)
  • To rapidly and efficiently move goods from production to consumption, however, Amazon relies on a logistics network that entails significant investments in infrastructure (physical and human) and these investments present a challenge for capital accumulation. (degruyter.com)
  • The map-maker is often as busy recording the contours of feudalism, the shape of a religious hierarchy, or the steps in the tiers of social class, as the topography of the physical and human landscape. (media-culture.org.au)
  • A wealthy person, group, or nation thus has more accumulated resources (capital) than a poor one. (wikipedia.org)
  • The combination of these factors has heightened concern over access to rare earths, so key to many areas of the Japanese economy, that Japan has started making overtures to Vietnam amongst others to develop their resources in case they cannot rely on Chinese supplies. (unu.edu)
  • Most rare earths, and resources in general, end up largely in cities, which by definition are concentrations of people, capital and knowledge, but not extraction and manufacturing. (unu.edu)
  • This means that in the long run arithmetic food growth coupled with an exponential growth of human population would lead to a future where humans have little to no resources to survive on. (ipl.org)
  • Since the value of human resources can be continuously developed and improved, that is, human resources have strategic value, we can say that the purpose of human resource management is to support business performance, and it is one of the main sources for corporate organizations to gain competitive advantages [ 2 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • forms of knowledge display at various stages of social reproduction process are examined. (sibran.ru)
  • The results of the analysis show that the difficulties that Ukrainian refugees face in their new country are related to both a lack of human capital--such as knowledge of the language, education, and work experience--and a lack of social capital--such as connections to the local population and Ukrainian communities. (lu.se)
  • It lies in their having incorporated a set of conventions that make them combinable in one central place, enabling the accumulation of both power and knowledge at that centre (26). (media-culture.org.au)
  • By disrupting our concepts of money and property from first principles, Bitcoin promises to permanently alter all institutions of human governance. (medium.com)
  • The urban mine concept aims to redefine the city from that of a consumption centre to a production centre. (unu.edu)
  • In other words, reduction of trade protection, the opening of currency market, deregulation of production activities, simplification of foreign trade regime, and the scheduling of negotiation processes and agreements in which the country must take part, are some of the aspects encouraged. (auladeeconomia.com)
  • it has become part of the basic productive process and of the necessary costs of production. (autodidactproject.org)
  • These "assets" may be either productive and self-liquidating (as required under Capital Homesteading) or nonproductive (such as government or consumer debt paper). (cesj.org)
  • This ownership allows for the accumulation of wealth and the pursuit of profit. (jittery.com)
  • At each turn, the authors examine ways to mitigate the collateral damage of the growth process without impeding it. (city-journal.org)
  • I also teach "Work in a Wired World" (MIT 350), which looks at the changes and controversies arising from the digital transformation of the workplace and how technological change is embroiled in the ever-shifting balance of power between labour and capital. (uwo.ca)
  • The article considers the peculiarities of migration processes in the 90-s ' years of the last century and labour migration from the neighboring states of Kazakhstan and East-Siberian border areas after the year of 2000. (sibran.ru)
  • 2) In this exchange society, the satisfaction of human needs occurs only as a by-product of profitable production. (autodidactproject.org)
  • Since capital expansion determines the course of social production, if the latter is to proceed smoothly it must be profitable enough to permit accumulation. (libcom.org)
  • Furthermore, the political changes implemented to promote democracy could trigger violence that then stalls the democratic process. (unu.edu)
  • 4.2.1 Human capital and social capital in migration studies. (lu.se)
  • The purchaser of this special commodity uses it to enlarge his capital, measured in money terms. (libcom.org)
  • In the circulation process capital alternately assumes commodity form and money form as it accumulates. (libcom.org)
  • It is hardly surprising in this context that the first references to "natural capital" and to the "earth's capital stock" arose in this same period in the work of radical and socialist political economists, who sought to defend nature and the commons against the intrusions of the market. (monthlyreview.org)
  • The captured value, which comes in the form of money-capital, does not have a counterpart in the national process of work. (links.org.au)
  • A cautious hypothesis may be that ultimately peace, prosperity and participation are mutually reinforcing, even if we do not yet know very well how these processes work together. (unu.edu)
  • The processing of your data helps to ensure that targeted information about the ministry's work is made available to the public. (bundesfinanzministerium.de)
  • The proposed human resource management model is based on the deduction result of human resource planning and design, work system design and employee system design, and the dynamic matching of the three. (hindawi.com)
  • But in rejecting the dialectics of nature, Western Marxism was compelled to absent itself from the natural world almost entirely, except insofar as it could be said to impinge on human psychology or human nature or to have an indirect impact via technology. (monthlyreview.org)
  • The first is analysis of emergent forms of counter-power against high technology, globalized capital. (uwo.ca)
  • Various definitions and concepts of wealth have been asserted by various people in different contexts. (wikipedia.org)
  • For socialist theory as for liberal analysis-and for Western science and culture in general-the notion of the conquest of nature and of human exemption from natural laws has for centuries been a major trope, reflecting the systematic alienation of nature. (monthlyreview.org)
  • The notion and forms of capital. (lu.se)
  • This means that the Venezuelan state - as the owner of the oil resource - captures an international rent from the global production process. (links.org.au)
  • The overall production process has three kinds of revenues. (links.org.au)
  • That rent is captured from surplus that is generated elsewhere in the global process of production. (links.org.au)
  • Commodities and means of production may be transformed into money and vice versa, so that possession of capital is expressed as possession of money. (libcom.org)
  • Such an absolute catastrophe for civilization and the human species as a whole is still avoidable with a revolutionary-scale reconstitution of the current system of production, consumption, and energy usage, though the time in which to act is rapidly running out. (transcend.org)
  • Nevertheless, while it is still possible to avoid irreversible climate change through a massive transformation in the mode of production, it is no longer feasible to circumvent accelerating environmental disasters in the present century on a scale never seen before in human history, endangering the lives and living conditions of billions of people. (transcend.org)
  • This challenge can be faced by all countries if they depend at great extend on the strength of their economies and on the clarity of their objectives and not on the possession of production factors or in the size of their economies. (auladeeconomia.com)
  • From the 1980s onwards, the Keynesian steering of national economies was systematically dismantled in favor of a new mode of capital accumulation. (isreview.org)
  • Our conclusions are, first, overeducation occurrence is relatively high mainly among senior skilled workers since the quality requirement of the professors and doctors is much higher in China, and, second, the incidence of overeducation in husbandry remains at a low level all the way which indicates that the agricultural human capital attraction and level is weak due to the inferior income. (scirp.org)
  • There has to be technological and other factors of progress. (ipl.org)
  • Researchers still do not know why our human ancestors shifted from gathering and hunting to agricultural systems. (theconversation.com)
  • Food has become primarily a source of capital accumulation and profit, rather than a basic human need. (theconversation.com)
  • For me, this question mark is the most condensed symbol of the dialectic in Marxian theory, but specifically it is symbolic of the fact that it is obsolete precisely to the degree to which this obsolescence validates the basic concepts of the theory. (autodidactproject.org)
  • This falsification of one of the basic Marxian concepts calls for an analysis of the international situation in which the advanced industrial societies develop. (autodidactproject.org)
  • Participation' involves the design and implementation of a post-war social and political decision making processes, to enhance the involvement of all stakeholders in the peace process and to enable prosperous peace building. (unu.edu)
  • Similar to radio and other mass media electric light eliminates time and space factors in human association creating deeper involvement. (wikipedia.org)
  • Legislators can hide government spending through the use of tax credits, tax subsidies, rebates, exemptions and other tax breaks to individuals and companies, rather than exposing these "tax expenditures" to the light of the appropriations process. (cesj.org)
  • Malthus had collected empirical data and proposed that human population growth increases at an exponential rate. (ipl.org)
  • Binary economist Robert Ashford identifies three distinguishing concepts within binary theory - binary productiveness, the binary property right, and binary growth. (cesj.org)
  • The objective of the present paper is to elaborate success factors that might be of assis- tance for SMEs when going public in order to avoid growth pains. (diplomarbeiten24.de)
  • I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Axel Steudle for the useful comments, remarks and engagement through the learning process of this master thesis. (diplomarbeiten24.de)
  • For this reason the concept must be defined and understood as a social relation to which business-relations are subordinated. (auladeeconomia.com)
  • Together these developments represent a sea change in the capitalization of nature, such that all natural processes that involve ecosystem services to the economy are now increasingly seen to be subject to exchange on the market for profit-all in the name of conservation and climate change. (monthlyreview.org)
  • However, various left thinkers, many of them within the natural sciences, constituting a kind of second foundation of critical thought, and others in the arts rebelled against this narrow conception of human progress, and in the process generated a wider dialectic of ecology and a deeper materialism that questioned the environmental as well as social depredations of capitalist society. (monthlyreview.org)
  • We are rapidly approaching a planetary tipping point in the form of a climate Armageddon, threatening to make the earth unlivable for the human species, as well as innumerable other species. (transcend.org)
  • The fifth scenario (SSP5-8.5) points to an increase in the global average temperature of 4.4°C (best estimate)-spelling the collapse of civilization and absolute disaster for the human species. (transcend.org)
  • The low ART coverage is the result of an accumulation of failures and weaknesses of current HIV control strategies and programmes. (who.int)
  • Despite their mysterious nature, fungi-a category that includes molds, mushrooms, yeasts, lichens, mycorrhiza, and mildews-are essential to human life and play crucial ecological functions. (civileats.com)
  • China's social economy has moved from a stage of quantity accumulation to a stage of quality improvement. (hindawi.com)
  • This insertion also demands from enterprises big efforts to adjust quality standards, to develop new products, to modify their customer service system, to improve their products and above all to learn the rules of the opening process. (auladeeconomia.com)
  • Our central theme is that political participation is a key factor for successful post-conflict transition. (unu.edu)
  • The legislative process by which funds (tax revenues or government borrowings) are allocated to government programs on a discretionary rather than a formula-determined basis. (cesj.org)