• This was verified with the resolution of the crystal structure of the DGC PleD from Caulobacter crescentus in complex with c-di-GMP. (wikipedia.org)
  • The GGDEF domain was first identified in the regulatory protein, PleD of the bacterium Caulobacter crescentus. (wikipedia.org)
  • In the cell cycle of Caulobacter crescentus, DGC PleD is known to control pole morphogenesis. (wikipedia.org)
  • During the cell cycle of C. crescentus, proteins with GGDEF and EAL domains are separated towards the two distinct poles. (wikipedia.org)
  • The active form of diguanylate cyclase PleD localizes to the stalked pole of differentiating C. crescentus cells. (wikipedia.org)
  • The dimorphic bacterium Caulobacter crescentus is a model organism for studying the bacterial cell cycle. (csun.edu)
  • Transposon mutagenesis paired with deep sequencing of Caulobacter crescentus under uranium stress reveals genes essential for detoxification and stress tolerance. (csun.edu)
  • p)ppGpp modulates cell size and the initiation of DNA replication in Caulobacter crescentus in response to a block in lipid biosynthesis. (csun.edu)
  • 2012. The Caulobacter crescentus ctrA P1 promoter is essential for the coordination of cell cycle events that prevent the overinitiation of DNA replication. (csun.edu)
  • Swarmer cells from wild-type C. crescentus were isolated and allowed to proceed synchronously through their 150-min cell cycle (Fig. 1A). (harvard.edu)
  • Caulobacter crescentus dividing into a stalk daughter cell (top) and a motile daughter cell with a flagellum (bottom). (kenyon.edu)
  • Caulobacter crescentus is a single-celled, small bacterium that divides asymmetrically producing cells that differ in structure and function - it is an ideal model system for the mechanisms of asymmetric cell division and has been studied thoroughly. (kenyon.edu)
  • The genome of Caulobacter crescentus is structured in a circular chromosome and is comprised of 4,016,942 bp encoding for 3,767 genes. (kenyon.edu)
  • It was found that the C . crescentus genome encodes for more two-component signal transduction proteins that assist in cell cycle progression than any other bacterial genome sequenced so far. (kenyon.edu)
  • In order to best accomplish our goals, we use the genetically tractable bacterium Caulobacter crescentus whose cell cycle can be easily synchronized to enable fine temporal resolution of each cell cycle event. (illinois.edu)
  • Regarding antibiotics, we have isolated mutants of Caulobacter crescentus that exhibit multidrug resistance and display developmental problems. (illinois.edu)
  • As a card-carrying cell biologist, Goley was next drawn to the fledgling field of bacterial cell biology and brought her expertise in eukaryotic cytoskeletal biochemistry to studying the cytoskeleton of Caulobacter crescentus as a postdoctoral researcher with Lucy Shapiro at Stanford University. (rupress.org)
  • Our primary model organisms are Caulobacter crescentus, Escherichia coli and the Lyme disease pathogen Borrelia. (berkeley.edu)
  • As a well-established model to study bacterial asymmetric cell division (ACD), Caulobacter crescentus produces a motile swarmer cell and a sessile stalked cell during each cell cycle. (nature.com)
  • In the pre-division cell stage, the polar localization of two distinct membraneless signaling complexes, particularly the phosphatase PleC and the kinase DivJ, coordinates to modulate the phosphorylation levels of a set of downstream signaling proteins (including the master regulator CtrA) and determinate the cell fate of C. crescentus . (nature.com)
  • In C. crescentus , the kinase DivJ is recruited to the stalked cell pole (old cell pole) through a PopZ-SpmX-DivJ sandwich, while the phosphatase PleC is localized to the swarmer cell pole (new cell pole) by the PodJ scaffold. (nature.com)
  • Her pioneering studies on the molecular mechanisms underlying cell shape and cell polarity in Caulobacter crescentus , says Errington, "have helped change the way people think about bacteria. (the-scientist.com)
  • Current research examines the general principles and spatiotemporal mechanisms by which bacterial cells replicate, using Caulobacter crescentus and Escherichia coli as models. (stanford.edu)
  • Segregation of chromosomes and plasmids is achieved while they are being replicated by using the Par system in some bacteria such as the budding bacteria Caulobacter crescentus , as illustrated in Figure 2.1 . (hideyuki-ts.com)
  • Figure 2.1: The Par system segregates replicated chromosomes in Caulobacter crescentus. (hideyuki-ts.com)
  • Cyclic-di-GMP plays crucial role in the cell cycle regulation of the α-Proteobacterium Caulobacter crescentus. (unamur.be)
  • The rigidity of its cell wall determines the shape of a bacterium. (bioexplorer.net)
  • Its asymmetric cell division results in one swarmer and one stalked cell progeny. (csun.edu)
  • Caulobacter is famous for its dimorphic life cycle: it has two primary cell types, a motile form called the swarmer and a sessile form called the stalked cell, and it produces one of each through an obligate asymmetric cell division. (rupress.org)
  • The polarization of distinct scaffold-signaling hubs at opposite cell poles constitutes the basis of asymmetric cell division. (nature.com)
  • By polarizing different cell fate determinants at opposite cell poles, asymmetric cell division that produces distinct daughter cells is an evolutionarily conserved mechanism to generate cellular diversity in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. (nature.com)
  • In conclusion, we propose that PdeA contributes to bacterial morphology and virulence in B. abortus, but it is not crucial for polarity and asymmetric growth. (unamur.be)
  • Caulobacter asymmetrically divides to produce a motile swarmer cell and a stalk cell. (kenyon.edu)
  • Over the years, her group made major contributions in the emerging field of bacterial cell biology and provided key molecular insights into the temporal and spatial mechanisms involved in cell morphogenesis, cell polarization, chromosome segregation and cell cycle control. (stanford.edu)
  • CtrA is present in the shaded cells, where it represses DNA replication initiation and is cleared by proteolysis during the swarmer cell-stalked cell (G1-S) transition. (harvard.edu)
  • Bars below indicate timing of cell cycle functions (gray indicates a function controlled by CtrA). (harvard.edu)
  • This was studied by using the CtrA gene, which encodes for an important cell cycle regulatory protein. (kenyon.edu)
  • Caulobacter in contrast, as an alpha-proteobacteria, is closely related to human pathogenic bacteria, such as Brucella and Rickettsia . (csun.edu)
  • As such, targeting the molecular networks involved in coordinating cell cycle events in bacteria represents an attractive target for antibiotic development. (illinois.edu)
  • We are interested in figuring out how bacteria integrate information from the environment into the molecular networks that drive the forward progression of the cell cycle. (illinois.edu)
  • This is interesting because the molecular factors responsible for regulating cell size in bacteria and the mechanism that coordinate cell size regulation with the progression of the cell cycle remain unclear. (illinois.edu)
  • Our long-term goal is to build a model that incorporates the full repertoire of factors involved in orchestrating the progression of the cell cycle in bacteria. (illinois.edu)
  • The stunning diversity observed in the cell biology of different bacteria, the dangerous rise in antibiotic resistance, and the importance of bacteria to human health both as pathogens and as integral components of our microbiota continue to affirm my original motivation to study fundamental aspects of bacterial cell biology. (rupress.org)
  • During her postdoctoral work at Stanford Medical School, she demonstrated that bacteria can localize regulatory proteins to specific intracellular regions to control signal transduction and the cell cycle, uncovering a new, unsuspected level of bacterial regulation. (stanford.edu)
  • Although many predator bacteria may lyse other bacteria, and many "micropredators" have been described, these Bdellovibrio-like organisms can grow without bacterial prey, and do not divide inside the periplasm. (eol.org)
  • The site of cell division in rod-shaped bacteria is usually at the centre of the cell, which is dependent on the corrent placement of the Z-ring. (hideyuki-ts.com)
  • Bacterial swarming is an important mechanism for flagellated bacteria to effectively cover large distances on soft surfaces, such as tissues. (aps.org)
  • The main difference is that Gram-positive bacteria contain single-layered cell walls whereas, Gram-negative bacteria contain double-layered cell walls. (bioexplorer.net)
  • On average, the diameter of a spherical bacterial cell ranges between 0.5 and 2.0 µm and between 0.25 and 1 µm for rod-shaped or filamentous bacteria. (bioexplorer.net)
  • These bacteria are round, flattened cells adjacent to each other. (bioexplorer.net)
  • These bacteria are usually found in pairs as two joined cells. (bioexplorer.net)
  • This arrangement is formed when bacteria divide into three perpendicular planes forming packets of 8 or more cells. (bioexplorer.net)
  • Given the urgent need for new antibiotics to combat drug-resistant bacteria, it is logical to evaluate whether or not unexploited bacterial processes, such as orisome assembly, should be more closely examined for sources of novel drug targets. (mdpi.com)
  • They form endospores, thick-walled bodies formed within the vegetative cells of certain bacteria, able to withstand adverse environmental conditions for prolonged periods. (lookformedical.com)
  • Only by further elucidating the control mechanisms of bacterial cell division can we advance the development of new antimicrobial compounds. (csun.edu)
  • In order to analyze the cell cycle regulatory mechanisms and other mechanisms of Caulobacter , many mutant strains have been made and studied. (kenyon.edu)
  • Our group studies the temporal and spatial mechanisms involved in bacterial physiology, with emphasis on chromosome dynamics, cell division, cell cycle regulation, cell morphogenesis and RNA biology. (berkeley.edu)
  • She is interested in understanding the fundamental mechanisms and principles by which cells, and, in particular, bacterial cells, are able to multiple. (stanford.edu)
  • Laub MT, McAdams HH, Feldblyum T, Fraser CM, Shapiro L. Global analysis of the genetic network controlling a bacterial cell cycle. (harvard.edu)
  • The modes of bacterial cell division vary, but the most common one is binary fission (Stahl 2019) , and its mechanism, especially in rod-shaped model organisms Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis , has been studied extensively. (hideyuki-ts.com)
  • b ) A set of annotated bright-field images of Escherichia coli and Myxococcus xanthus along with synthetic labeled data with additive Gaussian noise was used to generate a training dataset of input images, X, consisting of Shape Index Map of intensity images (at three scales) and segmented images, Y, consisting of contours ( Y1 ) and cell body ( Y2 ). (elifesciences.org)
  • Cell division yields distinct progeny, a swarmer cell and a stalked cell. (harvard.edu)
  • The swarmer cell, which has a flagellum, swims for about 30-45 minutes before shedding the flagellum and differentiating into a stalk cell. (kenyon.edu)
  • One daughter, the swarmer cell, grows a polar flagellum and swims off. (the-scientist.com)
  • Each swarmer cell will eventually differentiate into a stalk cell and begin the cycle again. (the-scientist.com)
  • Caulobacter asymmetrically divides to produce two types of daughter cells that are functionally and structurally different. (kenyon.edu)
  • When Caulobacter divides, it does so asymmetrically, producing daughter cells that have different fates. (the-scientist.com)
  • It divides to replicate and then leaves via a final lysis of the host's cell wall and membranes. (eol.org)
  • Circles and "theta" structures in the cells represent quiescent and replicating chromosomes, respectively. (harvard.edu)
  • Matt Welch's purification of Arp2/3 as the host factor that nucleates actin on the surface of Listeria is one of Goley's all-time favorite experiments: "I love the concept that intracellular pathogens are the best cell biologists around and that we can learn so much about fundamental cell biology by discovering how they manipulate it to their advantage. (rupress.org)
  • Now there's a whole new field of people who are working on bacterial cell biology using the same sorts of approaches used to study eukaryotes. (the-scientist.com)
  • For her distinguished work, she received the Pew Scholars award from the Pew Charitable Trust, the Woman in Cell Biology Junior award from the American Society of Cell Biology and the Eli Lilly award from the American Society of Microbiology. (stanford.edu)
  • Dr. Shapiro's contributions to the field of systems developmental biology have revolutionized our understanding of bacterial genetic networks and led to the development of desperately needed novel drugs to counter the spread of antibiotic resistance and emerging infectious diseases. (stanford.edu)
  • The helical-rod shape of Helicobacter pylori, a human stomach pathogen, is important for its pathogenesis and is an ideal model system for studying complex bacterial cell shapes. (aps.org)
  • Caulobacter lack intracellular organelles. (kenyon.edu)
  • It was later noted that numerous bacterial genomes encoded multiple proteins with a GGDEF domain. (wikipedia.org)
  • Several two-component signal transduction proteins are involved in the cell cycle progression by accumulating at one or both poles "in a spatial and temporal pattern that is reproduced during each cycle" (Jacobs-Wagner 2003). (kenyon.edu)
  • Throughout the cell cycle, the chromosome progressively goes from being fully methylated to hemimethylated during DNA replication - this results in differential binding of regulatory proteins to activate or repress transcription. (kenyon.edu)
  • Insertion of proteins into the bacterial outer membrane is mediated by a dedicated chaperone machinery. (unibas.ch)
  • The three proteins MinCDE form an oscillation cycle from pole to pole (driven by MinDE), causing the time-averaged concentration of MinCD complexes to be lowest at the midcell, which favours Z-ring formation there. (hideyuki-ts.com)
  • In H. pylori , we have been investigating the geometric localization of the proteins and metabolic probes of cell wall growth. (aps.org)
  • Consistent with these labels, two of the proteins associated with cell wall homeostasis show geometric localization. (aps.org)
  • Motile swarmer cells can not undergo DNA replication until they differentiate into stationary stalked cells. (csun.edu)
  • Stalked cells are competent for DNA replication and cell division. (csun.edu)
  • Motile, piliated swarmer cells differentiate into stalked cells at the G1-S transition by shedding their polar flagellum, growing a stalk at that site, losing the polar pili, and initiating DNA replication. (harvard.edu)
  • however, chromosome replication begins immediately in the daughter cell with the stalk and when the swarmer loses its tail (Stanford). (kenyon.edu)
  • This maintenance is accomplished through major cell cycle events such as chromosome replication, segregation, and proper timing of cytokinesis. (illinois.edu)
  • We have found that cell size regulation and timing of chromosome replication are interconnected, a connection that is influenced by nutrient availability. (illinois.edu)
  • Its inactivation upon initiation of replication ensures one round of replication per cell cycle 1 . (hideyuki-ts.com)
  • As replication starts, more parB binds to parS sequence of the newly synthesised chromosome, and is pulled to the new cell pole by the ATPase activity of ParA. (hideyuki-ts.com)
  • Obviously, the initiation of chromosome replication is essential to bacterial reproduction, but this process is not inhibited by any of the currently-used antimicrobial agents. (mdpi.com)
  • Molecular motors lie at the heart of biological processes from DNA replication to cell migration. (nih.gov)
  • All bacterial cells must duplicate their genomes prior to dividing into two identical daughter cells. (mdpi.com)
  • Christine Jacobs-Wagner's studies of a bacterial species have changed how scientists think about cell shape and polarity. (the-scientist.com)
  • Bacterial 16S rDNA PCR amplified from these samples were sequenced and was found to be highly similar to species that are known to commonly contaminate laboratory reagents. (emory.edu)
  • 2015. Versatility of global transcriptional regulators in alpha-Proteobacteria: from essential cell cycle control to ancillary functions. (csun.edu)
  • Caulobacter also uses DNA methylation as a regulatory mechanism in cell cycle progression. (kenyon.edu)
  • We combine bacterial genetics, biochemistry, and high-resolution imaging in order to examine the progression of the cell cycle at the molecular and cellular level. (illinois.edu)
  • Our work is exposing the complex and multidirectional communicative systems involved in coordinating the progression of the cell cycle. (illinois.edu)
  • So in December 1996, she joined the lab of Lucy Shapiro at Stanford University, where she spent four productive years exploring how Caulobacter coordinates its developmental program with cell-cycle progression. (the-scientist.com)
  • Cell morphology can include nitrogen-fixing heterocysts and/or resting cells called akinetes. (lookformedical.com)
  • Genome-level analyses for a subset of phylogenetically-related microorganisms suggests that disinfection selects for microorganisms capable of using fatty acids, presumably from microbial decay products, via the glyoxylate cycle. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In microorganisms, mercury toxicity results in protein denaturation, cell envelope disruption, inhibition of cell division and enzyme activities, destruction of nucleic acids, and transcription inhibition (Khan et al. (springeropen.com)
  • They are unicellular prokaryotic microorganisms which generally possess rigid cell walls, multiply by cell division, and exhibit three principal forms: round or coccal, rodlike or bacillary, and spiral or spirochetal. (lookformedical.com)
  • Lack of this nutrient induce Caulobacter to dramatically elongate its stalk up to 30 times longer than those in phosphate-rich medium (Brun et al. (kenyon.edu)
  • We hypothesize that ovarian cancer cells will induce human ovarian TVM expression. (nih.gov)
  • Over the past 10 years that success has played out in a handful of papers in Cell, Science, and other high-impact journals, where Jacobs-Wagner, now at Yale University, has showcased her award-winning work on bacterial physiology and development. (the-scientist.com)
  • She received her PhD in Biochemistry in 1996 from the University of Liège, Belgium where she unraveled a molecular mechanism by which some bacterial pathogens sense and respond to antibiotics attack to achieve resistance. (stanford.edu)
  • Once inside, elongation occurs and progeny cells are released within 4 hours. (eol.org)
  • To accelerate the translocation of mRNA-tRNAs through the ribosome, bacterial elongation factor G (EF-G) hydrolyzes energy-rich guanosine triphosphate (GTP) for every amino acid incorporated into a protein. (yale.edu)
  • We are currently working out the molecular network that links cell shape regulation and ability to resist toxic compounds. (illinois.edu)
  • Moreover, a negative regulation of PodJ phase separation by the old-cell-pole scaffold protein SpmX was observed. (nature.com)
  • Evidence suggests that surface-sensing triggers transcriptional regulation as well as post-translational signaling that promote a variety of interesting cell phenotypes. (aps.org)
  • a ) Examples of Shape index maps (SI) calculated from Phase Contrast, Bright Field and Fluorescence images of the same field of Myxococcus xanthus cells. (elifesciences.org)
  • The obtained Jaccard score curves are the average of analyses conducted over three biological replicates and n = 763, 811, 799 total cells for Fluorescence, Phase Contrast and Bright Field, respectively (bands are the maximum range, the solid line is the median). (elifesciences.org)
  • Our computational imaging framework allows us to extract 3D shapes of individual bacterial cells from fluorescence microscopy images. (aps.org)
  • My laboratory will design and characterize molecular motor variants using a rapid testing cycle that relies on new instrumentation for high throughput single molecule tracking and manipulation assays. (nih.gov)
  • Working with experts in protein chemistry, genetics, beta-lactamase biochemistry, cell wall synthesis, and medical microbiology - in Belgium, France, the United States, and Sweden - Jacobs-Wagner discovered a regulatory protein that can sense the peptidoglycans that accumulate when antibiotics disrupt cell wall synthesis, and then activate transcription of beta-lactamase, the enzyme that disarms the drugs. (the-scientist.com)
  • This bdelloplast is created as the host cell is modified to become spherical in shape. (eol.org)
  • In Shapiro's laboratory, Goley used Caulobacter as a model system to investigate the role of the conserved tubulin-like GTPase, FtsZ, in orchestrating bacterial division ( 3 , 4 ). (rupress.org)
  • During cell division, a flagellum is placed at the pole opposite that of the stalk. (csun.edu)
  • As a result of this carefully orchestrated process, a flagellum is synthesized only when needed (just prior to cell division) and is placed at the pole opposite that of the stalk. (csun.edu)
  • Erin Goley investigates how the microbial cytoskeleton controls cell growth and division. (rupress.org)
  • and Goley took her new favorite bug to Johns Hopkins University to establish her own research program tackling the question of how bacterial cell growth and division are controlled by FtsZ. (rupress.org)
  • During cell division, FtsZ filaments assemble into a ring (Z-ring) at the site where the septum forms. (hideyuki-ts.com)
  • As other Rhizobiales, B. abortus displays unipolar growth from the new cell pole generated by cell division. (unamur.be)
  • We have identified a novel protein that looks structurally like a DNA repair protein and yet this protein has the capability of making cells resistant to antibiotics that intercalate DNA. (illinois.edu)
  • Caulobacter generally live in a dilute aquatic environment where the most common limiting nutrient is phosphorus, an essential element for healthy growth. (kenyon.edu)
  • Our findings reveal how cells curb energy consumption while maintaining protein synthesis to advance fitness in nutrient-fluctuating environments. (yale.edu)
  • Most previous studies on bacterial lipid metabolism have focused on E. coli , a gamma-proteobacteria. (csun.edu)
  • In this free swimming attack form after searching for prey using its pili, it burrows through the host outer membrane/ peptidoglycan cell wall and enters the periplasmic space . (eol.org)
  • [2] Using some of these molecules the Bdellovibrio creates a protective environment by reinforcing the peptidoglycan cell wall of the host in which it now dwells using amidases and transpeptidases . (eol.org)
  • I will conclude with a brief note on how mechanically-stimulated regulatory events influence a host of important processes such as bacterial competence, which regulates the uptake of extracellular DNA. (aps.org)
  • The cylindrical body of a stalk cell is approximately 0.7 micrometers in diameter and 2-3 micrometers in length. (kenyon.edu)
  • The other daughter, the stalk cell, attaches itself to a rock. (the-scientist.com)
  • That stalk cell will grow and at some point divide to produce another swarmer. (the-scientist.com)
  • Caulobacter are Gram-negative, rod-like cells that can be flagellated in a polar manner or have a stalk. (kenyon.edu)
  • Quantitative proteomics of Spodoptera frugiperda cells during growth and baculovirus infection. (unibas.ch)
  • During the infection process, bacteriophages can transfer foreign DNA to their host (including virulence factors), integrate into the host genome, and/or kill their host through cell lysis ( Chen and Novick, 2009 ). (frontiersin.org)
  • One such bacterial infection caused by a phytopathogen Erwinia amylovora ( Zwet and Keil, 1979 ) is called fire blight and mainly affects ornamental plants of the Rosaceae family. (frontiersin.org)
  • We hypothesize that the ESC ovarian tumor model, with human vascular cells, will provide an ideal microenvironment to support human stem cell growth. (nih.gov)
  • Protein synthesis is crucial for cell growth and survival yet one of the most energy-consuming cellular processes. (yale.edu)
  • To propagate its helical shape, a cell must grow its longer, outer helical axis more than its inner one. (aps.org)
  • Fluorescent, metabolic probes incorporated into the cell wall show enrichment of growth at both the outer and inner axes. (aps.org)
  • I thought studying the bacterial cytoskeleton would marry my long-term interest in microbiology with the love for the cytoskeleton I acquired in graduate school, and I felt that the field was replete with fundamental mechanistic, and even phenomenological, questions. (rupress.org)
  • Recently, a research team led by Wei ZHAO from the Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology (SIAT) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences proposed that the PodJ scaffold in the new cell pole forms biomolecular condensates with physiological functions via phase separation, which helps to establish and regulate the asymmetry of bacterial cells. (nature.com)
  • SpmX inhibited PodJ condensate formation and impeded its cell-pole accumulation and client recruitment (Figure 1). (nature.com)
  • The development of such a model has the potential to be transformative in our ability to control bacterial growth. (illinois.edu)
  • Surprisingly, deletion of all predicted cyclic-di-GMP synthesizing or degrading enzymes did not drastically impair the growth of B. abortus, nor its ability to grow inside cell lines. (unamur.be)
  • Tumor vascular cells are critical for the growth of tumor stem cells, which reside within the vascular niche. (nih.gov)
  • One challenge with characterizing tumor stem cells has been finding appropriate conditions for in vivo growth. (nih.gov)
  • In addition, since the SI keeps the shape information and not the intensity values, background objects that are of relatively low contrast (i.e. dead cells or debris) may be detected as cells. (elifesciences.org)
  • The bacterial kingdom exhibits a wide variety of cell shapes. (aps.org)
  • Caulobacter also has several genes and clusters of genes that are essential for survival in habitats with poor nutrients. (kenyon.edu)
  • A new tumor model, combining human embryonic stem cells (ESC) and tumor cells, develops abundant human vessels. (nih.gov)
  • Finally, our preliminary data suggest that the ESC-ovarian tumor model has human tumor vascular cells. (nih.gov)
  • We therefore propose (3) to isolate ovarian tumor stem cells and grow them in vivo using the ESC ovarian cancer model. (nih.gov)
  • If successful, this will create a murine tumor model that nearly completely reproduces the human tumor microenvironment with human tumor stroma, vessels and tumor stem cells. (nih.gov)
  • Lipid biosynthesis is essential for cell viability and bacterial fatty acid synthetic enzymes have been suggested as antibiotic targets. (csun.edu)
  • In fact, compounds specific to bacterial fatty acid biosynthetic compounds have been generated. (csun.edu)
  • These compounds, many of which are striking pigments that change color when they are oxidized or reduced, can serve as toxins or as lifelines for the cells. (berkeley.edu)
  • These results are anticipated to help estimate the magnitude of mechanical forces necessary to initiate the transition of a bacterial cell to the swarmer state. (aps.org)