Bacterial ribosomal proteins ribosome subunits small eukaryotic. Medical search. Frequent questions

Proteins which have homologs in eukaryotes, archaea and bacteria are shown as blue ribbons. (wikipedia.org)
Proteins shared only between eukaryotes and archaea are shown as orange ribbons and proteins specific to eukaryotes are shown as red ribbons. (wikipedia.org)
Tetracyclines can also inhibit protein synthesis in eukaryotes, but are less likely to reach inhibitory concentrations because eukaryotes lack a tetracycline uptake mechanism. (diseasepdf.com)
To survive stress, eukaryotes selectively translate stress-related transcripts while inhibiting growth-associated protein production. (biorxiv.org)
In eukaryotes, protein translation is normally cap-dependent. (biorxiv.org)
According to Dr. Tatyana Budkevich: "Our results demonstrate that despite the similarities existing between bacterial ribosomes and eukaryotes, in the decisive functional steps they differ from one another more significantly than anticipated. (charite.de)
Transcription in eukaryotes is the elaborate process that eukaryotic cells use to copy genetic information stored in DNA into units of transportable complementary RNA replica. (stemcelldaily.com)
On the other hand in eukaryotes, the ribosomes are 80S type with sub-units as 40S and 60S. (cbsetuts.com)
The complete ribosome is required for translation to be continued, though in the process of initiation, the small ribosomal sub-unit (30S in the case of prokaryotes and 40S in the case of eukaryotes) only initiates the process. (cbsetuts.com)
Ribosomes are located in the cytoplasm in prokaryotes and in the cytoplasm and endoplasmic reticulum of eukaryotes. (pressbooks.pub)
In eukaryotes, Argonaute (AGO) proteins discharge such functions. (biomedcentral.com)
Small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs) play key roles in modulating gene expression in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. (biomedcentral.com)
Like microRNAs (miRNAs) in eukaryotes, trans -acting bacterial sRNAs appear to recognize their targets by a seed-pairing mechanism using seeds as small as 6-7 nucleotides. (biomedcentral.com)
Mitochondrial TAT transports folded proteins in those eukaryotes with TatA and TatC subunits encoded in the mitochondrial genome. (tcdb.org)
In eukaryotes, the mature small subunit contains one rRNA and about 30 proteins, while the large subunit is made up of three rRNAs and approximately 50 proteins. (uni-muenchen.de)
Moreover, protein synthesis by the cytosolic ribosomes of eukaryotes does not involve the formylation of N-terminal Met. (microbialcell.com)
One possibility is that the similarity of the formyl and acetyl groups, their identical locations in N‑terminally formylated (Nt‑formylated) and Nt-acetylated proteins, and the recently discovered proteolytic function of Nt-acetylation in eukaryotes might also signify a proteolytic role of Nt‑formylation in bacteria. (microbialcell.com)
We suggest that the faster emergence of nascent proteins from bacterial ribosomes is one mechanistic and evolutionary reason for the pretranslational design of bacterial fMet/N‑degrons, in contrast to the cotranslational design of analogous Ac/N‑degrons in eukaryotes. (microbialcell.com)
During protein synthesis, ribosomes become stalled on polyproline-containing sequences, unless they are rescued in archaea and eukaryotes by the initiation factor 5A (a/eIF-5A) and in bacteria by the homologous protein EF-P. While a structure of EF-P bound to the 70S ribosome exists, structural insight into eIF-5A on the 80S ribosome has been lacking. (cipsm.de)
The small subunit of the 80s ribosome of eukaryotes. (musc.edu)

This complex recognizes the mRNA by interacting with initiation factors eIF4E bound to the 5' cap, and eIF4G bound to the poly(A) tail-binding proteins. (jove.com)
Instead, each bacterial mRNA contains a leader sequence upstream of the first AUG codon, called the Shine-Dalgarno sequence. (jove.com)
Initiator tRNA, ribosomal subunits, and eukaryotic initiation factors (eIFs) are all required to assemble on the initiation codon of mRNA. (jove.com)
Before the preinitiation complex binds the mRNA, to make sure that a correctly processed mRNA is translated, the cell uses initial recognition of the 5' cap of the mRNA by the eIF4E subunit of eIF4F. (jove.com)
Assembly of the ribosome on a specific mRNA during initiation is an important step for regulating translation. (vassar.edu)
To investigate the role of eIF3 in translation initiation, we employ ribosome profiling, which enables us to learn the position of each translating ribosome on every mRNA in living cells. (vassar.edu)
The most widely understood role of RNA is in protein synthesis, which includes messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA) (see Chapter 2). (printerresource.com)
The m 7 G-cap of the mRNA is recognized by the 43S translation preinitiation complex comprised of the 40S ribosomal subunit and the eIF2-GTP-Met-tRNAi ternary complex. (biorxiv.org)
It is the process in which the protein is synthesized from the information contained in a molecule of messenger rna mrna. (web.app)
Because alternative RNA splicing allows different types of mRNA molecules to be created from a single gene, it generates the diversity of protein function and structure that is essential to complex organisms. (genomicglossaries.com)
More than half of all human genes are alternatively spliced, so it is expected that alternative pre- mRNA splicing will be responsible for the identification of more than 90 percent of all human proteins. (genomicglossaries.com)
Highly specific and effective gene silencing of any disease can be achieved by an accurate knowledge of the target mRNA sequence and rational design of its complementary antisense agents for the downregulation of its protein message. (genomicglossaries.com)
The small ribosomal subunit matches the codons of the mRNA which is present in the tRNAs. (microbenotes.com)
The larger and smaller subunits come together on an mRNA molecule near its 5′ end. (microbenotes.com)
Ribosome protects the mRNA strand from the nuclease enzyme. (microbenotes.com)
The mRNA during the translation process lies in between the larger and smaller subunit of the ribosome. (microbenotes.com)
This cap protects the mRNA from degradation and facilitates its transport and recognition by the ribosome. (stemcelldaily.com)
This releases the upstream portion of the transcript, which will serve as the initial RNA prior to further processing (the pre-mRNA in the case of protein-encoding genes). (stemcelldaily.com)
The process of translation, or protein synthesis, involves decoding an mRNA message into a polypeptide product. (pressbooks.pub)
Translation requires the input of an mRNA template, ribosomes, tRNAs, and various enzymatic factors ( Figure 6 ). (pressbooks.pub)
Figure 6: The protein synthesis machinery includes the large and small subunits of the ribosome, mRNA, and tRNA. (pressbooks.pub)
Ribosomes are the part of the cell which reads the information in the mRNA molecule and joins amino acids together in the correct order. (pressbooks.pub)
Ribosomes are made up of two subunits that come together for translation, rather like a hamburger bun comes together around the meat (the mRNA). (pressbooks.pub)
The small subunit is responsible for binding the mRNA template, whereas the large subunit sequentially binds tRNAs , a type of RNA molecule that brings amino acids to the growing chain of the polypeptide. (pressbooks.pub)
Each mRNA molecule can be simultaneously translated by many ribosomes, all synthesizing protein in the same direction. (pressbooks.pub)
As the mRNA moves relative to the ribosome, the polypeptide chain is formed. (pressbooks.pub)
PDCD4 is composed of two MA3 domains that share similarity with the single MA3 domain present in the eukaryotic translation initiation factor (eIF) 4G, which serves as a scaffold protein to assemble several initiation factors needed for the recruitment of the 40S ribosomal subunit to an mRNA. (biomedcentral.com)
Following transcription and processing of an mRNA, the ribosome is responsible for performing protein synthesis. (biomedcentral.com)
Although the bacterial 30 S ribosomal subunit can identify the initiation codon through base-pairing between the 3′-end of its16 S ribosomal RNA subunit and the Shine-Dalgarno sequence upstream of the initiation codon, the 40 S ribosomal subunit of the eukaryotic 80 S ribosome requires several translation initiation factors (eIFs) for its binding to an mRNA and to identify the initiation codon [ 1 - 3 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
eIF4F, which is composed of eIF4E, eIF4A, and eIF4G, is required to promote 40 S subunit binding to an mRNA. (biomedcentral.com)
While eIF4E binds to the 5′-cap structure, eIF4A is an ATP-dependent RNA helicase that hydrolyzes ATP in order to unwind secondary structure present in the 5′-leader of an mRNA that would otherwise inhibit 40S subunit scanning during its search for the initiation codon [ 2 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
The interaction of eIF4G with eIF4E bound to the 5′-cap and PABP bound to the poly(A) tail circularizes an mRNA and stimulates translation by promoting 40 S subunit recruitment [ 10 , 11 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
The most extensively characterized class of bacterial sRNAs are the trans -encoded sRNAs that are encoded distant from the genes for their mRNA targets and that typically have only limited complementarity (10-30 nt) [ 2 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
Trans- encoded sRNAs form imperfect base-pairing interactions with complementary sequences in their mRNA targets, which are often located at or near ribosome binding sites (RBS), but can also be located upstream of the translation start site as well as deep in the coding regions (CDS) [ 2 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
Such interactions generally result in a decrease in protein synthesis, either by stimulating mRNA degradation or by inhibiting translation. (biomedcentral.com)
RNAs and proteins can also engage in more transient interactions, for example during co-transcriptional regulation of RNA polymerases or during post-transcriptional regulation of (pre-)mRNA life cycles. (fu-berlin.de)
We investigate the molecular mechanisms, by which RNAs and proteins cooperate to bring about the biological functions of selected RNPs involved in transcription and pre-mRNA splicing. (fu-berlin.de)
In bacteria , a single RNA polymerase produces the primary transcript precursors for all three major classes of RNA: messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA). (basicmedicalkey.com)
Because bacteria do not contain nuclei, ribosomes bind to mRNA as it is being transcribed, and protein synthesis occurs simultaneously with transcription. (basicmedicalkey.com)
Exons, which contain the coding sequences for the proteins, are separated in pre-mRNA by introns , regions that have no coding function. (basicmedicalkey.com)

Gentamycin is an aminoglycoside antibiotic that inhibits protein synthesis by binding to the ribosome and preventing translocation Although it is readily transported into many bacteria, gentamycin does not efficiently cross eukaryotic cytoplasmic membrane. (diseasepdf.com)
Members of the Alb3/Oxa1/YidC protein family function as insertases in chloroplasts, mitochondria, and bacteria. (cipsm.de)
Due to independent gene duplications, all organisms possess two isoforms, Oxa1 and Oxa2 except gram-negative bacteria, which encode only for one YidC-like protein. (cipsm.de)
Distel, D. L., DeLong, E. F., and Waterbury, J. Epub … Bacterial Identification by 16S rRNA Gene Sequence Analysis Background All bacteria contain 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes of approximately 1500 base pairs (bp) in length. (printerresource.com)
6. I want to study ribosomal RNA expression and potential processing sites in bacteria. (printerresource.com)
A., 1992, The use of 16S ribosomal RNA targeted oligonucleotide probes to study competition between ruminai fibrolytic bacteria. (printerresource.com)
The ribosome of the bacteria performs faster than the eukaryotic ribosome. (microbenotes.com)
Bacteria are composed of different ribosomal proteins. (microbenotes.com)
However, the general structures and functions of the protein synthesis machinery are comparable from bacteria to human cells. (pressbooks.pub)
Tetracycline HCl inhibits bacterial growth in Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria by disrupting codon-anticodon interactions at the ribosome, thus blocking protein synthesis. (toku-e.com)
Bacteria transcribe their genomes with the help of multi-subunit RNA polymerases (RNAPs), which comprise two large β and β' subunits that form the active site, two regulatory α subunits and an ω subunit that supports RNAP assembly. (fu-berlin.de)
Bacteria also export (to the periplasm) N-tails of membrane proteins synthesized without leader sequences by a Sec (Type IIPS)-independent mechanism. (tcdb.org)
Homologues of the yeast Oxa1 protein are found in chloroplasts of plants and in a wide variety of bacteria. (tcdb.org)
In bacteria, all nascent proteins bear the pretranslationally formed N-terminal formyl-methionine (fMet) residue. (microbialcell.com)
In bacteria and in eukaryotic organelles mitochondria and chloroplasts (remote descendants of bacteria), this Met is N α -terminally formylated (Nt-formylated) through a "pretranslational" mechanism. (microbialcell.com)

Such macromolecular complexes consist of two subunits that can rotate against each other. (charite.de)
Each RNA polymerase requires the assistance of several other proteins or protein complexes, called general (or basal) transcription factors, which must assemble into a complex on the promoter in order for RNA polymerase to bind and start transcription. (stemcelldaily.com)
We determined subnanometer-resolution cryo-electron microscopy structures of eukaryotic ribosome-Sec61 complexes. (cipsm.de)
Here we show that in cells depleted of the SRP protein, Ffh or the translocon component SecE, the ribosomal targeting pathway is blocked downstream and unprecedented, membrane-bound FtsY-ribosomal complexes are captured. (rupress.org)
The accumulation of FtsY-ribosome complexes induces the formation of intracellular membranes needed for their quantitative accommodation. (rupress.org)
Moreover, RNA-protein complexes (RNPs) provide glimpses at the molecular ancestry of modern cells, which most likely evolved from an RNA-dominated world. (fu-berlin.de)
In order to carry out this vital task, the cell must ensure that it has enough of the complexes required for the synthesis of proteins - the ribosomes. (uni-muenchen.de)
1. Yusupova G, Yusupov M. Crystal structure of eukaryotic ribosome and its complexes with inhibitors. (liu.se)

It consists of many several RNA molecules which are called ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs). (microbenotes.com)
This is done by a complex of proteins and RNAs called spliceosome. (stemcelldaily.com)
Numerous fundamental cellular processes, including virtually every aspect of gene expression and regulation, depend on the cooperation of RNAs and proteins. (fu-berlin.de)
Specific RNAs and proteins associate to build up some of the most complex macromolecular machineries of living cells, such as ribosomes and spliceosomes, which mediate particular steps of gene expression. (fu-berlin.de)
In these processes, transcript-borne regulatory RNAs alone or in conjunction with protein factors assemble on the surface of RNAP and accompany the enzyme during further transcription by an RNA looping mechanism, rendering the elongation complex resistant to pause and/or termination signals downstream of the original modification site. (fu-berlin.de)
Many eukaryotic precursor messenger RNAs (pre-mRNAs) bear coding regions (exons) interspersed with non-coding intervening sequences (introns). (fu-berlin.de)
Eukaryotic (i.e. nucleated) cells can produce ribosomes in enormous numbers, although each consists of about 80 proteins and 4 ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs). (uni-muenchen.de)
Their data reveals in detail how the ribosomal RNAs are progressively folded to provide the necessary binding sites for the cognate ribosomal proteins. (uni-muenchen.de)
It is associated with the U3, U8, and U13 small nuclear RNAs and is located in the dense fibrillar component (DFC) of the nucleolus. (nih.gov)

After the pathogenic bacterium Legionella pneumophila is phagocytosed, it injects more than 250 different proteins into the cytoplasm of host cells to evade lysosomal digestion and to replicate inside the host cell. (cipsm.de)
in the eukaryotic cells: freely in the cytoplasm or remain in the endoplasmic reticulum in the outer surface. (microbenotes.com)
The eukaryotic cell in its cytoplasm contains millions of ribosomes. (microbenotes.com)
Polypeptide chain synthesis in the cell occurs over the ribosome in the cell cytoplasm. (cbsetuts.com)
Mitochondria import nuclearly-encoded proteins, made in the cell cytoplasm, into the mitochondrial matrix where their mitochondrial targeting sequences are removed by proteolysis. (tcdb.org)
After the initial steps in assembly, the immature subunits are transported from the nucleus into the cytoplasm. (uni-muenchen.de)
Organelles are specialized subunits in a cell that are contained within the cytoplasm. (visiblebody.com)
The Golgi body (Golgi apparatus, Golgi complex) is a membrane-bound organelle located in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. (visiblebody.com)
Mitochondria are membrane-bound organelles located in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. (visiblebody.com)
Also, the cytoplasm of prokaryotes contains no organelles, which eukaryotic cells boast in abundance. (sciencing.com)

Here we present the structure of the Bbu 70S ribosome obtained by single particle cryo-electron microscopy at 2.9 Å resolution, revealing a bound hibernation promotion factor protein and two genetically non-annotated ribosomal proteins bS22 and bL38. (bvsalud.org)
We determined the structure of the Bbu 70S ribosome by single particle cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) at a resolution of 2.9 Å, revealing its distinctive features. (bvsalud.org)
Together with other scientists from the Charité's Institute of Medical Physics and Biophysics, Dr. Tatyana Budkevich examined different states of ribosomes on the basis of cryo-electron microscopy. (charite.de)
We have used cryo-electron microscopy to determine the structures of intermediate forms of the small ribosomal subunit isolated from human cells. (uni-muenchen.de)

Many cellular processes, including ribosome biogenesis, are regulated through post-transcriptional RNA modifications. (nature.com)
The vesicle-inducing protein in plastids 1 (Vipp1) is an essential component for thylakoid biogenesis in cyanobacteria and chloroplasts. (cipsm.de)
Recently, it has been recognized that membrane-bound ribosomes are crucial for biogenesis of integral membrane proteins in E. coli , thus renewing interest in ribosome targeting to and association with the membrane in this organism. (rupress.org)
Translational regulation played an important role in the correct folding of heterologous proteins to form bioactive conformations during biogenesis. (biomedcentral.com)
Moreover, some 200 other proteins known as biogenesis factors are necessary to ensure that the assembly process takes place without a hitch, and that all components of the functional ribosome find their proper places in its complex architecture. (uni-muenchen.de)

The table "60S ribosomal proteins" cross-references the human ribosomal protein names with yeast, bacterial, and archaeal homologs. (wikipedia.org)
Previously reported L10 mutations that cause defects in the yeast ribosome are clustered around this pocket, indicating that its integrity is crucial for its role in L10 function. (rcsb.org)
The mechanisms involved in the stress-induced translation have been investigated for a small number of key transcription factors (for example, yeast general control nondepressible 4 (GCN4) 12 and mammalian activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) 13 ), whose translation is normally inhibited by the uORFs in the 5' leader sequences of their mRNAs. (biorxiv.org)
In the 80S ribosome of yeast, 79r-protein are present where only 12 r-protein are found to be specific. (microbenotes.com)
Everything we know about the assembly of eukaryotic ribosomes derives from studies on simple organisms such as baker's yeast," says Michael Ameismeier , a PhD student in Beckmann's group and, together with Jingdong Cheng, joint first author of the new paper. (uni-muenchen.de)

There are three binding sites for tRNA, the A-site, P-site and E-site (see article on protein translation for details). (wikipedia.org)
Tetracycline reversibly binds to the small subunit of ribosomes and interfere with binding of aminoacyl -tRNA to the Acceptor site. (diseasepdf.com)
The initiator tRNA also contains conserved nucleotides that are recognized by proteins called eukaryotic initiation factors, or eIFs. (jove.com)
Together with eIF2 and GTP, the initiator tRNA binds the P site of the small ribosomal subunit forming the eukaryotic pre-initiation complex. (jove.com)
Now, a new tRNA, carrying the second amino acid, can bind to the A-site on the ribosome and protein synthesis can begin. (jove.com)
First, the initiator tRNA must be selected from the pool of elongator tRNAs by eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2). (jove.com)
The stringent response, which leads to persistence of nutrient-starved mycobacteria, is induced by activation of the RelA/SpoT homolog (Rsh) upon entry of a deacylated-tRNA in a translating ribosome. (bvsalud.org)
The cryo-EM structure of the Rsh-bound 70S ribosome in a translation initiation complex reveals unknown interactions between the ACT domain of Rsh and components of the ribosomal L7/L12 stalk base, suggesting that the aminoacylation status of A-site tRNA is surveilled during the first cycle of elongation. (bvsalud.org)
A phylogenetically conserved ribosomal protein L16p/L10e organizes the architecture of the aminoacyl tRNA binding site on the large ribosomal subunit. (rcsb.org)
Base modifications occur primarily in tRNA and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and occur after the RNA is transcribed. (printerresource.com)
The large ribosomal subunit joins the small subunit, and a second tRNA is recruited. (pressbooks.pub)
Tetracycline bind the 30s ribosomal subunit, preventing the aminoacyl-tRNA from attaching to the A site. (toku-e.com)
Specifically, tetracycline binds to a single site on the 30S ribosomal subunit and inhibit protein synthesis by blocking the attachment of charged aminoacyl-tRNA to the A site on the ribosome. (toku-e.com)
[7] Kudlicki W, Odom OW, Kramer G, Hardesty B. Activation and release of enzymatically inactive, full-length rhodanese that is bound to ribosomes as peptidyl-tRNA. (org.ua)
[17] Ivanov LL, Kovalenko MI, Turkovskaia GV, El'skaia AV. [Structure-functional properties of eukaryotic aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase]. (org.ua)
However, due to the remarkable codon preference and tRNA content against the other species, heterologous proteins expressed in Pichia pastoris often encounter folding problem, which severely limited their production efficiency [ 3 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
Of special interest are the translation initiation factors eIF2, a GTPase that binds methionyl-tRNA to the ribosome, and eIF5B, a second GTPase that catalyzes ribosomal subunit joining in the final step of translation initiation. (nih.gov)
The first step of protein synthesis is binding of the initiator Met-tRNA to the small ribosomal subunit by the factor eIF2, which is composed of three subunits. (nih.gov)
We previously showed that, despite their structural similarity, eIF2 and EF-Tu bind to tRNA in substantially different manners, and we showed that the tRNA-binding domain III of EF-Tu has acquired a new function in eIF2gamma to bind to the ribosome. (nih.gov)

The typical bacterial scenario seemed to be a two-component sHsps system of two homologous sHsps, such as the Escherichia coli sHsps IbpA and IbpB. (cipsm.de)
It was found that E. coli consists of 55 ribosomal proteins. (microbenotes.com)
Here we demonstrate that PSRP1 is not a bona fide ribosomal protein, but rather a functional homologue of the Escherichia coli cold-shock protein pY. (cipsm.de)
Expression of the Escherichia coli tryptophanase operon depends on ribosome stalling during translation of the upstream TnaC leader peptide, a process for which interactions between the TnaC nascent chain and the ribosomal exit tunnel are critical. (cipsm.de)
In E. coli , there are 200,000 ribosomes present in every cell at any given time. (pressbooks.pub)
In Escherichia coli , ribosomes must interact with translocons on the membrane for the proper integration of newly synthesized membrane proteins, cotranslationally. (rupress.org)
Previous in vivo studies indicated that unlike the E. coli signal recognition particle (SRP), the SRP receptor FtsY is required for membrane targeting of ribosomes. (rupress.org)
Membrane-bound ribosomes in E. coli were extensively studied over 20 years ago. (rupress.org)
RNP-based processive anti-termination underlies the switching from immediate-early to delayed-early gene expression in other lambdoid phages as well as ribosomal RNA synthesis in Escherichia coli . (fu-berlin.de)
I will start by outlining the most common problems encountered during the expression of recombinant proteins in E. coli and specific solutions will be given for each problem. (neb.com)
And then Mehmet Berkman will highlight the SHuffle line of E. coli strains for producing proteins with complex disulphide bonds. (neb.com)
The latter can replace E. coli YidC for Sec-independent insertion of proteins ( Bloois et al . (tcdb.org)
Folding on the ribosome of Escherichia coli tryptophan synthase beta subunit nascent chains probed with a conformation-dependent monoclonal antibody. (org.ua)
[13] Das B, Chattopadhyay S, Das Gupta C. Reactivation of denatured fungal glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase and E. coli alkaline phosphatase with E. coli ribosome. (org.ua)
[14] Chattopadhyay S, Das B, Bera AK, Dasgupta D, Dasgupta C. Refolding of denatured lactate dehydrogenase by Escherichia coli ribosomes. (org.ua)
[15] Das B, Chattopadhyay S, Bera AK, Dasgupta C. In vitro protein folding by ribosomes from Escherichia coli, wheat germ and rat liver: the role of the 50S particle and its 23S rRNA. (org.ua)
For example, green fluorescent protein (GFP) is a eukaryotic protein containing 11 beta-sheet structures and its folding yield was significantly increased by co-translational folding in E. coli [ 14 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
Another protein, phytase (Phy) from Citrobacter amalonaticus CGMCC 1696, has 95% homology to E. coli -derived phytase which consists of one α-domain containing five α-helices and a β-hairpin, and one α/β-domain including seven β-sheets and four α-helices [ 15 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
We addressed this hypothesis about fMet‑based degradation signals, termed fMet/N-degrons, using specific E. coli mutants, pulse-chase degradation assays, and protein reporters whose deformylation was altered, through site-directed mutagenesis, to be either rapid or relatively slow. (microbialcell.com)

Now, the 50S ribosomal subunit can bind to the initiation complex, with the complete ribosome ready to begin translation. (jove.com)
It fits each other and forms a complete ribosome. (microbenotes.com)

In response to immune induction, uORF-inhibition is alleviated by three Ded1p/DDX3X-homologous RNA helicases which unwind the RNA structures, allowing ribosomes to bypass the inhibitory uORFs and upregulate defence protein production. (biorxiv.org)
It has been proposed that ribosome scanning and start codon selection are regulated by elements in the 5' leader sequence, such as RNA primary sequences (for example, the Kozak sequence context), upstream open reading frames (uORFs), secondary structures, and RNA modifications 4 - 7 . (biorxiv.org)
Most proteins must fold into defined three-dimensional structures to gain functional activity. (nature.com)
Proteins synthesized by ribosomes are used by organelles in the cell, by the plasma membrane, or by structures outside the cell. (visiblebody.com)

mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells. (microbenotes.com)
The ribosomes present in mitochondria and chloroplasts are smaller than 80S cytoplasmic ribosomes. (microbenotes.com)

Although eIF4A is an ATP-dependent RNA helicase that binds the MA3 domain of eIF4G to promote translation initiation, binding of eIF4A to the MA3 domains of PDCD4 inhibits protein synthesis. (biomedcentral.com)

Here, a genome-wide analysis of the human mitochondrial transcriptome shows that 2'- O -methylation is limited to residues of the mitoribosomal large subunit (mtLSU) 16S mt-rRNA, introduced by MRM1, MRM2 and MRM3, with the modifications installed by the latter two proteins being interdependent. (nature.com)
Similar to other systems, the mitochondrial ribosome is composed of a small (mtSSU) and a large (mtLSU) subunit, with their core rRNAs, 12S and 16S mitochondrial (mt-) rRNAs, respectively, surrounded by MRPs (30 for the mtSSU and 52 for the mtLSU). (nature.com)
The mammalian mitochondrial ribosome is endowed with a number of specific features. (nature.com)
While RNA makes up most of the composition of bacterial and cytosolic eukaryotic ribosomes, mammalian mitochondrial ribosomes present a more elaborate protein shell, which aids coping with the oxidative microenvironment. (nature.com)
Almost half of these MRPs are evolutionarily exclusive to mitochondrial ribosomes, some of which were repurposed and accreted during reductive genome evolution 4 , 5 . (nature.com)
Its analogy to proteins uL30m and mL63 in mammalian mitochondrial ribosomes also suggests a plausible evolutionary pathway for expansion of protein content in mammalian mitochondrial ribosomes. (bvsalud.org)
The co-chaperone Hep1 is required to prevent the aggregation of mitochondrial Hsp70 proteins. (cipsm.de)
The matrix exposed C-terminal α-helical domain of Oxa1 can bind mitochondrial ribosomes to facilitate co-translational insertion of proteins into the mitochondrial membrane ( Jia et al . (tcdb.org)

Regulation of the mammalian elongation cycle by ribosomal subunit rolling: a eukaryotic-specific conformational change. (charite.de)
Decelerating translation elongation speed has been shown to improve the soluble protein yield when expressing heterologous proteins in industrial expression hosts. (biomedcentral.com)
This is due to the delay of 60S subunit assembly by deleting non-essential ribosomal protein genes or 60S subunit processing factors, thus globally decreased the translation elongation speed and improved the co-translational folding, without perturbing the relative transcription level and translation initiation. (biomedcentral.com)
Global decrease in the translation elongation speed by RP deletion enhanced co-translational folding efficiency of nascent chains and decreased protein aggregates to improve heterologous protein yield. (biomedcentral.com)
The gamma subunit of eIF2 is a GTPase that resembles the bacterial translation elongation factor EF-Tu. (nih.gov)

Here, both subunits of the ribosome roll against each other in such a way that a cleft is opened precisely at the location where the amino acids bind to the ribosome. (charite.de)

Ruehle MD, Li S, Agard DA, Pearson CG (2023) Poc1 is a basal body inner junction protein that promotes triplet microtubule integrity and interconnections. (ciliate.org)

A. Ribosomal RNA analysis StructRNAfinder - predicts and annotates RNA families in transcript or genome sequences. (printerresource.com)

In the context of translation ─ i.e. the protein-forming process ─ the genetic code of the protein, so-called messenger RNA (ribonucleic acid), is transcribed at the interface between both subunits of the ribosome. (charite.de)
Each nucleolus contains a cluster of protein, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and ribonucleic acid (RNA). (visiblebody.com)
Ribosomes are made mostly of rRNA (ribosomal ribonucleic acid), and bacterial cells contain more than 50 associated proteins, whereas plant and animal cells contain 80 associated proteins. (visiblebody.com)
Genes are simply lengths of DNA that contain the code for a particular protein product, which the DNA delivers to the cell's protein-assembly machinery through the molecule RNA (ribonucleic acid). (sciencing.com)

Its two-layered alpha+beta architecture is significantly similar to those of the archaeal and bacterial homologues, substantiating a high degree of structural conservation across the three phylogenetic domains. (rcsb.org)
The highly conserved bacterial YbeY RNase has structural similarities to the MID domain of AGOs. (biomedcentral.com)
Huang YH, Said N, Loll B, Wahl MC (2019) Structural basis for the function of SuhB as a transcription factor in ribosomal RNA synthesis. (fu-berlin.de)
The structural basis of ribosome activity in peptide bond synthesis. (org.ua)
Proteins provide the crucial structural elements of all cells and mediate the executive functions required for cell survival. (uni-muenchen.de)

Upon codon-anticodon recognition, GTP is hydrolyzed and the initiation factors dissociate, allowing the large ribosomal subunit to join the complex and form an intact ribosome. (jove.com)
Initiation begins with the assembly of a pre-initiation complex (PIC) in which the small ribosomal subunit is joined by several protein initiation factors (eIFs). (vassar.edu)

Because protein molecules are highly dynamic, constant chaperone surveillance is required to ensure protein homeostasis (proteostasis). (nature.com)
Therefore, tRNAs are the molecules that actually "translate" the language of RNA into the language of proteins. (pressbooks.pub)

Spectinomycin inhibits protein synthesis by binding to the Sr protein of the 30s ribosomal subunit and blocking translation. (diseasepdf.com)
Translation initiation is the process that assembles the ribosome, the molecular apparatus which translates the genetic code and synthesizes the corresponding protein. (vassar.edu)
Altogether, we propose a surveillance model of Rsh activation that originates from its constitutive interaction with the ribosomes entering the translation cycle. (bvsalud.org)
These modifications are essential for their proper function in protein translation (see Chapter 13: Protein Synthesis). (printerresource.com)
To identify common features shared by transcripts with stress-upregulated translation efficiency (TE-up), we first performed high-resolution ribosome-sequencing in Arabidopsis during pattern-triggered immunity and found that TE-up transcripts are enriched with upstream open reading frames (uORFs). (biorxiv.org)
Upon immune induction, there is an overall downshift in ribosome occupancy at uAUGs, accompanied by enhanced translation of main ORFs (mORFs). (biorxiv.org)
Under stress conditions, such as nutrition depletion 8 , hypoxia 9 , 10 , or pathogen challenge 11 , global translation is reprogrammed, leading to elevated stress-responsive protein production, but repressed growth-related protein synthesis, which is crucial to the survival and adaptation to stress. (biorxiv.org)
Upon stress, phosphorylation of eukaryotic Initiation Factor 2α (eIF2α) decreases the available ternary complex, resulting in reduced translation initiation from the start codons of uORFs (uAUGs) and prolonged scanning of the preinitiation complex to translate the downstream main open reading frames (mORFs) to promote cell survival 12 - 15 . (biorxiv.org)
Translation is the first stage of protein biosynthesis. (web.app)
Plastid-specific ribosomal proteins (PSRPs) have been proposed to play roles in the light-dependent regulation of chloroplast translation. (cipsm.de)
Various protein factors regulate the process of translation. (cbsetuts.com)
The programmed cell death 4 (PDCD4) protein is induced in animals during apoptosis and functions to inhibit translation and tumor promoter-induced neoplastic transformation. (biomedcentral.com)
Translational pausing coordinates protein translation and co-translational folding. (biomedcentral.com)
It undergoes global conformational rearrangements during translation, where its two subunits move relative each other, motions that are well characterized. (liu.se)
The formylation of N-terminal Met in bacterial proteins is not strictly essential for either translation or cell viability. (microbialcell.com)
We are characterizing eIF2gamma mutations that are associated with a novel X-linked intellectual disability syndrome, and we are investigating the function of the translation factor eIF5A with a focus on its ability to stimulate the peptidyl transferase activity of the ribosome and facilitate the reactivity of poor substrates such as proline. (nih.gov)
In genetic and biochemical studies, we found that the mutation disrupts eIF2 complex integrity, impairs general translation, alters translational control of mRNAs encoding key regulatory proteins, and reduces the fidelity of translation start codon selection. (nih.gov)

In all living cells, protein synthesis occurs on ribonucleoprotein particles called ribosomes. (cipsm.de)
This loss is also observed in nonstarved cells using mutations in Rsh that block its interaction with the ribosome, indicating that Rsh association with the ribosome is important for Rsh stability. (bvsalud.org)
Thus, eukaryotic cells can perform a wider range of functions. (web.app)
They are responsible for the production of all proteins in all cells of every organism. (charite.de)
They are similar in structure and function in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. (microbenotes.com)
They are found in the eukaryotic cells i.e. in plants and animals. (microbenotes.com)
Knowledge of Tetracycline led to the development of a popular inducible expression system in eukaryotic cells known as Tet-Off and Tet-On. (toku-e.com)
Mammalian cells are not vulnerable to the effect of Tetracycline as these cells contain no 30S ribosomal subunits so no accumulation results. (toku-e.com)
Tetracycline HCl is routinely used as a selective agent to select for bacterial cells that have been transformed with a plasmid that contains the tetracycline resistance gene, tet . (toku-e.com)
Albert is the actual toxin, while Betty is a lectin (carbohydrate-binding protein) that helps get him inside cells by binding to the cell membrane. (drugsandpoisons.com)
Once inside a cell, Albert is able to selectively catalyze the cleavage of an N-glycosidic bond in the 28S ribosomal RNA that is a crucial part of eukaryotic ribosomes , the things inside cells that make proteins, thus inhibiting their formation and essentially shutting down the cell. (drugsandpoisons.com)
Researchers at LMU's Gene Center, led by Professor Roland Beckmann , have now determined, at high resolution, the three-dimensional structure of several assembly intermediates that are formed during the later stages of ribosome formation in human cells. (uni-muenchen.de)
The nucleus is a large membrane-bound organelle that contains the genetic information of eukaryotic cells. (visiblebody.com)
Cells contain a large number of small organelles called ribosomes. (visiblebody.com)
Cells are themselves microscopic, yet most of them contain a staggering array of even smaller components that all contribute to the basic mission of keeping the cell - and by extension, the parent organism - alive. (sciencing.com)

Every protein actually represents a chain of amino acids, the polypeptide. (cbsetuts.com)
The polypeptide chain is the primary configuration of a protein in which the amino acids may be linked in the linear array by an organized system within the cell. (cbsetuts.com)
This primary polypeptide chain may achieve tertiary or quarternary configuration in order to produce a functional protein molecule. (cbsetuts.com)
The polypeptide chain may be converted into protein through post-translational processing. (cbsetuts.com)

Ribosome plays an important role during the biosynthesis of protein. (microbenotes.com)
The translational pausing sites, which are mediated by clustered but non-consecutive slow-translating codons, coordinate protein biosynthesis and co-translational folding [ 6 ]. (biomedcentral.com)

A cation-binding pocket formed between alpha2 and beta 6 is similar to that of the archaeal L10 protein but appears to be better ordered. (rcsb.org)

The numerous modified nucleotides in eukaryotic ribosomal RNA. (printerresource.com)

As I mentioned previously, toxalbumins are toxic because they inhibit protein synthesis. (drugsandpoisons.com)

The core of the 60S subunit is formed by the 28S ribosomal RNA (abbreviated 28S rRNA), which is homologous to the prokaryotic 23S rRNA, which also contributes the active site (peptidyl transferase center, PTC) of the ribosome. (wikipedia.org)
The longer uL30 protein interacts with both the 23S rRNA and the 5S rRNA, is near the peptidyl transferase center (PTC), and could impart greater stability to this region. (bvsalud.org)
Peptidyl Transferase: On the large ribosomal sub-unit, this enzyme is present. (cbsetuts.com)

In evolutionary-biological terms, ribosomes are among the oldest enzymes. (charite.de)
In the organism major part of the body components is protein by nature and the enzymes carrying out almost all biological activities are also proteins. (cbsetuts.com)
A potential expression platform for efficient pharmaceutical proteins and industrial enzymes production was provided without synonymous mutation. (biomedcentral.com)
Unlike the bacterial expression systems, which lack the modification enzymes, Pichia pastoris is able to produce heterologous proteins with post-translational modifications, especially glycosylation, which is crucial for optimal properties of many pharmaceutical proteins. (biomedcentral.com)
Over 5000 proteins were manufactured in P. pastoris (data from RCT Pichia technology), most of which are industrial enzymes and biopharmaceutical proteins [ 1 , 2 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
Enzymes in the cisternae modify these proteins and pack them into vesicles that bud off the Golgi body and transport the proteins to different areas in the cell. (visiblebody.com)

TetR encoded by Tn 10 and pBR plasmids is due to a membrane protein that actively exports tetracycline out of the cell. (diseasepdf.com)
Skach, W. R. Cellular mechanisms of membrane protein folding. (nature.com)
If a membrane protein expresses at a high level, almost certainly some of this protein will be found in the insoluble fraction. (neb.com)
Insertion of a membrane protein via the Oxa1p export machinery follows the 'positive-inside' rule for membrane protein topology. (tcdb.org)
2007 ). Several Oxa1-type insertases in the ER serve as catalytically active core subunits in the ER membrane protein complex (EMC), the guided entry of tail-anchored (GET) and the GET- and EMC-like (GEL) complex. (tcdb.org)

Only at those points where human ribosomes are found to differ from bacterial ribosomes, is it possible for drug substances to take effect without causing severe adverse reactions in humans. (charite.de)

Most eukaryotic mRNAs are monocistronic, that is, they encode only a single protein. (jove.com)
We use ribosome profiling to monitor the effects of specific mutations to the eIF3 complex and investigate the features of the specific mRNAs most sensitive to these mutations. (vassar.edu)
Moreover, recent global ribosome-sequencing (Ribo-seq, sequencing of ribosome-protected RNA fragments) studies have shown that uORFs are a prevalent feature in eukaryotic mRNAs, not limited to these few well-studied examples 19 - 21 . (biorxiv.org)
A limited study had indicated that in Sinorhizobium meliloti the YbeY ortholog regulates the accumulation of sRNAs as well as the target mRNAs, raising the possibility that YbeY may play a previously unrecognized role in bacterial sRNA regulation. (biomedcentral.com)

The 60S subunit is the large subunit of eukaryotic 80S ribosomes. (wikipedia.org)
Characteristic features of the large subunit, shown below in the "Crown View", include the central protuberance (CP) and the two stalks, which are named according to their bacterial protein components (L1 stalk on the left as seen from the subunit interface and L7/L12 on the right). (wikipedia.org)
however, only molecular models of large 50S subunits have been reported for archaea. (cipsm.de)
The protein bL38, recently discovered in Bacteroidetes, is also present in the Bbu large 50S ribosomal subunit. (bvsalud.org)
rRNA genes contain regions of variable DNA sequence that are unique to the species carrying the … Ribosomal RNA is transcribed from ribosomal DNA (rDNA) and then bound to ribosomal proteins to form small and large ribosome subunits. (printerresource.com)
The ribosome is a large complex that is made from dozens of small proteins. (microbenotes.com)
Later, due to the aggregation of a large number of ribosomes, there is the formation of the polyribosomes or polysomes. (microbenotes.com)
A ribosome is a very large, complex macromolecule. (pressbooks.pub)
Here, a large-scale deletion library of ribosomal protein (RP) genes was constructed for heterologous protein expression in Pichia pastoris , and 59% (16/27) RP deletants have significantly increased heterologous protein yield. (biomedcentral.com)
Ribosomes are made up of two subunits, the small and the large, which are assembled separately and interact to form a single functional unit only when needed. (uni-muenchen.de)
The mature small subunit can then bind to the large subunit, in association with a messenger RNA that provides the blueprint for protein synthesis. (uni-muenchen.de)
The ribosome is a large RNA-protein complex that synthesizes proteins in all living organisms. (liu.se)

We propose that in the absence of a functional SRP or translocon, ribosomes remain jammed at their primary membrane docking site, whereas FtsY-dependent ribosomal targeting to the membrane continues. (rupress.org)
eIF4B and PABP also bind to a site within the central region of eIF4G that partially overlaps the HEAT-1/eIF4G-MIG but they do not bind the HEAT-2/eIF4G-MA3 domain [ 9 ], demonstrating the functional diversity of the HEAT-1/eIF4G-MIG and HEAT-2/eIF4G-MA3 domains in their interactions with partner proteins. (biomedcentral.com)
When expressing membrane proteins, researchers must assume from the start that the protein will be difficult to express in functional form. (neb.com)
As a solution NEB offers a tunable T7 expression strain for the production of membrane proteins and other difficult targets so that the level of functional protein may be optimized. (neb.com)

Therefore, different names may refer to homologous proteins from different organisms, while identical names do not necessarily denote homologous proteins. (wikipedia.org)
Eukaryotic organisms may be multicellular or singlecelled organisms. (web.app)
In turn, proteins account for more mass than any other component of living organisms (with the exception of water), and proteins perform a wide variety of the functions of a cell. (pressbooks.pub)
Cell in Living organisms is a smallest unit in which all the functions of life performed. (drelationship.com)
Membrane bound organelles such as Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, ribosomes are present in cell of living organisms . (drelationship.com)
And finally, many proteins from higher organisms require complex disulfide bonds for stability and proper folding. (neb.com)

Next, the eIF2/GTP/Met-tRNAi ternary complex and other eIFs bind to the small ribosomal subunit to form a 43S preinitiation complex. (jove.com)

Production of both subunits begins at the site of synthesis of the rRNAs in the cell nucleus. (uni-muenchen.de)
Eukaryotic genes are transcribed in the nucleus by three different RNA polymerases , each principally responsible for one of the major classes of RNA. (basicmedicalkey.com)

In contrast to a previous study suggesting that the single hibernation promoting factor protein present in Bbu (bbHPF) may not bind to its ribosome, our structure reveals a clear density for bbHPF bound to the decoding center of the small ribosomal 30S subunit. (bvsalud.org)
Computational binding free energies are predicted for antibiotics, bound to the decoding center or PTC and are in clinical use for Lyme disease, that account for subtle distinctions in antibiotic-binding regions in the Bbu ribosome structure. (bvsalud.org)
Each Golgi body contains stacks of small, flattened, membrane-bound sacs called cisternae. (visiblebody.com)

Ribonucleoprotein means it consists of RNA and proteins. (microbenotes.com)
This gene product is a component of a nucleolar small nuclear ribonucleoprotein (snRNP) particle thought to participate in the first step in processing preribosomal RNA. (nih.gov)

The synthesis of proteins is one of a cell's most energy-consuming metabolic processes. (pressbooks.pub)

Then the ribosome translates its nucleotide sequence into an amino acid sequence, one codon at a time. (microbenotes.com)
The ribosome is considered a non-specific workbench for amino acid polymerization. (cbsetuts.com)
Recent studies have revealed that the amino acid sequence does not guarantee correct folding of proteins. (biomedcentral.com)
The sequence encoded a novel protein rich in alanine (25%) and proline (20%), which contained regions similar to proteins of comparable amino acid composition such as extracellular matrix components or the membrane-cytoskeletal linker synapsin. (lookformedical.com)

During the life period, an organism may produce different protein elements as required from time to time. (cbsetuts.com)

Characteristic interactions among Arg90-Trp171-Arg139 guide the C-terminal part outside of the central fold, implying that the eukaryote-specific C-terminal extension localizes on the outer side of the ribosome. (rcsb.org)
Protein conformation is critically linked to function and often controlled by interactions with regulatory factors. (cipsm.de)
The co-translational folding and interactions of nascent protein chains: a new approach using fluorescence resonance energy transfer. (org.ua)

The rRNAs are transcribed as larger precursors, which serve as a scaffold during the assembly process and are cleaved and trimmed during ribosome maturation. (uni-muenchen.de)

Phosphorylation of the eIF2alpha subunit is a common mechanism for down-regulating protein synthesis under stress conditions. (nih.gov)

Small heat shock proteins (sHsps) are molecular chaperones that prevent the aggregation of nonnative proteins. (cipsm.de)
Hartl, F. U. Molecular chaperones in cellular protein folding. (nature.com)
Molecular chaperone functions of heat-shock proteins. (org.ua)

Under non-stress conditions, start codons of these uORFs (uAUGs) have higher-than-background ribosomal association. (biorxiv.org)

Ribosomes functions as catalysts during peptidyl transfer and peptidyl hydrolysis. (microbenotes.com)

The TATA box is recognized by a transcription factor called TATA-binding protein (TBP), which is part of a larger complex called TFIID. (stemcelldaily.com)
Most promoters for RNA polymerase II also have a conserved sequence called the TATA box, which is recognized by a subunit of the transcription factor TFIID. (stemcelldaily.com)
Eukaryotic RNA polymerases do not terminate transcription at a specific site but rather transcription can stop at varying distances downstream of the gene. (stemcelldaily.com)
The heterochromatin-enriched HP1 proteins play a critical role in regulation of transcription. (cipsm.de)

This contrast is probably due to differences in membrane potential maintained across the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane vs the eukaryotic cytoplasmic membrane). (diseasepdf.com)
2022 ). The YidC transmembrane (TM) groove is essential for a high- affinity interaction, and the hydrophilic nature of the YidC groove plays an important role in protein transport across the cytoplasmic membrane bilayer to the periplasmic side. (tcdb.org)

But in the cellular environment, newly synthesized proteins are at great risk of aberrant folding and aggregation, potentially forming toxic species. (nature.com)
Recent advances suggest that an age-related decline in proteostasis capacity allows the manifestation of various protein-aggregation diseases, including Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. (nature.com)
Figure 1: Competing reactions of protein folding and aggregation. (nature.com)
Ellis, R. J. & Minton, A. P. Protein aggregation in crowded environments. (nature.com)
These proteins are beta-sheet rich or multi-domain and aggregation prone, which may require higher co-translational folding efficiency. (biomedcentral.com)

Ribosomes are the cell's protein factories. (uni-muenchen.de)

A 210 kDa protein is located in a membrane-microtubule linker at the distal end of mature and nascent basal bodies. (lookformedical.com)
Starting with a degron: N-terminal formyl-methionine of nascent bacterial proteins contributes to their proteolytic control. (microbialcell.com)

Eukaryotic cell membrane contain sterols, whereas no prokaryotes except the wall of mycoplasma, has sterol in its membrane. (web.app)
In prokaryotes, the ribosome is 70S type and this is formed by two subunits as 30S and 50S. (cbsetuts.com)

Anatomy13

Organisms5

Diseases1

Chemicals and Drugs31

Analytical, Diagnostic and Therapeutic Techniques and Equipment4

Phenomena and Processes19

Information Science3

Eukaryotes20

MRNA40

Bacteria15

Complexes8

RNAs9

Cytoplasm10

Cryo-electron m4

Biogenesis5

Yeast5

TRNA19

Coli19

Complete ribosome2

Structures4

Mitochondria and chloroplasts2

Binds1

Mitochondrial8

Elongation5

Bind to the ribosome1

20231

Sequences1

Ribonucleic acid4

Structural5

Initiation factors2

Molecules2

Translation17

Cells15

Polypeptide4

Biosynthesis2

Archaeal1

Nucleotides1

Inhibit1

Peptidyl transferase3

Enzymes6

Membrane protein5

Human ribosomes1

MRNAs4

Large12

Functional4

Organisms6

EIF21

Nucleus2

Bound3

Ribonucleoprotein2

Synthesis of proteins1

Amino acid4

Organism1

Interactions3

RRNAs1

Phosphorylation1

Molecular3

Codons1

Hydrolysis1

Transcription4

Cytoplasmic membrane2

Aggregation5

Cell's1

Nascent2

Prokaryotes2