2016 vaccine for poliomyelitis poliovirus vaccine inactivated. Medical search. Frequent questions

More than six months have passed since the latest case of confirmed circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2 (cVDPV2), also in Nigeria, with onset on 28 October 2016. (who.int)
After six years without any detection of poliomyelitis cases, Angola reported a case of circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2 (cVDPV2) with paralysis onset date of 27 March 2019. (bvsalud.org)
Seventy-four cases of circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2 (cVDPV2) were confirmed in 2017 in north-east Syrian Arab Republic (Deir Ez-Zor, Raqqa and Homs). (who.int)
Circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV) was only reported from Pakistan in 2014, with isolates also detected in the environment in Karachi in early 2015. (who.int)
[2] However, the emergence of circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV), a form of the vaccine virus that has reverted to causing poliomyelitis, has led to the development of novel oral polio vaccine type 2 (nOPV2) which aims to make the vaccine safer and thus stop further outbreaks of cVDPV2. (wikipedia.org)
Wild poliovirus type 2 vaccine-associated paralytic polio and 90% of all cases was last seen in 1999 and was certified as eradicated of circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV). (who.int)
Circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2 (cVDPV2) outbreaks have increased since 2017. (cdc.gov)
As GPEI focuses on the last endemic WPV reservoirs, poliomyelitis outbreaks caused by circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV) have emerged as a result of attenuated oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) virus regaining neurovirulence after prolonged circulation in underimmunized populations ( 3 ). (cdc.gov)
Dr. OrensteinContinued use of the tOPV, which contains type 2 poliovirus, is contributing to circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus 2 (cVDPV2) outbreaks, explained Walter A. Orenstein, M.D., FAAP, in a Perspective in the Feb. 11 New England Journal of Medicine ( http://bit.ly/1L6yPi6 ). (aap.org)
This is a very special effort to try and make sure we don't generate any new circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus 2," said Dr. Orenstein, co-author of the 2015 AAP clinical report on polio eradication ( http://bit.ly/polioCR ). (aap.org)
No type 2 circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus was reported in 2022 compared with 43 cases in 2021. (parasiteswithoutborders.com)
However, in 2020, when Afghanistan began to report both type 2 circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus and wild-type poliovirus 1, the Global Polio Eradication Initiative authorized the use of the trivalent OPV for outbreak response. (parasiteswithoutborders.com)
Today, more than five years after the global switch, the world is facing increasing outbreaks of circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2 (cVDPV2) in parts of Africa, Europe and the Middle East. (who.int)
Polio cases caused by circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV) were detected in eight countries in 2013 and in two countries so far in 2014 ( 4 ). (blogspot.com)
The occurrence of outbreaks of poliomyelitis due to circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus of all three types has been increasing, especially in areas with low vaccination rates. (basicmedicalkey.com)
The global polio program is facing multiple, ongoing, serious challenges with the increase in the number of wild poliovirus cases and the continued spread of circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV) outbreaks in countries around the world. (utoledo.edu)

IPV has also been used since 2014 in mass campaigns to help interrupt wild poliovirus transmission and stop serotype 2 vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV2) outbreaks. (cdc.gov)
AFP) surveillance, timely response to polio outbreaks and strengthening routine immunization, including introduction of inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV). (who.int)
VDPVs can cause paralysis indistinguishable from wild polioviruses and outbreaks when community circulation ensues. (bvsalud.org)
No outbreaks were detected during 2013-2016. (bvsalud.org)
Since the 2016 removal of type 2 strains from the OPV, vaccine-derived poliovirus outbreaks have occurred in communities that are immunologically naive to poliovirus type 2 and in areas with recent use of monovalent OPV. (who.int)
Poliomyelitis is an acute viral infection of the and regain its neurovirulence, causing paralysis and nervous system caused by poliovirus types 1, 2 outbreaks. (who.int)
Again and again, outbreaks among vaccinated populations occur, yet rarely is the truth of the situation addressed, namely the fact that the vaccine is ineffective and doesn't work as advertised . (wakeup-world.com)
Despite this, VDPV2 outbreaks have continued-a reflection of residual vaccine virus circulating in large populations. (bmj.com)
Here is the perspective: over the past 10 years-during which more than 10 billion doses of oral polio vaccine were given worldwide-circulating VDPV outbreaks remained rare. (bmj.com)
Similarly, the live viruses in Sabin vaccine (known as vaccine-derived polioviruses [VDPVs]) can produce polio outbreaks in areas of low vaccine coverage. (goodtrips.org)
and low-quality outbreak response campaigns with monovalent type 2 Sabin OPV (mOPV2), which has been the selected vaccine for responding to these outbreaks. (who.int)
In 2021, the Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI) announced a new strategy that addresses cVDPV2 outbreaks as a goal to interrupt all poliovirus everywhere.1 Included in this strategy is the introduction of a new tool for cVDPV2 outbreak response: the novel oral polio vaccine type 2 (nOPV2). (who.int)
Recent polio outbreaks in both endemic and non-endemic countries stem from poliovirus strains originally contained in OPV, called circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses (cVDPV) . (asm.org)
Of the 3 types of cVDPV, type 2 strains (cVDPV2) are responsible for over 90% of vaccine-associated outbreaks worldwide . (asm.org)
Despite these achievements, the continuing circulation of WPV1 and outbreaks of vaccine-derived polioviruses (cVDPV) present significant obstacles to overcome, before total eradication can be reached. (biosafety.be)
Smallpox vaccination with vaccinia virus is the most famous example of a highly effective vaccine and at the time when people were faced with smallpox outbreaks, this vaccine was associated with each of these characteristics that led to the implementation of a successful vaccine. (killerinsideme.com)
There are more than 25 safe and effective vaccines to prevent diseases, protect health throughout the lifespan, and help to prevent and mitigate outbreaks. (killerinsideme.com)
Since 2016, the United States experienced hepatitis A outbreaks in multiple states that were caused by person-to-person spread primarily among adults who use drugs and experience homelessness. (cdc.gov)
Outbreaks are thought to have been facilitated by suboptimal rates of vaccination, isolated pockets of unvaccinated children, poor sanitation and crowding, improper vaccine-storage conditions, and a reduced level of response to one of the serotypes in the vaccine. (basicmedicalkey.com)
These outbreaks emphasize the need for maintaining high levels of vaccine coverage and continued surveillance for circulating virus. (basicmedicalkey.com)
Despite the effectiveness of vaccines, disease outbreaks can still occur in our modern day, often as a result of nonimmunization or underimmunization among children and adults, as well as from exposure to infections brought into the country by unvaccinated travelers who visit and return from high-risk or endemic regions. (medscape.com)

Ten out of the 134 confirmed vaccine-derived polioviruses (VDPVs) in the African Region in 2017 were detected from environmental surveillance sewage sites, thereby confirming the importance of this technology in augmenting polio surveillance. (who.int)

Concurrently, inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) was introduced into India's routine immunization program to maintain an immunity base that would mitigate the number of paralytic cases in the event of epidemic transmission of poliovirus type 2 ( 2 , 3 ). (cdc.gov)
After the 2015 documentation of global eradication of wild poliovirus type 2,* Sabin type 2 oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) was withdrawn from routine immunization (RI) in all OPV-using countries in 2016, in a global synchronized switch from trivalent OPV (containing vaccine virus serotypes 1, 2, and 3) to bivalent OPV (containing serotypes 1 and 3), to reduce the rare risks for type 2 vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis. (cdc.gov)
Bivalent oral poliomyelitis vaccine types 1 and 3 (bOPV) is used for active immunization in all age groups against infection caused by poliomyelitis viruses of types 1 and 3. (who.int)
bOPV is also indicated in the Supplementary Immunization Activities (SIAs) in children from 0 to 5 years of age to interrupt types 1 and 3 poliovirus transmission and since 2016 it is used for routine immunization program in infants. (who.int)
DRC needs the support of polio eradication and Essential Immunization (EI) partners to accelerate the country's ongoing initiatives for EI strengthening, introduction of a second dose of inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) to increase protection against paralysis, and improving nOPV2 SIA coverage. (bvsalud.org)
The risk of importation of WPV1 or the emergence of circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses (cVDPV) remains high due to ongoing transmission of poliovirus in endemic foci in Afghanistan and Pakistan, as well as complex emergency situations in several countries of the Region that have resulted in extensive population movements, inaccessibility, and deteriorating routine immunization coverage in several areas. (who.int)
The completion of poliovirus eradication in these two endemic countries continues to be jeopardized by lack of safe access to children in conflict-affected areas and inconsistent improvement in the quality and coverage of supplementary immunization activities in key areas. (who.int)
The most recent meeting of the Emergency Committee on Polio Eradication under the International Health Regulations 2005 (IHR) designated both countries as exporters of wild poliovirus and re-iterated recommendations on immunization of travellers to reduce the risk of wild poliovirus spread. (who.int)
Good progress is being made with the introduction of at least one dose of inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) into routine immunization schedules in the Region, and the target for the switch from trivalent to bivalent oral poliovirus vaccine for all OPV use remains April 2016. (who.int)
We describe the emergence of vaccine-derived poliovirus unrelated to the outbreak detected after supplementary immunization activities using the monovalent type 2 OPV. (who.int)
To prevent the emergence and further spread of cVDPV type 2, several interventions could be implemented including optimizing outbreak responses by using the monovalent type 2 OPV, accelerating the availability of the novel type 2 OPV, strengthening routine immunization using inactivated polio vaccine and eventually replacing OPV with inactivated poliovirus vaccine for routine immunization. (who.int)
The polio eradication program is not a typical vertical program-polio resources and infrastructure fill in many gaps in the immunization systems that protect hundreds of millions of children from vaccine-preventable diseases (VPDs) worldwide each year. (cdc.gov)
The COVID-19 pandemic continues to limit the quality of immunization activities and poliovirus surveillance. (cdc.gov)
In worldwide immunization programs, OPV and at least 1 dose of injectable, inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) are routinely used. (cdc.gov)
While the end of polio is within reach, immunization efforts can easily be derailed by the rapid spread of vaccine misinformation, putting vulnerable children at risk. (polioeradication.org)
Immunogenicity to poliovirus type 2 following two doses of fractional intradermal inactivated poliovirus vaccine: A novel dose sparing immunization schedule. (umk.pl)
Following the last wild poliovirus type 2 (WPV2) case in northern India in 1999 and the global certification of the WPV2 eradication in September 2015, type 2-containing oral polio vaccines (OPV) were withdrawn from national immunization programmes worldwide in April 2016 to prevent the incidence of vaccine-derived polioviruses (VDPVs) caused by type 2 vaccine virus. (who.int)
Vaccine non-receipt and refusal in Ethiopia: The expanded program on immunization coverage survey, 2012. (childsurvival.net)
Efforts to Reach More Children with Effective Vaccines Through Routine Immunization in The WHO African Region: 2013-2015. (childsurvival.net)
Thus, recent WHO policy has directed national immunization programs worldwide to transition to inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) regimens by 2015. (stanford.edu)
To evaluate the vaccination coverage for poliomyelitis in the same period, data from the National Immunization Program Information System (SI-PNI) were used. (sbni2023.com.br)
During supplemental immunization activities for polio, all children under 5-years of age, should receive the oral polio vaccine. (cdc.gov)
Immunization Protects Health, Communities, and Economies From Vaccine-Preventable Disease Threats. (killerinsideme.com)
In 2013, 265 supplementary immunization activities (SIAs) using oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) were conducted in 42 countries, 52% (137) in AFR and 45% (118) in EMR. (blogspot.com)
Polio staff continue to contribute to the COVID-19 pandemic response and immunization recovery efforts, together with supporting the introduction and roll-out of COVID-19 vaccines. (polioeradication.org)
Furthermore, to address the ongoing circulating vaccine-derived polio viruses, all countries must work to strengthen their immunization programs to close any gaps and ensure that all children are protected against polio - the world depends on it! (utoledo.edu)

Strong government leadership at the national and state levels and well-coordinated technical and operational support from Global Polio Eradication Initiative partners, as well as experience in implementing oral poliovirus campaigns and having clearly defined standard operating procedures for outbreak response were critical elements to the success of the fIPV campaign in Telangana, India. (cdc.gov)
just 22 cases of the only remaining serotype of wild poliovirus type 1 (WPV1) were reported from two endemic countries, namely Afghanistan and Pakistan (14 cases and 8 cases, respectively), the lowest number of polio cases ever reported since the start of the Global Polio Eradication Initiative in 1988. (who.int)
[23] Led by the Global Polio Eradication Initiative, 155 countries switched to use the bivalent (against wild types 1 and 3) between 17 April and 1 May 2016. (wikipedia.org)
Upon switching to bivalent oral polio vaccine, the Global Polio Eradication Initiative will deploy independent monitors to check on program performance and ensure complete removal of tOPV. (aap.org)
However, in 2020 when Afghanistan began to report both VPV2 and WPV1 polio cases, the Global Polio Eradication Initiative authorized the use of the trivalent oral poliovirus for outbreak response. (parasiteswithoutborders.com)
Since the advent of the Global Polio Eradication Initiative in 1988, the incidence of poliomyelitis due to wild-type poliovirus has declined from an estimated 350,000 cases in 1988 to 416 reported cases in 2013. (stanford.edu)

In April 2016, India withdrew Sabin poliovirus type 2 vaccine as part of a globally synchronized initiative that followed the declaration of eradication of wild poliovirus type 2 in September 2015. (cdc.gov)
After the use of Sabin poliovirus type 2 ceased, any report of isolation of vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2 (VDPV2) would be considered a public health emergency and might require an outbreak response vaccination with monovalent type 2 oral polio vaccine or inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV). (cdc.gov)
containing types 1 and 3), as part of a globally synchronized initiative to withdraw Sabin poliovirus type 2 vaccine. (cdc.gov)
After cessation of use of type 2 Sabin vaccine, any reported isolation of vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2 (VDPV2) would be treated as a public health emergency and might need outbreak response with monovalent type 2 oral vaccine, IPV, or both ( 4 ). (cdc.gov)
Vaccine-derived polioviruses (VDPVs) can emerge from Sabin strain poliovirus serotypes 1, 2, and 3 contained in oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) after prolonged person-to-person transmission where population vaccination immunity against polioviruses is suboptimal. (bvsalud.org)
[2] [11] Another attenuated live oral polio vaccine was developed by Albert Sabin and came into commercial use in 1961. (wikipedia.org)
In April 2016, the poliovirus type 2 Sabin strain was ability to interrupt transmission of poliovirus by inducing removed from the trivalent OPV during the global switch mucosal immunity. (who.int)
In 2016, a global coordinated switch occurred from trivalent OPV (tOPV), which contains Sabin strain types 1, 2, and 3 to bivalent OPV (bOPV), which contains Sabin strain types 1 and 3. (cdc.gov)
3 Vaccine derived polioviruses arise when genetic reversion events in the Sabin oral polio vaccine (OPV) increase their, otherwise attenuated, transmissibility and neurovirulence. (bmj.com)
1) a live attenuated virus vaccine, OPV (Sabin), given orally and (2) an inactivated poliomyelitis vaccine, IPV (IPOL), is given by injection. (goodtrips.org)
[1] [9] A different, oral polio vaccine was developed by Albert Sabin and came into commercial use in 1961. (mdwiki.org)
In 2016, Afghanistan joined the oral poliovirus-using countries around the world in implementing a synchronized withdrawal of trivalent OPV, so tOPV, containing Sabin strain types 1,2, and 3, and replacement with the bivalent OPV, so bOPV containing Sabin strain types 1 and 3 and greater than or equal to one dose of inactivated poliovirus vaccine. (parasiteswithoutborders.com)
About nOPV2 · nOPV2 is a genetically modified version of the attenuated Sabin vaccine. (who.int)
The GAP IV describes the safe handling requirements and community safeguards on the principles of a biorisk management system : the Biorisk Management Standard for Poliovirus-essential Facilities Holding Wild and/or Sabin/OPV Poliovirus Materials. (biosafety.be)
Dr. Dowdle discusses his time in working with CDC's Montgomery lab's and the work of Doctors' Schaeffer and Li as well as the work on the first trials of the Sabin vaccine. (globalhealthchronicles.org)
So, moving ahead, after the Sabin vaccine was used and Salk was discontinued--there started to be some cases of polio that were associated with polio with the vaccine. (globalhealthchronicles.org)

Unfortunately, cVDPV strains 'are a major challenge to accomplishing this goal,' as they promote community spread of poliovirus, which can only be combatted with OPV, thus perpetuating the cycle. (asm.org)

When the IPV (injection) is used, 90% or more of individuals develop protective antibodies to all three serotypes of polio virus after two doses of inactivated polio vaccine (IPV), and at least 99% are immune to polio virus following three doses. (wikipedia.org)
One dose of OPV produces immunity to all three poliovirus serotypes in roughly 50% of recipients. (wikipedia.org)
Today, only one of three wild poliovirus serotypes, type 1 (WPV1), remains in circulation in only two countries, Afghanistan and Pakistan. (cdc.gov)
Polioviruses have 3 serotypes. (msdmanuals.com)
Indeed, of the 3 serotypes of wild poliovirus (the causative agent of the disease), only type 1 remains in Afghanistan and Pakistan , the 2 countries where polio (i.e., wild poliovirus) is still endemic. (asm.org)

a) Strengthen AFP and environmental surveillance for timely detection of any poliovirus transmission or importation from endemic countries and further improve the quality of outbreak response. (who.int)
OPV produces excellent immunity in the intestine , the primary site of wild poliovirus entry, which helps prevent infection with wild virus in areas where the virus is endemic . (wikipedia.org)
Wild poliovirus type 1 (WPV1) remains endemic in Afghanistan and Pakistan. (cdc.gov)
Since the 1988 World Health Assembly resolution to eradicate poliomyelitis, the number of countries where polio is endemic has decreased from 125 in 1988 to six at the end of 2003. (goodtrips.org)
In countries with endemic polio or where the risk of imported cases is high, the WHO recommends OPV vaccine at birth followed by a primary series of three OPV and at least one IPV doses starting at 6 weeks of age, with a minimum of 4 weeks between OPV doses. (mdwiki.org)
Just for starters, Afghanistan and Pakistan are the only countries where wild poliovirus type 1 remains endemic. (parasiteswithoutborders.com)
Recent efforts have had a clear impact on the global epidemiology of poliovirus, with endemic wild poliovirus transmission at extremely low levels, with just Pakistan and Afghanistan remaining endemic, and efforts to curb circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses (cVDPVs) showing fruit. (polioeradication.org)
The two-remaining polio-endemic countries must reach all children with polio vaccine to achieve zero wild poliovirus cases, and ultimately for the world to achieve polio eradication. (utoledo.edu)

While IPV does an excellent job at protecting individuals from paralytic disease, it cannot stop community transmission of poliovirus-but OPV can. (asm.org)
understand the history of polio in the U.S. and globally, describe polioviruses, understand the incubation period and transmission of poliovirus, and understand the impact of polio vaccination and the different types of vaccine. (cdc.gov)

Cessation of Trivalent Oral Poliovirus Vaccine and Introduction of Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccine - Worldwide, 2016. (umk.pl)

[2] Oral polio vaccines cause about three cases of vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis per million doses given. (wikipedia.org)
Manifestations include a nonspecific minor illness (abortive poliomyelitis), sometimes aseptic meningitis without paralysis (nonparalytic poliomyelitis), and, less often, flaccid weakness of various muscle groups (paralytic poliomyelitis). (msdmanuals.com)
Public Health Response to a Case of Paralytic Poliomyelitis in an Unvaccinated Person and Detection of Poliovirus in Wastewater - New York, June-August 2022. (msdmanuals.com)
Dr. Dowdle explains how VAPP [vaccine associated paralytic poliomyelitis] and CDC surveillance data was published through the MMWR [Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report]. (globalhealthchronicles.org)

In response to identification of a VDPV2 isolate from a sewage sample collected in the southern state of Telangana in May 2016, India conducted a mass vaccination campaign in June 2016 using an intradermal fractional dose (0.1 ml) of IPV (fIPV). (cdc.gov)
1 dose of inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) in all countries using oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) was recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) in November 2012, before the global withdrawal of the serotype 2 component from OPV ( 1 ). (cdc.gov)
bOPV must be administered by oral route only, by using a multi-dose dropper supplied with the vaccine vial. (who.int)
four weeks) of all ages, should receive a dose of bivalent oral poliovirus vaccine (bOPV) or inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) between four weeks and 12 months prior to international travel. (umk.pl)
[11] The wholesale cost per dose for the oral vaccine in the developing world is about US$0.25 as of 2014. (mdwiki.org)
The FDA has only approved Vaxelis to be given to infants for the first three doses, usually given at two, four and six months, and children will have to get a separate dose of DTaP vaccine to complete the primary pertussis vaccine before age four. (thevaccinereaction.org)
According to the Vaxelis product insert, contraindications include "a history of encephalopathy (coma, decreased levels of consciousness, prolonged seizures) within 7 days of a previous dose of pertussis-containing vaccine, that is not attributable to another cause" and "a history of progressive neurologic disorder, including infantile spasms, uncontrolled epilepsy, or progressive encephalopathy until a treatment regimen has been established and the conditions has stabilized. (thevaccinereaction.org)
In December 2020, the Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine 2-dose series was found to be both safe and 91% to 95% effective in preventing COVID-19 infection in people age 18 and older. (killerinsideme.com)
The combined seven-vaccine series (4:3:1:3/4:3:1:4) includes ≥4 doses of DTaP, ≥3 doses of poliovirus vaccine, ≥1 dose of measles-containing vaccine, the full series of Hib (≥3 or ≥4 doses, depending on product type), ≥3 doses of HepB, ≥1 dose of varicella vaccine, and ≥4 doses of PCV. (killerinsideme.com)

Use of OPV, especially in areas with low vaccination coverage, is associated with low risk of emergence of vaccine-derived polioviruses (VDPVs). (cdc.gov)
National preparedness and response plans in all polio-free countries in the Region except Palestine and Yemen were tested and updated in simulation exercises conducted in 2016 and 2017 to mitigate the risk of importation of WPV and/or the emergence of VDPVs, and to ensure an effective response should it occur. (who.int)

1. The African Region has made tremendous progress towards eradication of poliomyelitis. (who.int)
In 2015, the Global Commission for the Certification of the Eradication of Poliomyelitis certified the eradication of type 2 poliovirus, making it the first human pathogen to be eradicated since smallpox. (cdc.gov)
Although type 3 has not been declared eradicated by the Global Commission for Certification of the Eradication of Poliomyelitis, the strain has been undetected for more than three years and may have been eradicated. (aap.org)

A randomized controlled trial study of bivalent Oral Polio Vaccine manufacturer by Indian filler using monovalent bulk procured by PT. (who.int)
The countries of the Region successfully implemented the switch from trivalent to bivalent oral polio vaccine in April 2016. (who.int)
From April 17 to May 1, trivalent oral polio vaccine (tOPV) will be replaced with bivalent oral polio vaccine (types 1 and 3) (bOPV) in 155 countries. (aap.org)
Referred to as the "global switch," the withdrawal of the trivalent oral polio vaccine (tOPV) was replaced with the bivalent oral polio vaccine (bOPV). (who.int)

Pakistan began using inactivated poliovirus vaccine alongside oral vaccine in mass campaigns to accelerate eradication of wild-type poliovirus in 2014. (cdc.gov)
Using case-based and environmental surveillance data for January 2014-October 2017, we found that these campaigns reduced wild-type poliovirus detection more than campaigns that used only oral vaccine. (cdc.gov)
Location and impact of mass campaigns in Pakistan during January 2014-October 2017 that have included inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) alongside oral vaccine. (cdc.gov)
Another reason is that with the IPV (inactivated poliovirus vaccine) portion of the DTap-IPV-HeB vaccine, children no longer have to take the oral vaccine (OPV) that was administered starting in the 1950s. (wikipedia.org)
Although the oral vaccine helped eliminate polio in several countries and is still used in countries today, OPV contains live polio virus and can still result in individuals getting polio. (wikipedia.org)
and introduce IPV before the global withdrawal of the type 2 component of the trivalent oral polio vaccine (tOPV) in April 2016. (who.int)
7. There was a successful withdrawal of the type 2 oral polio vaccine in May 2016 in all countries in the African Region. (who.int)
What is bivalent oral poliomyelitis vaccine types 1 and 3 (bOPV)? (who.int)
A major objective of the endgame plan is the withdrawal of oral polio vaccine (OPV) in a phased manner, starting with type 2- containing OPV. (who.int)
This 1963 poster featured CDC's national symbol of public health , the " Wellbee ", encouraging the public to receive an oral polio vaccine. (wikipedia.org)
There are two types of vaccine: inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) and oral polio vaccine (OPV). (wikipedia.org)
[17] IPV replaced the oral vaccine in many developed countries in the 1990s mainly due to the (small) risk of vaccine-derived polio in the oral vaccine. (wikipedia.org)
Oral polio vaccines were easier to administer than IPV, as it eliminated the need for sterile syringes and therefore was more suitable for mass vaccination campaigns. (wikipedia.org)
After eradication, the routine use of oral polio vaccine (OPV) must end to avoid cases of paralysis related to the vaccine. (cdc.gov)
The Polio Eradication Strategy for 2022-2026 outlines measures including increased government accountability and wider use of novel, oral poliovirus vaccine type 2 that are needed to eradicate polio. (cdc.gov)
The updated GPEI Polio Eradication Strategy 2022-2026 ( 4 ) includes expanded use of the type 2 novel oral poliovirus vaccine (nOPV2) to avoid new emergences of cVDPV2 during outbreak responses ( 3 ). (cdc.gov)
So, why are we still using the oral vaccine when it can sometimes trigger vaccine-associated disease? (bmj.com)
Stopping any polio outbreak starts with vaccine procurement, transport by airplanes and trucks, distribution involving complex logistics, and eventually the oral administration of the vaccine by drops in the mouths of every eligible child. (polioeradication.org)
An inactivated (killed) injectable vaccine (IPV) was developed in 1955 and a live attenuated (weakened) oral polio vaccine (OPV) followed in 1961. (goodtrips.org)
Oral polio vaccines proved to be superior in administration, eliminating the need for sterile syringes and making the vaccine more suitable for mass vaccination campaigns. (mdwiki.org)
Routine use of oral polio vaccine containing the type 2 strain no longer is necessary in part because the last case of naturally occurring type 2 wild poliovirus occurred in 1999. (aap.org)
The success of eradication efforts is due in large part to the widespread use of oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV), which is the backbone of polio eradication efforts worldwide due to its ease of administration, immunogenic potential and low cost. (stanford.edu)
The global polio eradication program was initiated in 1996 and involved two types of vaccine: inactivated polio vaccine and oral polio vaccine. (medscape.com)
After certification of eradication of all types of WPV and oral poliomyelitis vaccination (OPV) cessation, facilities that will continue to handle poliovirus materials represent the most significant threat to maintaining global eradication. (biosafety.be)
In 2015, with the Global Action Plan III (GAP III) the WHO defined a strategy to minimize poliovirus facility-associated risk after type-specific eradication of wild polioviruses (WPV) and sequential cessation of routine OPV (oral polio vaccine) use. (biosafety.be)
discuss the history of polio globally and the United States, outline the current investigation and response to the case of paralytic polio New York, describe how to recognize, diagnose, and report suspected paralytic polio cases in the United States, and distinguish the differences between inactivated polio vaccine and oral polio vaccine and the importance of maintaining high polio vaccination coverage. (cdc.gov)
Second, in some countries viruses used in the oral vaccine itself have mutated into a form that can be passed on in diapers and sewage, and can paralyze unvaccinated children. (utoledo.edu)
That has contributed to fear of the oral vaccine, even though full vaccination is the only protection against such mutant viruses. (utoledo.edu)

6 In 2003, the UK switched to using only the inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) in its routine immunisation schedules. (bmj.com)
Indeed, wild poliovirus type 2 was eradicated globally in 2015, 7 and since April 2016, no OPV in use for routine immunisation around the world has contained the type 2 virus. (bmj.com)

Because of strong partnerships, 155 countries and territories switched from trivalent OPV (containing types 1, 2, and 3 poliovirus) to bivalent OPV (containing types 1 and 3 poliovirus) during a two-week period in 2016. (cdc.gov)
In 1998, there were a combined 350,000 cases of types 1 and 3 poliovirus. (medscape.com)

cVDPV2 viruses can proliferate when they are transmitted among susceptible people, resulting in mutations conferring both the neurovirulence and transmissibility characteristics of wild polioviruses. (aap.org)
A trigger for setting a definite date for global OPV2 withdrawal will be the absence of all persistent circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses type 2 (cVDPV2) for at least six months. (biosafety.be)

At the same time, the world would shift to the use of an injectable, inactivated polio vaccine (IPV), which does not cause vaccine-derived polio and provides some protection against all three polioviruses. (cdc.gov)

We have now updated these estimates in Pakistan for January 2014-October 2017, thereby including a longer period of surveillance and additional campaigns during a period when wild-type 1 poliovirus has been circulating ( Technical Appendix ). (cdc.gov)
We did not update estimates for Nigeria because only 2 campaigns using IPV occurred during April 2016-October 2017, in areas with very limited VDPV2 detection. (cdc.gov)
5. By May 2017, no case of WPV had been confirmed in the African Region since the last case in Nigeria with onset on 21 August 2016. (who.int)
6. By May 2017, environmental surveillance to complement AFP surveillance for polioviruses detection had been expanded to seven additional countries3 in the Region. (who.int)
During the fifteenth meeting of the IHR Emergency Committee regarding the international spread of polio on 14 November 2017, the committee considered the risk of international spread of poliovirus to remain a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) and extended the revised temporary recommendations for a further three months. (who.int)
In addition, there was a global supply shortage of inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) in 2016 and 2017. (who.int)
Pakistan progressed very well in 2017, reducing the number of polio cases by 60% from 20 cases in 2016 to 8 cases in 2017, while the number of cases slightly increased in Afghanistan from 13 cases in 2016 to 14 cases in 2017, with 10 cases (71%) reported from the conflict and access-affected southern region of the country. (who.int)
[25] The United States as of 2017 continues to recommend the use of a trivalent version, but a fully inactivated version. (wikipedia.org)
The global human and animal vaccine adjuvants market size was valued at USD 517.7 million in 2017. (hexaresearch.com)

Alipon et al mucosal immunity to stop the spread of poliovirus, and From June 2019 to March 2021, a further 20 at the time of the switch, there was a severe shortage stool samples from 13 AFP cases, two contacts of AFP of the IPV so that large cohorts of newborns were left cases and five healthy children, plus 23 environmental unvaccinated. (who.int)
Statement of the Eighteenth IHR Emergency Committee Regarding the International Spread of Poliovirus [Internet]. (umk.pl)

No cases of acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) caused by poliovirus were reported and an active search of medical records in health care facilities identified no unreported AFP cases in Hyderabad and Rangareddy districts in the preceding 6 months. (cdc.gov)
There has been no type 3 wild poliovirus (WPV3) detected for almost three years from either acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) cases or environmental surveillance. (who.int)
Polioviruses can cause poliomyelitis , which causes muscle paralysis. (medscape.com)
Caused by the poliomyelitis virus, in the absence of vaccination, infection results in paralysis in around one in 200 and death in approximately 5-10% of these cases. (bmj.com)
It begins with a humble stool sample - a thumb-sized smudge of poop - taken from a child with acute flaccid paralysis (AFP), then delivered to the nearest laboratory that can test the sample specifically for poliovirus. (polioeradication.org)
Poliomyelitis is called childhood paralysis, anterior horn inflammation of the spinal cord and Heine-Medin disease. (umk.pl)
Poliomyelitis paralysis occurs in 0.1-1% of infections. (umk.pl)
Polio is caused by the poliovirus , a serotype of the Enterovirus C species and member of the Picornaviridae family, which resides in the gut and throat but can invade the nervous system to cause paralysis. (asm.org)
Acute flaccid paralysis or poliomyelitis is an acute infectious viral disease, prevalent at any age, of compulsory notification in Brazil. (sbni2023.com.br)
In the Western Hemisphere, paralysis due to wild-type poliovirus was last documented in 1991. (basicmedicalkey.com)
While IM injections of other vaccines (live or attenuated) can be given concurrently with OPV, unnecessary IM injections should be avoided during the first month after OPV vaccination because they increase the risk of vaccine-associated paralysis. (basicmedicalkey.com)
The global polio program is working relentlessly together so that we can deliver a world where no child lives in fear of paralysis from poliovirus. (utoledo.edu)
Just in the last two months , cases of paralysis caused by mutant vaccine viruses have been reported in the Philippines , Zambia, Togo and Chad . (utoledo.edu)

In 2020, the estimated global infant coverage with 3 doses of poliovirus vaccine (Pol3) by age 1 year was 83% ( 6 ). (cdc.gov)

Update on Immunodeficiency-Associated Vaccine-Derived Polioviruses - Worldwide, 2018-2019. (umk.pl)
After confirmation of the wild-type polio 1 and the CDPV2 polio cases during 2019 and 2020 in Afghanistan and Pakistan, both countries jointly reported five wild Poliovirus 1 and 51 VDPC2 cases in 2021 and this latest VDPV2 detection was in Pakistan in 2021. (parasiteswithoutborders.com)
Wild poliovirus type 2 (WPV2) and type 3 (WPV3) have been eradicated globally, in 2015 and 2019 respectively. (biosafety.be)
In 2019, we will celebrate a couple of incredible milestones: the 25th anniversary of the polio-free status of the Region of the Americas and the Global Certification Commission's certification of the eradication of type 3 wild poliovirus (WPV3). (utoledo.edu)

With the vaccine, children can build up a supply of antibodies that prevent infection. (wikipedia.org)
Poliomyelitis is an acute infection caused by a poliovirus (an enterovirus). (msdmanuals.com)
References Poliomyelitis is an acute infection caused by a poliovirus (an enterovirus). (msdmanuals.com)
An explanation of how stool samples are transported over such a distance starts with why: monitoring children under 15 years of age for signs of AFP, which is the most common sign of poliovirus infection. (polioeradication.org)
Vaccines can be prophylactic (to prevent or ameliorate the effects of a future infection by a natural or "wild" pathogen ), or therapeutic (to fight a disease that has already occurred, such as cancer ). (webot.org)
By any rational standard, the mRNA vaccines are true vaccines in every sense of the word since they end up educating the human immune system to recognize a specific type of viral protein antigen which then causes this now educated immune system to specifically target the COVID-19 virus prior to an actual infection by the live virus. (educatetruth.com)

2 Africa was declared free of wild polio in August 2020 and only two small pockets of wild poliovirus type 1 remain, in Afghanistan and Pakistan. (bmj.com)
Manufacturers Sanofi Pasteur and Merck jointly developed Vaxelis, which combines diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, hepatitis B, poliomyelitis and haemophilus influenza type B vaccines into one shot, and the new combination vaccine is expected to be commercially available in the U.S. in 2020. (thevaccinereaction.org)
The new combination vaccine is expected to be commercially available in the U.S. in 2020. (thevaccinereaction.org)
For more information about the mechanism, safety, and effectiveness of these modern mRNA vaccines, I strongly recommend the excellent MedCram interview (December 16, 2020) with Dr. Shane Crotty (virologist and professor in the Vaccine Discovery Division at La Jolla Institute for Immunology - Link ). (educatetruth.com)

DTaP-IPV-HepB vaccine is a combination vaccine whose generic name is diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and acellular pertussis adsorbed, hepatitis B (recombinant) and inactivated polio vaccine or DTaP-IPV-Hep B. It protects against the infectious diseases diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, poliomyelitis, and hepatitis B. A branded formulation is marketed in the U.S. as Pediarix by GlaxoSmithKline. (wikipedia.org)
The HepB portion of the vaccine protects against hepatitis B. Hepatitis B is a virus that can be spread via mother to child if the mother is infected with hepatitis B, so most doctors recommend that infants be vaccinated. (wikipedia.org)
Sanofi provided the antigens for diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, and poliomyelitis for Vaxelis production and Merck provided antigens for H. influenzae type b and hepatitis B. 3 Vaxelis has been approved by government regulators in the European Union since 2016. (thevaccinereaction.org)
7 The product manufacturer package insert for the new hexavalent vaccine states that Vaxelis is contraindicated in children with a history of severe allergic reaction to any of the ingredients of the vaccine, or to any "other diphtheria toxoid, tetanus toxoid, pertussis-containing vaccine, inactivated poliovirus vaccine, hepatitis B vaccine, or H. influenzae type b vaccine. (thevaccinereaction.org)
Diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (whooping cough), poliomyelitis, Haemophilus influenza type B and hepatitis B] Children get fewer injection pricks, but protection achieved is same as they would have with separate vaccines. (killerinsideme.com)
Chickenpox is caused by the varicella virus and can be protected against with the varicella vaccine.Hepatitis A. The Hep A vaccine protects against hepatitis A.Hepatitis B.Polio.Mumps.Measles.Rubella. (killerinsideme.com)

It was assessed the superiority of monovalent type 2 OPV (mOPV2), monovalent type 3 OPV (mOPV3) or bOPV over trivalent OPV (tOPV) and the non-inferiority of bivalent vaccine compared with mOPV1 and mOPV3. (who.int)
2016-2018*): begins for WPV2 materials as soon as criteria for global readiness are met and starts for OPV2/Sabin2 materials within three months of the tOPV-bOPV switch. (biosafety.be)

One of the most obvious vaccine failures is the mumps vaccine (part of the measles, mumps, rubella, aka MMR). (wakeup-world.com)
For example, brain inflammation reactions to pertussis (whooping cough) vaccine in the DPT or DTaP shots usually occur within 72 hours or a week of vaccination, 8 while it may take between one and two weeks for signs of brain inflammation to develop after getting live virus measles, mumps and rubella vaccine. (wfdev.net)
Separate vaccines for measles, mumps, rubella and pertussis are not available in the U.S., while tetanus and diphtheria vaccines are only available as a combination (DT or Td) vaccine. (thevaccinereaction.org)
Drawbacks to the multivalent vaccines include a higher risk of pain and swelling at the injection site and, and for Merck's MMRV (mumps, measles, rubella, varicella) vaccine in particular, a higher incidence of febrile seizures in children under age four. (thevaccinereaction.org)

OPV also provided longer-lasting immunity than the Salk vaccine, as it provides both humoral immunity and cell-mediated immunity . (wikipedia.org)
As with other live-virus vaccines, immunity initiated by OPV is probably lifelong. (wikipedia.org)
2. 5 The expanding global cohort of children without the and NCR and other regions, including Regions 3, 7, 10, immunity against poliovirus type 2 that would prevent 11 and 12. (who.int)
Vaccine promoters typically stress the importance of compliance with the federally recommended vaccine schedule in order to create and maintain vaccine-induced " herd immunity . (wakeup-world.com)
A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious or malignant disease. (webot.org)

From the moment of birth, babies can become infected with these life-threatening diseases, which is why this vaccine is recommended to be given so early on. (wikipedia.org)
Infectious diseases are among the most frequent problems affecting travelers, many of which are preventable by vaccines, medicines, and precautionary measures. (rsbmt.org.br)
The most common misinformation pieces claimed that vaccines were unsafe and that they could cause other diseases. (polioeradication.org)
Rise in animal food-borne diseases globally is projected to promote adoption of pharmaceuticals and animal vaccines. (hexaresearch.com)
The Academy supports efforts around global vaccine advocacy and especially using polio as an example of how vaccines can help eliminate diseases that impact children," Dr. Maldonado said. (aap.org)
At NVIC.org, learn more about vaccines, diseases and the human right to informed consent to medical risk taking. (wfdev.net)
On Dec. 21, 2018, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a new combination hexavalent vaccine (Vaxelis) that includes antigens for six diseases to be given in three doses to infants and children between six weeks and four years of age. (thevaccinereaction.org)
The full Vaccine Preventable Diseases and Vaccination Coverage in Australia, 2001 to 2002 report is available in 16 HTML documents. (health.gov.au)
Vaccine preventable diseases and vaccination coverage in Australia, 1993-1998. (health.gov.au)
Infectious diseases before and after a vaccine was introduced. (webot.org)
There is overwhelming scientific consensus that vaccines are a very safe and effective way to fight and eradicate infectious diseases. (webot.org)

The onset of the last polio case in the world due to wild poliovirus type 2 was in 1999, and the date of onset of the most recent case due to wild poliovirus type 3 was in November 2012. (who.int)
Type 2 poliovirus disease was eradicated in 1999, and progress toward the elimination of types 1 and 3 has been impressive. (medscape.com)
Wild-type poliovirus type 2 has not been detected in the world since 1999. (basicmedicalkey.com)

The bottom line here is that in Pakistan and Afghanistan are the only places in the world that we know of where wild type 1 poliovirus continues to circulate. (parasiteswithoutborders.com)

The first successful demonstration of a polio vaccine was by Hilary Koprowski in 1950, with a live attenuated virus which people drank. (wikipedia.org)

After use of the monovalent vaccine, the emergence of vaccine-derived poliovirus unrelated to the outbreak virus was detected in healthy children and environmental samples. (who.int)
This report describes the detection of this poliovirus in the Philippines after use of the monovalent type 2 OPV for outbreak response. (who.int)

It is imperative that all the countries of the Region complete Phase I containment requirements and start Phase II poliovirus type 2 containment as an integral part of implementation of the Global Action Plan III (GAP III) for poliovirus containment and a prerequisite for certification of polio eradication. (who.int)
Interruption of person-to-person transmission of the virus by vaccination is important in global polio eradication , [15] since no long-term carrier state exists for poliovirus in individuals with normal immune function, polio viruses have no non-primate reservoir in nature, [16] and survival of the virus in the environment for an extended period of time appears to be remote. (wikipedia.org)
The absence of type 3 poliovirus worldwide since November 2012, and limited presence of type 1 poliovirus in only a few geographic areas of three countries, meant that partners needed to implement endgame activities for polio eradication. (cdc.gov)
In 1988, the World Health Assembly of the World Health Organization (WHO) resolved to interrupt wild poliovirus (WPV) transmission worldwide, and in 2012, the World Health Assembly declared the completion of global polio eradication a programmatic emergency for public health ( 1 ). (blogspot.com)

In 1988, the World Health Organization adopted a resolution to eradicate poliomyelitis by the year 2000. (basicmedicalkey.com)
Since 1988, an enhanced-potency inactivated poliovirus vaccine has been available in the United States. (basicmedicalkey.com)

Pfizer's vaccine Prevnar, which targets 13 strains of pneumococcus bacteria, generated $6.25 billion in revenue last year. (wakeup-world.com)
There are three immunologically distinct strains of poliovirus. (medscape.com)
Underscoring the urgency in giving the world one less infectious disease to worry about once and for all, WHO Director-General Dr Tedros issued a clear challenge to the Assembly: "For countries affected by polio, it is imperative that you reach every last child, and that you respond to vaccine-derived strains with the same urgency as you would to a wild strain. (polioeradication.org)
Their success in clearing or inactivating a pathogen will depend on the amount of antibodies produced and on the extent to which those antibodies are effective at countering the strain of the pathogen involved, since different strains may be differently susceptible to a given immune reaction. (webot.org)

Great stuff out of the CDC recently with the MMWR, " Progress Toward Poliomyelitis Eradication, Afghanistan, January 2021-September 2022. (parasiteswithoutborders.com)

[21] Three doses of live-attenuated OPV produce protective antibodies to all three poliovirus types in more than 95% of recipients. (wikipedia.org)
[18] Three doses of live-attenuated OPV produce protective antibodies to all three poliovirus types in more than 95% of recipients. (mdwiki.org)

Wastewater Testing and Detection of Poliovirus Type 2 Genetically Linked to Virus Isolated from a Paralytic Polio Case - New York, March 9-October 11, 2022. (msdmanuals.com)
Two, wild poliovirus type 1 cases had been reported in 2022 as of September 30, compared with one case during the same period in 2021. (parasiteswithoutborders.com)
The updated guidance " WHO Global Action Plan for Poliovirus Containment, 4th edition, 2022 (GAP IV) ", which is the chief guidance for poliovirus containment to eliminate any incident in facilities that store and/or work with polioviruses post-eradication, was endorsed by the WHO in 2022. (biosafety.be)
On May 5, 2022, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) limited the use of the J & J vaccine. (killerinsideme.com)

There are several types of vaccines, including:Inactivated vaccines.Live-attenuated vaccines.Messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines.Subunit, recombinant, polysaccharide, and conjugate vaccines.Toxoid vaccines.Viral vector vaccines. (killerinsideme.com)
All adults and adolescents should get the COVID-19 vaccine regardless of their CD4 count or HIV viral load. (hiv.gov)
This has been why the modern mRNA vaccines against COVID-19 have taken care to put the viral spike protein (coded for by the mRNA vaccines) into its "prefusion" conformation. (educatetruth.com)

These estimates demonstrated a reduction in the incidence of poliomyelitis and detection of poliovirus in the environment after campaigns that used IPV in Nigeria but not in Pakistan, where statistical power was limited. (cdc.gov)
this difference was statistically significant for detection of poliovirus in the environment (bootstrap p values 0.239 comparing the IRRs and 0.005 comparing the PRs for campaigns with and without IPV). (cdc.gov)

On June 7, 2016, a VDPV2 isolate with 10 nucleotide changes from the corresponding OPV strain was reported in an environmental surveillance sample collected from a sewage site on May 16, 2016. (cdc.gov)
AFP surveillance certification standard indicators are maintained and certification documentation and containment reports were submitted and reviewed by the Regional Commission for Certification of Poliovirus Eradication in April 2015. (who.int)
To be able to certify complete eradication, criteria must be met that involves a minimum of three years without detection of the virus in the presence of certification standard surveillance and laboratory bio-containment measures for wild poliovirus. (aap.org)

We recently published estimates of the impact of OPV mass campaigns with and without the inclusion of IPV in Nigeria and Pakistan during January 2014-April 2016 ( 4 ). (cdc.gov)
However, the only way to completely eliminate the risk of importation of wild poliovirus is by stopping polio transmission in Afghanistan and Pakistan. (who.int)
Member States have regularly pledged their commitment to stop poliovirus transmission in the Region and to provide all possible support to Pakistan and Afghanistan, most recently at the World Health Assembly in May 2015. (who.int)
Wild poliovirus type 1 has also been isolated from environmental samples from Pakistan and Afghanistan. (who.int)
The major focus of the eradication effort is type 1, which still circulates as wild poliovirus in Afghanistan and Pakistan. (aap.org)
But delegates cautioned that this 'window of opportunity' will not remain open indefinitely, as experts pointed to recent concerning developments such as new wild poliovirus cases confirmed in Pakistan (the first cases reported in 15 months), wild poliovirus detected in south-east Africa (the first on the African continent since 2016), and polio re-emergence in Ukraine and Israel. (polioeradication.org)
The announcement of the eradication of WPV3 will signify an important step toward a polio-free world with only one type of wild poliovirus (WPV type 1) still in circulation in just two countries, Afghanistan and Pakistan. (utoledo.edu)

Anatomy3

Organisms6

Diseases10

Chemicals and Drugs68

Analytical, Diagnostic and Therapeutic Techniques and Equipment15

Phenomena and Processes9

Information Science3

Named Groups1

Health Care14

Geographicals14

Circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus16

Outbreaks21

Confirmed vaccine-derived polioviruses1

Immunization26

Global Polio Eradication Initiative6

Sabin16

CVDPV1

Serotypes5

Endemic8

Transmission of poliovirus2

Introduction of inactivated poliovirus vaccine1

Paralytic poliomyelitis4

Dose9

VDPVs2

Eradication of poliomyelitis3

Bivalent oral polio vaccine4

Oral28

Routine2

Types 1 and 3 poliovirus2

CVDPV22

Injectable1

20179

Spread of poliovirus2

Paralysis13

Doses of poliovirus vaccine1

20194

Infection6

20204

Hepatitis6

TOPV2

Rubella4

Immunity5

Diseases11

19993

Wild-type 1 poliovirus1

Live attenuated virus1

Outbreak2

Polio eradication4

19882

Strains4

MMWR1

Antibodies2

20224

Viral3

Detection of poliovirus2

Surveillance3

Pakistan7