Early blood chemistry in Britain and France.
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I review here key research in the early years of the field of blood chemistry. The review includes successes and limitations of animal chemistry in the critical period of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Eighteenth century medical theories emphasized the primacy of body solids. Body fluids were governed by the tenets of humoral pathology. After Boerhaave sparked interest in the chemistry of the body fluids, a new humoralism developed. With the rise of animal chemistry in the eighteenth century, two complementary ideas came into play. The concept of vital force was introduced in 1774, and the chemical composition of animal matters, including the blood, began to be investigated. In the early nineteenth century, the development of new methods of analysis encouraged such chemical studies. Prominent chemists led the field, and physicians also became involved. Physiologists were often opposed to the chemical tradition, but Francois Magendie recognized the importance of chemistry in physiology. Liebig linked the formation and functions of the blood to general metabolism and so extended the scope of animal chemistry from 1842. About the same time, microscopic studies led to discoveries of the globular structure of the blood, and Magendie's famous pupil, Claude Bernard, began the animal chemistry studies that led him to new discoveries in hematology. This review addresses discoveries, controversies, and errors that relate to the foundations of clinical chemistry and hematology and describes contributions of instrumental investigators. (+info)
Ethics--dentistry and tooth-drawing in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries in England. Evidence of provision at all levels of society.
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The popularity of caricature at the end of the eighteenth century allows a researcher to observe the social as well as the technical side of dentistry as it was then available throughout the kingdom. The value of these caricatures is further enhanced by the unconscious inclusion of everyday objects which a narrative account would not think it worthwhile including, even if such narrative account had existed. (+info)
Phototherapy: from ancient Egypt to the new millennium.
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Phototherapy with ultraviolet light was widely and successfully used in the past for treatment of a variety of diseases. Phototherapy with visible light alone has no benefit except in the therapy and prophylaxis of unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia. For this purpose, radiation in the region of approximately 480 to 500 nm is most effective and radiation above approximately 550 nm is useless. The principle effect of the treatment is not photodegradation of bilirubin, but conversion of the pigment to structural isomers that are more polar and more readily excreted than the normal, more toxic "dark" form of the pigment. This, coupled with some photooxidation of bilirubin, diminishes the overall pool of bilirubin in the body and lowers plasma levels. In the future, phototherapy may be supplanted by pharmacologic treatment, but in the near future, the most likely advance will be the introduction of novel forms of light production and delivery. (+info)
The role of the French midwives in establishing the first special care units for sick newborns.
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At the end of the 19th century, under Dr. Tarnier's direction, the first trials of incubators were performed at the Paris Maternity. The success led to the construction of a special pavilion for sick newborns. The midwife-in-chief, Mrs. Henry, raised the funds for the construction. The results of the initial trial are reported. In 1892, the successor of Dr. Tarnier, Dr. Budin, the Chair of Obstetrics, did not approve of the condition of the nursery. Mrs. Henry left abruptly. The unit was placed under medical direction in order to bring a scientific approach to the care of the sick newborns. Stepdown units called pouponnieres were created to assure the transition of the infants to the home and decrease neonatal mortality. (+info)
Alternative treatments in reproductive medicine: much ado about nothing. "The fact that millions of people do not master arithmetic does not prove that two times two is anything else than four": W.F. Hermans.
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The popularity of alternative medicine certainly also affects patients suffering from infertility. Alternative medicine started in the seventies but there have always been unorthodox practitioners, treating infertile women and men. Some historical examples will be described. The claims made for alternative medicine in the lay press have not been accompanied by similar reports in the mainstream medical journals. Practitioners and advocates of alternative medicine have used several strategies to defend their position. These were mostly of a philosophical nature, but more recently the practitioners of alternative medicine admit that the effectiveness of their therapies should be proven in randomized trials, as is considered mandatory in regular medicine. There are very few well-designed papers on the effectiveness of alternative medicine with the exception of one kind of paper that is hard for editors of medical journals to resist: seemingly impeccable papers proving absurd claims, whose mechanisms of action are, for instance, completely incomprehensible. We argue that this type of paper should be rejected for publication and indeed offer explanations for their mere existence. (+info)
Developmental biology in Geneva: a three century-long tradition.
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It was in the first half of the 18th century when life sciences started to flourish in the independent republic of Geneva. However, it is difficult to identify a genuine school of developmental biologists during that era. Nevertheless, several prominent scientists over the past two and a half centuries have established and maintained a strong tradition of studies in embryological development and reproduction. In this short historical account, we briefly pay tribute to these famous forerunners, by emphasizing both the originality and quality of their work, as well as the many accompanying conceptual and methodological advances. We start with Abraham Trembley (1710-1784) and the discovery of Hydra and of regeneration, and with Charles Bonnet (1720-1793) who, amongst other contributions, first observed parthenogenetic development. In the 19th century, Carl Vogt (1817-1895) and Edouard Claparede (1832-1871) were well-known scientists in this field of research, whereas Hermann Fol (1845-1892) can be considered as one of the pioneers, if not the founder, of causal embryology, through his experiments on lateral asymmetry in manipulated chicken. More recently, Emile Guyenot (1885-1963) and Kitty Ponse (1897-1982) perpetuated this tradition, which is well alive nowadays in the city of Calvin. (+info)
Philosophy of public health: lessons from its history in England.
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In a modern industrialized society it was essential for humankind to be protected by a strong medical presence, to establish a uniform system for public health everywhere in that society, to make public health independent from the welfare system, and to harmonize the relationship between personal hygienic rules and local authority rules. The society in Japan has developed on the basis of those four philosophical principles of public health, and has enabled the people to have the longest life expectancy in the world. However, the public health system in this society is now in a critical situation resulting from the long life expectancy. How can we rebuild the role of public health in this country? A society with a long life expectancy has to face a wide variety of health conditions. However, the health insurance system in Japan does not generally provide any service for a patient without specific symptoms. Consequently, to help people become aware of their own health condition, comprehensive public services such as general health check-ups, screening for cancers, and health counselling have been established locally by all 3250 municipal authorities. In promoting those services, people must learn how to draw the boundary-line between 'public' and 'private' in affairs of health to understand the importance of 'hygienic rules based on counsels for personal self-government', as Simon suggested 100 years ago, and health professionals must develop a public health system which depends not only on regulatory laws but also on scientific findings, as Rumsey advocated 150 years ago. (+info)
Erasmus Darwin's improved design for steering carriages and cars.
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Carriage journeys in England during the eighteenth century were notoriously dangerous. Rutted and pot-holed roads exacerbated the deficiencies in steering, springing and stability. In 1758 the young Dr. Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802; F. R. S. 1761) was travelling about 10,000 miles a year in visits to patients from his house at Lichfield. To alleviate the danger and discomfort of his journey, he developed a design for improved carriage steering and stability, which he road-tested over 20,000 miles on two carriages. In 1765 Richard Lovell Edgeworth (1744-1817; F. R. S. 1718) heard about Darwin's design, urged the Society of Arts to enquire about it, and then visited Darwin himself. With the aid of manuscripts from the Archive of the Royal Society of Arts and elsewhere, I offer a reconstruction of Darwin's improved method of steering, which relies on four jointed rods, initially in the form of an isosceles trapezium. The mechanism was reinvented more than 50 years later, and came to be used widely in early modern cars. (+info)