Venetian treacle and the foundation of medicines regulation.
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Mithridatium and the related product Theriac were both regarded from the time of their original formulations in the 2nd Century BC and the 1st Century AD respectively, until the mid 18th Century as universal panaceas. Any failure of these products to achieve the desired therapeutic result was attributed to defective composition or manufacture. As a result measures were introduced to ensure the quality of ingredients used in these products composition, the establishment of standard formulations and assurance of the competence of the manufacturer. Manufacture frequently was required to take place in public. Doubts about the efficacy of these panaceas arose in the mid 18th century and concerns of the adverse nature of interactions between the numerous ingredients surfaced in Heberden's treatise of 1745, as result of which these products disappeared from Editions of The London Pharmacopoeia after 1746. Subsequently, arising from these concerns for safety and efficacy, a call was made in 1799 for the establishment of a Public Committee of eminent physicians to scrutinise all new products prior to their launch to an gullible public. The concepts developed in the history of Mithridatium form the basis of modern medicines regulation. (+info)
An abbreviated history of the ear: from Renaissance to present.
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In this article we discuss important discoveries in relation to the anatomy and physiology of the ear from Renaissance to present. Before the Renaissance, there was a paucity of knowledge of the anatomy of the ear, because of the relative inaccessibility of the temporal bone and the general perception that human dissections should not be conducted. It was not until the sixteenth century that the middle ear was described with detail. Further progress would be made between the sixteenth and eighteenth century in describing the inner ear. In the nineteenth century, technological advancement permitted a description of the cells and structures that constitute the cochlea. Von Helmholtz made further progress in hearing physiology when he postulated his resonance theory and later von Bekesy when he observed a traveling wave in human cadavers within the cochlea. Brownell later made a major advance when he discovered that the ear has a mechanism for sound amplification, via outer hair cell electromotility. (+info)
Perspective on the vestibular cortex throughout history.
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The human vestibular organ transmits sensory information to various components of the central nervous system related to head movement and, obviously, among these components, to its terminal region(s) in the vestibular parts of the cerebral cortex. Study of vestibular structures dates back to historical epochs when primitive considerations on cerebral global function were made without knowledge of a cerebral cortical region related to vestibular function. At the time of Meniere in the 19th century, patients with vertigo were defined as having cerebral congestion. Cerebral mapping and computational anatomy in the 20th century significantly expanded our knowledge of cerebral structure and its function and the concept of cerebral processing of a variety of types of information, including that generated by the vestibular system. These modern techniques include nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, functional magnetic resonance imaging, and positron emission tomography. These techniques have allowed researchers to define the cortical representation of the vestibular system in human beings and in other species, a representation generally assumed to be located in various cerebral temporal and parietal regions. Although vestibular activation has been recorded in frontal lobe regions, the main vestibular cortical zone has been defined as being located in the parietal lobe; others have recognized a vestibular cortical function in the insula. (+info)
Catherina Schrader (1656-1746): the memoirs of a Friesian midwife.
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Catherina Schrader, a Dutch midwife practicing 300 years ago, left records of some 4000 deliveries, 95% of which were spontaneous without intervention. The corrected maternal mortality was 4.6/1000 and perinatal mortality 54/1000 births. (+info)
Robert Boyle's landmark book of 1660 with the first experiments on rarified air.
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In 1660, Robert Boyle (1627-1691) published his landmark book New Experiments Physico-Mechanicall, Touching the Spring of the Air, and its Effects... in which he described the first controlled experiments of the effects of reducing the pressure of the air. Critical to this work was the development of an air pump by Boyle with Robert Hooke (1635-1703). For the first time, it was possible to observe physical and physiological processes at both normal and reduced barometric pressures. The air pump was described in detail, although the exact design of the critical piston is unclear. Boyle reported 43 separate experiments, which can conveniently be divided into 7 groups. The first experiments were on the "spring of the air," that is the pressure developed by the air when its volume was changed. Several experiments described the behavior of the barometer invented by Torricelli just 16 years before when it was introduced into the low-pressure chamber. The behavior of burning candles was discussed, although this emphasized early misunderstandings of the nature of combustion. There were some physiological observations, although these were later extended by Boyle and Hooke. The effects of the low pressure on such diverse physical phenomena as magnetism, sound propagation, behavior of a pendulum, evolution of gases from liquids, and the behavior of smoke were described. This classic book is brimming with enthusiasm and fresh ideas even for today and deserves to be better known. (+info)
The chick; a great model system becomes even greater.
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The chick embryo has a long and distinguished history as a major model system in developmental biology and has also contributed major concepts to immunology, genetics, virology, cancer, and cell biology. Now, it has become even more powerful thanks to several new technologies: in vivo electroporation (allowing gain- and loss-of-function in vivo in a time- and space-controlled way), embryonic stem (ES) cells, novel methods for transgenesis, and the completion of the first draft of the sequence of its genome along with many new resources to access this information. In combination with classical techniques such as grafting and lineage tracing, the chicken is now one of the most versatile experimental systems available. (+info)
Shakespeare's chancre: did the bard have syphilis?
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Shakespeare's obsessive interest in syphilis, his clinically exact knowledge of its manifestations, the final poems of the sonnets, and contemporary gossip all suggest that he was infected with "the infinite malady." The psychological impact of venereal disease may explain the misogyny and revulsion from sex so prominent in the writings of Shakespeare's tragic period. This article examines the possibility that Shakespeare received successful treatment for syphilis and advances the following new hypothesis: Shakespeare's late-life decrease in artistic production, tremor, social withdrawal, and alopecia were due to mercury poisoning from syphilis treatment. He may also have had anasarca due to mercury-related membranous nephropathy. This medical misadventure may have prematurely ended the career of the greatest writer in the English language. (+info)
William Cowper and his decorated copperplate initials.
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William Cowper was an 18th-century London surgeon/anatomist who made important contributions to several medical disciplines. He achieved lasting fame for describing the bulbourethral glands and lasting infamy for pirating plates for his anatomical atlas, the Anatomy of Humane Bodies. Cowper wrote the books and papers that taught the forerunners of today's surgeons and anatomists. His most famous pupil, the great surgeon William Cheselden, was one of the teachers of John Hunter, the founder of modern surgery. Cowper's magnificent atlas of human myology, the Myotomia Reformata, is a showcase for exquisitely rendered illustrations of muscles and bones. Cowper populated his masterwork with dozens of delightfully decorated initial letters depicting anatomical scenes. This article introduces readers to the long-forgotten William Cowper and exhibits his stunning historiated letters in all their glory. (+info)