Identification of tissues and patterning events required for distinct steps in early migration of zebrafish primordial germ cells.
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In many organisms, the primordial germ cells have to migrate from the position where they are specified towards the developing gonad where they generate gametes. Extensive studies of the migration of primordial germ cells in Drosophila, mouse, chick and Xenopus have identified somatic tissues important for this process and demonstrated a role for specific molecules in directing the cells towards their target. In zebrafish, a unique situation is found in that the primordial germ cells, as marked by expression of vasa mRNA, are specified in random positions relative to the future embryonic axis. Hence, the migrating cells have to navigate towards their destination from various starting positions that differ among individual embryos. Here, we present a detailed description of the migration of the primordial germ cells during the first 24 hours of wild-type zebrafish embryonic development. We define six distinct steps of migration bringing the primordial germ cells from their random positions before gastrulation to form two cell clusters on either side of the midline by the end of the first day of development. To obtain information on the origin of the positional cues provided to the germ cells by somatic tissues during their migration, we analyzed the migration pattern in mutants, including spadetail, swirl, chordino, floating head, cloche, knypek and no isthmus. In mutants with defects in axial structures, paraxial mesoderm or dorsoventral patterning, we find that certain steps of the migration process are specifically affected. We show that the paraxial mesoderm is important for providing proper anteroposterior information to the migrating primordial germ cells and that these cells can respond to changes in the global dorsoventral coordinates. In certain mutants, we observe accumulation of ectopic cells in different regions of the embryo. These ectopic cells can retain both morphological and molecular characteristics of primordial germ cells, suggesting that, in zebrafish at the early stages tested, the vasa-expressing cells are committed to the germ cell lineage. (+info)
flex, an X-linked female-lethal mutation in Drosophila melanogaster controls the expression of Sex-lethal.
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The Sex-lethal (Sxl) gene is required in Drosophila females for sexual differentiation of the soma, for gem cell differentiation and dosage compensation. We have isolated three new alleles of female-lethal-on-X (flex), an X-linked female-lethal mutation and have characterized its function in sex determination. SXL protein is missing in flex/flex embryos, however transcription from both Sxl(Pe), the early Sxl promoter and Sxl(Pm), the late maintenance promoter, is normal in flex homozygotes. In flex/flex embryos, Sxl mRNA is spliced in the male mode. Analysis of flex germline clones shows that it also functions in oogenesis, but in contrast to Sxl mutants that show an early arrest tumorous phenotype, flex mutant egg chambers develop to stage 10. In flex ovarian clones, Sxl RNA is also spliced in the male form. Hence, flex is a sex-specific regulator of Sxl functioning in both the soma and the germline. Genetic interaction studies show that flex does not enhance female lethality of Sxl loss-of-function alleles but it rescues the male-specific lethality of both of the gain-of-function Sxl mutations, Sxl(M1 )and Sxl(M4.) In contrast to mutations in splicing regulators of Sxl, the female lethality of flex is not rescued by either Sxl(M1 )or Sxl(M4). Based on these observations, we propose that flex regulates Sxl at a post-splicing stage and regulates either its translation or the stability of the SXL protein. (+info)
Cutting edge: IFN-gamma regulated germline transcripts are expressed from gamma2a transgenes independently of the heavy chain 3' enhancers.
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Several results indicate that transcriptional enhancers lying 3' of the Calpha gene regulate RNA expression and switch recombination of heavy chain genes. To investigate this regulation we prepared transgenic mice with a 10.5-kb transgene that included the germline form of the murine gamma2alpha gene, including promoter, I, S, and C regions. RNA was expressed from these gamma2a transgenes with correct IFN-gamma regulation, in spite of the fact that they lacked the 3' enhancers. This RNA expression was independent of insertion site and dependent on copy number, indicating that the gamma2a gene includes locus control region-like elements. Addition of either a cassette containing 3' enhancer DNase I hypersensitive sites 1, 2, 3B, and 4 or the intronic micro enhancer increased transcription from the gamma2a transgene by approximately 75-fold in B cells. However, this increased transcription was not responsive to IFN-gamma treatment of the transgenic B cells. (+info)
Human embryonic stem cells.
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Embryonic stem (ES) cells are cells derived from the early embryo that can be propagated indefinitely in the primitive undifferentiated state while remaining pluripotent; they share these properties with embryonic germ (EG) cells. Candidate ES and EG cell lines from the human blastocyst and embryonic gonad can differentiate into multiple types of somatic cell. The phenotype of the blastocyst-derived cell lines is very similar to that of monkey ES cells and pluripotent human embryonal carcinoma cells, but differs from that of mouse ES cells or the human germ-cell-derived stem cells. Although our understanding of the control of growth and differentiation of human ES cells is quite limited, it is clear that the development of these cell lines will have a widespread impact on biomedical research. (+info)
elt-1, a gene encoding a Caenorhabditis elegans GATA transcription factor, is highly expressed in the germ lines with msp genes as the potential targets.
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The Caenorhabditis elegans ELT-1 protein, a homolog of the vertebrate GATA transcription factor family, is a transcription activator that can recognize the GATA motif. We previously showed that the elt-1 mRNA was primarily expressed in C. elegans embryos. To examine whether the elt-1 mRNA in embryos is maternal, paternal or zygotic, Northern blot analysis was performed with RNA isolated from the C. elegans germ-line mutant strains, fem-2 (b245)lf, fem-3 (q20)gf, him-8 (e1489), and glp-4 (bn2). This analysis revealed that the high level of elt-1 mRNA in the C. elegans embryos resulted from either the maternal or the paternal transcription, rather than from the zygotic expression. These results further demonstrated that elt-1 was highly expressed in the germ-line of both sexes. To investigate the possible target genes for the ELT-1 protein in the germ line, the ELT-1 protein was expressed and tested for its binding specificity to the GATA motif that is present in the promoter region of the C. elegans major sperm protein genes. It was found that two conserved cis-elements, AGATCT and AGATAA, in the proximal promoter region of the msp-113 gene provided the best recognition site for ELT-1. Mutational analysis showed that the GATC core sequence was necessary for strong transactivation of the reporter gene, and that the combination of GATC and GATA motif resulted in a stronger transactivation by ELT-1 than either the duplicated GATC or GATA motif. These results suggest that the potential target for the ELT-1 protein in the germ-line may be one of the major sperm protein gene family. (+info)
Isolation and characterization of Xenopus ATM (X-ATM): expression, localization, and complex formation during oogenesis and early development.
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ATM, the gene product mutated in Ataxia Telangiectasia (A-T) encodes a 350-kDa protein involved in the regulation of several cellular responses to DNA breaks. We used a degenerate PCR-based strategy to isolate a partial clone of X-ATM, the Xenopus homologue of human ATM. Sequence analysis and confirmed that the clone was most closely related to human ATM. Xenopus ATM protein (X-ATM) is 85% identical to human ATM within the kinase domain and 71% identical over the carboxyl-terminal half of the protein. Polyclonal antibodies raised against recombinant X-ATM are highly specific for the ATM protein and recognize a single polypeptide of 370-kDa in oocytes, embryos, egg extracts and a Xenopus cell line. We found that X-ATM was expressed maternally in eggs and as early as stage II pre-vitellogenic oocytes, and the protein and mRNA were present at relatively constant levels throughout development. Subcellular fractionation showed that the protein was nuclear in both the female and male germlines. The level of X-ATM protein did not change throughout the meiotic divisions or the synchronous mitotic cycles of cleavage stage embryos. In addition, we did not observe any change in the level or mobility of X-ATM protein following gamma-irradiation of embryos. Finally, we also demonstrated that X-ATM was present in a high molecular weight complex of approximately 500 kDa containing the X-ATM protein and other, as yet unidentified component(s). (+info)
Interrelationships between microtubules, a striated fiber, and the gametic mating structure of Chlamydomonas reinhardi.
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The microtubule system associated with the Chlamydomonas reinhardi flagellar apparatus is shown to differ from previous descriptions; two of the four flagellar "roots" possess only two microtubules and are associated with a finely striated fiber. In gametic cells this fiber underlies the gametic mating structure and makes contact with it. Functional interpretations are offered. (+info)
Expression of the homophilic adhesion molecule, Ep-CAM, in the mammalian germ line.
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During normal embryonic development, mammalian germ cells use both cell migration and aggregation to form the primitive sex cords. Germ cells must be able to interact with their environment and each other to accomplish this; however, the molecular basis of early germ cell adhesion is not well characterized. Differential adhesion is also thought to occur in the adult seminiferous tubules, since germ cells move from the periphery to the lumen as they differentiate. In a screen for additional adhesion molecules expressed by the germ line, expression of the homophilic adhesion molecule, Ep-CAM, was identified in embryonic, neonatal and adult germ cells using immunocytochemistry and flow cytometry with an Ep-CAM-specific monoclonal antibody. At embryonic stages, germ cells were found to express Ep-CAM during migration at embryonic day 10.5 and early gonad assembly at embryonic day 12.5. Expression of Ep-CAM was also found on neonatal male and female germ cells. In the adult testis, Ep-CAM was detected only on spermatogonia, and was absent from more differentiated cells. Finally, embryonic stem cells were shown to express this receptor. It is proposed that Ep-CAM plays a role in the development of the germ line and the behaviour of totipotent cells. (+info)