Analyses of oviductal pars recta-induced fertilizability of coelomic eggs in Xenopus laevis.
(1/166)
The acquisition of fertilizability in coelomic eggs of Xenopus laevis has been shown to be correlated with the physical, biochemical, and ultrastructural alterations of the egg envelope [coelomic envelope (CE)] induced during the passage of eggs through the pars recta portion of the oviduct. However, no direct evidence that the pars recta renders eggs fertilizable has yet been presented. In this study, we show that coelomic eggs are highly fertilizable when they are incubated with continuous shaking for 4 h at 15 degrees C in pars recta extract (PRE) derived from females prestimulated by pregnant mare serum gonadotropin. The PRE from pituitary-stimulated Bufo japonicus was as potent as homologous PRE in rendering Xenopus eggs fertilizable. Incubation of coelomic eggs in PRE for 30 min induced a dramatic increase in the rates of sperm binding to the envelope to a level equivalent to that exhibited by the envelope from uterine eggs (VEs). The CE-to-VE ultrastructural conversion and a 43k-to-41k hydrolysis of the envelope glycoprotein component started 5 min after, and were completed by 15 min after, the start of incubation in PRE and were accompanied by an exposure of a new N-terminal sequence typical to gp41. Thus, the biochemical and ultrastructural conversions and the sperm-binding activity of the envelope induced by PREs, although being prerequisite, were not sufficient to render coelomic eggs fully accessible to fertilizing sperm. (+info)
Neuromuscular control of prey capture in frogs.
(2/166)
While retaining a feeding apparatus that is surprisingly conservative morphologically, frogs as a group exhibit great variability in the biomechanics of tongue protraction during prey capture, which in turn is related to differences in neuromuscular control. In this paper, I address the following three questions. (1) How do frog tongues differ biomechanically? (2) What anatomical and physiological differences are responsible? (3) How is biomechanics related to mechanisms of neuromuscular control? Frog species use three non-exclusive mechanisms to protract their tongues during feeding: (i) mechanical pulling, in which the tongue shortens as its muscles contract during protraction; (ii) inertial elongation, in which the tongue lengthens under inertial and muscular loading; and (iii) hydrostatic elongation, in which the tongue lengthens under constraints imposed by the constant volume of a muscular hydrostat. Major differences among these functional types include (i) the amount and orientation of collagen fibres associated with the tongue muscles and the mechanical properties that this connective tissue confers to the tongue as a whole; and (ii) the transfer of intertia from the opening jaws to the tongue, which probably involves a catch mechanism that increases the acceleration achieved during mouth opening. The mechanisms of tongue protraction differ in the types of neural mechanisms that are used to control tongue movements, particularly in the relative importance of feed-forward versus feedback control, in requirements for precise interjoint coordination, in the size and number of motor units, and in the afferent pathways that are involved in coordinating tongue and jaw movements. Evolution of biomechanics and neuromuscular control of frog tongues provides an example in which neuromuscular control is finely tuned to the biomechanical constraints and opportunities provided by differences in morphological design among species. (+info)
Genetic variation as a test of natural selection.
(3/166)
Allozymic variation encoded by 26 loci was analyzed electrophoretically in 507 specimens representing 12 populations of green toads, Bufo viridis, in Israel and the Vis Adriatic Island. Genetic variation in Bufo viridis is higher than in any vertebrate yet studied. Mean heterozygosity per locus per individual (H) is 0.133 (range, 0.105 to 0.159). H is higher in central populations as compared with isolates, and varies among four major protein classes, being highest in transferases and hydrolases and lowest in oxidoreductases and nonenzymatic proteins. Differential gene frequencies among polymorphisms was tested as an indicator of natural selection. Significant heterogeneity between loci in their apparent inbreeding coefficients Fe=S-2p/P(1-p) was found for all alleles and for each of the four major classes of proteins tested, which may be taken as evidence of selection. Both uniform and diversifying selection are suggested by the low and high Fe values, respectively. The general pattern of high heterozygosity in Bufo viridis is best explained as an adaptive strategy in heterogeneous environments. (+info)
Differences in the skin peptides of the male and female Australian tree frog Litoria splendida. The discovery of the aquatic male sex pheromone splendipherin, together with phe8 caerulein and a new antibiotic peptide caerin 1.10.
(4/166)
The skin secretions of female and male Litoria splendida have been monitored monthly over a three-year period using HPLC and electrospray mass spectrometry. Two minor peptides are present only in the skin secretion of the male. The first of these is the female-attracting aquatic male sex pheromone that we have named splendipherin, a 25 amino acid peptide (GLVSSIGKALGGLLADVVKSKGQPA-OH). This pheromone constitutes about 1% of the total skin peptides during the breeding season (January to March), dropping to about 0.1% during the period June to November. Splendipherin attracts the female in water at a concentration of 10-11-10-9 M, and is species specific. The second peptide is a wide-spectrum antibiotic of the caerin 1 group, a 25 residue peptide (GLLSVLGSVAKHVLPHVVPVIAEKL-NH2) named caerin 1.10. The neuropeptides of L. splendida are also seasonally variable, the change identical for both the female and male. During the period October to March, the sole neuropeptide present in skin secretions is caerulein [pEQDY(SO3)TGWMDF-NH2]; this is active on smooth muscle and is also an analgaesic. During the southern winter (June to September), more than half of the caerulein is hydrolysed to [pEQDYTGWMDF-NH2], a peptide that shows no smooth muscle activity. In place of caerulein, a new peptide, Phe8 caerulein [pEQDY(SO3)TGWFDF-NH2], becomes a major component of the skin secretion. Perhaps this seasonal change is involved in thermoregulation, that is, with the initiation and maintenance of the inactive (hibernation) phase of the animal. (+info)
Isolation, structural characterization, and bioactivity of a novel neuromedin U analog from the defensive skin secretion of the Australasian tree frog, Litoria caerulea.
(5/166)
We report the isolation of a novel bioactive peptide, neuromedin U-23 (NmU-23), from the defensive skin secretion of the Australasian tree frog, Litoria caerulea. The primary structure of the peptide was established by a combination of microsequencing, mass spectroscopy and site-directed antiserum immunoreactivity as SDEEVQVPGGVISNGYFLFRPRN-amide (M(r) 2580.6). A synthetic replicate of frog NmU-23 displaced monoradioiodinated rat NmU-23 from uterine membranes in a dose-dependent fashion indistinguishable from nonisotopically labeled rat NmU-23. In a rat uterine smooth muscle strip preparation, synthetic frog NmU-23 produced dose-dependent contractions identical to porcine NmU-25. However, in a preparation of human urinary bladder muscle strip, the synthetic frog peptide was more potent than porcine NmU-25 in eliciting contraction and produced desensitization of the preparation to the latter peptide. This report demonstrates that the defensive skin secretion of a frog contains a novel peptide exhibiting a high degree of primary structural similarity to the endogenous vertebrate peptide, NmU, and that this frog skin analog displays biological activity in mammalian tissues. (+info)
Actin-like filaments amd membrane rearrangement in oxyntic cells.
(6/166)
The secretory pole of vertebrate oxyntic cells possesses two distinct membrane systems: the apical plasma membrane which presents numerous infoldings, microvilli and processes, and a complex tubulovesicular system located in close proximity to the plasma membrane. These two membrane systems are generally believed to be interconvertible in relation to the functional state of the cell. To determine the role that filaments may play in the interconversion process, the secretory pole of rat and toad oxyntic cells was examined by electron microscopy under conditions designed to demonstrate filamentous structures, i.e., slight cellular swelling and incubation with heavy meromyosin. Filaments 50-80 A in diameter are present in close association with the plasma membrane to which they are connected by regularly spaced bridges. Heavy meroxyosin-treated material reveals "decorated" filaments in topographically corresponding locations. No filaments are seen in association with membranes of the tubulovesicular system. These findings suggest that association with actin-like filaments is a step in the translocation of membranes from the tubulovesicular system to the plasma membrane. (+info)
Thyroid hormone-dependent metamorphosis in a direct developing frog.
(7/166)
The direct developing anuran, Eleutherodactylus coqui, lacks a tadpole, hatching as a tiny frog. We investigated the role of the metamorphic trigger, thyroid hormone (TH), in this unusual ontogeny. Expression patterns of the thyroid hormone receptors, TRalpha and TRbeta, were similar to those of indirect developers. TRbeta mRNA levels increased dramatically around the time of thyroid maturation, when remodeling events reminiscent of metamorphosis occur. Treatment with the goitrogen methimazole inhibited this remodeling, which was reinitiated on cotreatment with TH. Despite their radically altered ontogeny, direct developers still undergo a TH-dependent metamorphosis, which occurs before hatching. We propose a new model for the evolution of anuran direct development. (+info)
Maculatin 1.1, an anti-microbial peptide from the Australian tree frog, Litoria genimaculata solution structure and biological activity.
(8/166)
The dorsal glands of Australian tree frogs from the Litoria species contain a diversity of antibiotic peptides that forms part of the defence system of the animal. Here, the antibiotic activity and structure of maculatin 1.1, a 21 amino acid peptide from Litoria genimaculata, are compared. The activity data on maculatin 1.1 and a series of its analogues imply that the mechanism of action of maculatin 1.1 involves binding to, and subsequent lysis of, the bacterial cell membrane. The structure of maculatin 1.1 was determined using NMR spectroscopy in a trifluoroethanol/water mixture and when incorporated into dodecylphosphocholine micelles. Under both conditions, the peptide adopts a very similar conformation, i.e. a helical structure with a central kink in the vicinity of Pro15. The kink allows the peptide to adopt a well-defined amphipathic conformation along its entire length. The similar structures determined under both solvent conditions imply that structures of membrane-interacting peptides in trifluoroethanol/water mixtures are representative of those adopted in a membrane environment, e.g. when incorporated into micelles. The synthetic Ala15 analogue of maculatin 1.1 has markedly reduced activity and its NMR-derived structure is a well-defined helix, which lacks the central kink and flexibility of the parent molecule. It is concluded that the kink is important for full biological activity of the peptide, probably because it allows maximum amphipathicity of the peptide to facilitate interaction with the membrane. The structure of maculatin 1.1 is compared with a related peptide, caerin 1.1 [Wong, H., Bowie, J.H. and Carver, J.A. (1997) Eur. J. Biochem. 247, 545-557], which has an additional central proline residue and enhanced central flexibility compared with maculatin 1.1. The role of central flexibility within antibiotic peptides in their interaction with bacterial membranes is discussed. (+info)