Virus inactivation. Medical search

Inactivation of viruses by non-immune related techniques. They include extremes of pH, HEAT treatment, ultraviolet radiation, IONIZING RADIATION; DESICCATION; ANTISEPTICS; DISINFECTANTS; organic solvents, and DETERGENTS.

A species of the genus VESIVIRUS infecting cats. Transmission occurs via air and mechanical contact.

Rendering pathogens harmless through the use of heat, antiseptics, antibacterial agents, etc.

Method for measuring viral infectivity and multiplication in CULTURED CELLS. Clear lysed areas or plaques develop as the VIRAL PARTICLES are released from the infected cells during incubation. With some VIRUSES, the cells are killed by a cytopathic effect; with others, the infected cells are not killed but can be detected by their hemadsorptive ability. Sometimes the plaque cells contain VIRAL ANTIGENS which can be measured by IMMUNOFLUORESCENCE.

A species of ENTEROVIRUS which is the causal agent of POLIOMYELITIS in humans. Three serotypes (strains) exist. Transmission is by the fecal-oral route, pharyngeal secretions, or mechanical vector (flies). Vaccines with both inactivated and live attenuated virus have proven effective in immunizing against the infection.

Agents used in the prophylaxis or therapy of VIRUS DISEASES. Some of the ways they may act include preventing viral replication by inhibiting viral DNA polymerase; binding to specific cell-surface receptors and inhibiting viral penetration or uncoating; inhibiting viral protein synthesis; or blocking late stages of virus assembly.

Viruses whose genetic material is RNA.

The type species of ORTHOPOXVIRUS, related to COWPOX VIRUS, but whose true origin is unknown. It has been used as a live vaccine against SMALLPOX. It is also used as a vector for inserting foreign DNA into animals. Rabbitpox virus is a subspecies of VACCINIA VIRUS.

Specific molecular components of the cell capable of recognizing and interacting with a virus, and which, after binding it, are capable of generating some signal that initiates the chain of events leading to the biological response.

The process of intracellular viral multiplication, consisting of the synthesis of PROTEINS; NUCLEIC ACIDS; and sometimes LIPIDS, and their assembly into a new infectious particle.

Process of growing viruses in live animals, plants, or cultured cells.

The expelling of virus particles from the body. Important routes include the respiratory tract, genital tract, and intestinal tract. Virus shedding is an important means of vertical transmission (INFECTIOUS DISEASE TRANSMISSION, VERTICAL).

A general term for diseases produced by viruses.

A species of POLYOMAVIRUS originally isolated from Rhesus monkey kidney tissue. It produces malignancy in human and newborn hamster kidney cell cultures.

The assembly of VIRAL STRUCTURAL PROTEINS and nucleic acid (VIRAL DNA or VIRAL RNA) to form a VIRUS PARTICLE.

Viruses whose nucleic acid is DNA.

Viruses parasitic on plants higher than bacteria.

Viruses which lack a complete genome so that they cannot completely replicate or cannot form a protein coat. Some are host-dependent defectives, meaning they can replicate only in cell systems which provide the particular genetic function which they lack. Others, called SATELLITE VIRUSES, are able to replicate only when their genetic defect is complemented by a helper virus.

Capsid functions of inactivated human picornaviruses and feline calicivirus. (1/215)

The exceptional stability of enteric viruses probably resides in their capsids. The capsid functions of inactivated human picornaviruses and feline calicivirus (FCV) were determined. Viruses were inactivated by UV, hypochlorite, high temperature (72 degrees C), and physiological temperature (37 degrees C), all of which are pertinent to transmission via food and water. Poliovirus (PV) and hepatitis A virus (HAV) are transmissible via water and food, and FCV is the best available surrogate for the Norwalk-like viruses, which are leading causes of food-borne and waterborne disease in the United States. The capsids of all 37 degrees C-inactivated viruses still protected the viral RNA against RNase, even in the presence of proteinase K, which contrasted with findings with viruses inactivated at 72 degrees C. The loss of ability of the virus to attach to homologous cell receptors was universal, regardless of virus type and inactivation method, except for UV-inactivated HAV, and so virus inactivation was almost always accompanied by the loss of virus attachment. Inactivated HAV and FCV were captured by homologous antibodies. However, inactivated PV type 1 (PV-1) was not captured by homologous antibody and 37 degrees C-inactivated PV-1 was only partially captured. The epitopes on the capsids of HAV and FCV are evidently discrete from the receptor attachment sites, unlike those of PV-1. These findings indicate that the primary target of UV, hypochlorite, and 72 degrees C inactivation is the capsid and that the target of thermal inactivation (37 degrees C versus 72 degrees C) is temperature dependent. (+info)

Infectivity of RNA from inactivated poliovirus. (2/215)

During inactivation of poliovirus type 1 (PV-1) by exposure to UV, hypochlorite, and heat (72 degrees C), the infectivity of the virus was compared with that of its RNA. DEAE-dextran (1-mg/ml concentration in Dulbecco's modified Eagle medium buffered with 0.05 M Tris, pH 7.4) was used to facilitate transfecting PV-1 RNA into FRhK-4 host cells. After interaction of PV-1 RNA with cell monolayer at room temperature (21 to 22 degrees C) for 20 min, the monolayers were washed with 5 ml of Hanks balanced salt solution. The remainder of the procedure was the same as that for the conventional plaque technique, which was also used for quantifying the PV-1 whole-particle infectivity. Plaque formation by extracted RNA was approximately 100,000-fold less efficient than that by whole virions. The slopes of best-fit regression lines of inactivation curves for virion infectivity and RNA infectivity were compared to determine the target of inactivation. For UV and hypochlorite inactivation the slopes of inactivation curves of virion infectivity and RNA infectivity were not statistically different. However, the difference of slopes of inactivation curves of virion infectivity and RNA infectivity was statistically significant for thermal inactivation. The results of these experiments indicate that viral RNA is a primary target of UV and hypochlorite inactivations but that the sole target of thermal inactivation is the viral capsid. (+info)

Multiply attenuated, self-inactivating lentiviral vectors efficiently deliver and express genes for extended periods of time in adult rat cardiomyocytes in vivo. (3/215)

BACKGROUND: Among retroviral vectors, lentiviral vectors are unique in that they transduce genes into both dividing and nondividing cells. However, their ability to provide sustained myocardial transgene expression has not been evaluated. METHODS AND RESULTS: Multiply attenuated, self-inactivating lentivectors based on human immunodeficiency virus-1 contained the enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) gene under the transcriptional control of either the cytomegalovirus (CMV) immediate-early enhancer/promoter, the elongation factor-1alpha (EF-1alpha) promoter, or the phosphoglycerate-kinase (PGK) promoter. Lentivectors transduced adult rat cardiomyocytes in a dose-dependent manner (transduction rates, >90%; multiplicity of infection, approximately 5). The CMV promoter achieved higher EGFP expression levels than the EF-1alpha and PGK promoters. Insertion of the central polypurine tract pol sequence improved gene transfer efficiency by approximately 2-fold. In vivo gene transfer kinetics was studied by measuring the copy number of integrated lentivirus DNA and EGFP concentrations in cardiac extracts by real-time polymerase chain reaction and ELISA, respectively. With CMV promoter-containing lentivectors, vector DNA peaked at day 3, declined by approximately 4-fold at day 14, but then remained stable up to week 10. Similarly, EGFP expression peaked at day 7, decreased by approximately 7-fold at day 14, but was essentially stable thereafter. In contrast, vector DNA and EGFP expression declined rapidly with EF-1alpha promoter-containing lentivectors. Peak EGFP expression with titer-matched adenovectors was approximately 35% higher than with CMV lentivectors but was lost rapidly over time. CONCLUSIONS: Lentivectors efficiently transduce and express genes for extended periods of time in cardiomyocytes in vivo. Lentivectors provide a useful tool for studying myocardial biology and a potential system for gene heart therapy. (+info)

Chlorine inactivation of adenovirus type 40 and feline calicivirus. (4/215)

Ct values, the concentration of free chlorine multiplied by time of contact with virus, were determined for free-chlorine inactivation experiments carried out with chloroform-extracted (dispersed) and non-chloroform-extracted (aggregated) feline calicivirus (FCV), adenovirus type 40 (AD40), and polio virus type 1 (PV-1). Experiments were carried out with high and low pH and temperature conditions. Ct values were calculated directly from bench-scale free-chlorine inactivation experiments and from application of the efficiency factor Hom model. For each experimental condition, Ct values were higher at pH 8 than at pH 6, higher at 5 degrees C than at 15 degrees C, and higher for dispersed AD40 (dAD40) than for dispersed FCV (dFCV). dFCV and dAD40 were more sensitive to free chlorine than dispersed PV-1 (dPV-1). Cts for 2 log inactivation of aggregated FCV (aFCV) and aggregated PV-1 (aPV-1) were 31.0 and 2.8 orders of magnitude higher than those calculated from experiments carried out with dispersed virus. Cts for 2 log inactivation of dFCV and dAD40 in treated groundwater at 15 degrees C were 1.2 and 13.7 times greater than in buffered-demand-free (BDF) water experiments at 5 degrees C. Ct values listed in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Guidance Manual were close to, or lower than, Ct values generated for experiments conducted with dispersed and aggregated viruses suspended in BDF water and for dispersed viruses suspended in treated groundwater. Since the state of viruses in water is most likely to be aggregated and associated with organic or inorganic matter, reevaluation of the EPA Guidance Manual Ct values is necessary, since they would not be useful for ensuring inactivation of viruses in these states. Under the tested conditions, dAD40, dFCV, aFCV, dPV-1, and aPV-1 particles would be inactivated by commonly used free chlorine concentrations (1 mg/liter) and contact times (60 to 237 min) applied for drinking water treatment in the United States. (+info)

Cholesterol depletion of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and simian immunodeficiency virus with beta-cyclodextrin inactivates and permeabilizes the virions: evidence for virion-associated lipid rafts. (5/215)

Recent evidence suggests that human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) particles assemble and bud selectively through areas in the plasma membrane of cells that are highly enriched with glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins and cholesterol, called lipid rafts. Since cholesterol is required to maintain lipid raft structure and function, we proposed that virion-associated cholesterol removal with the compound 2-hydroxy-propyl-beta-cyclodextrin (beta-CD) might be disruptive to HIV-1 and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV). We examined the effect of beta-CD on the structure and infectivity of cell-free virions. We found that beta-CD inactivated HIV-1 and SIV in a dose-dependent manner and permeabilized the viral membranes, resulting in the loss of mature Gag proteins (capsid, matrix, nucleocapsid, p1, and p6) without loss of the envelope glycoproteins. SIV also lost reverse transcriptase (RT), integrase (IN), and viral RNA. IN appeared to be only slightly diminished in HIV-1, and viral RNA, RT, matrix, and nucleocapsid proteins were retained in HIV-1 but to a much lesser degree. Host proteins located internally in the virus (actin, moesin, and ezrin) and membrane-associated host proteins (major histocompatibility complex classes I and II) remained associated with the treated virions. Electron microscopy revealed that under conditions that permeabilized the viruses, holes were present in the viral membranes and the viral core structure was perturbed. These data provide evidence that an intact viral membrane is required to maintain mature virion core integrity. Since the viruses were not fixed before beta-CD treatment and intact virion particles were recovered, the data suggest that virions may possess a protein scaffold that can maintain overall structure despite disruptions in membrane integrity. (+info)

Differences in participation of innate and adaptive immunity to respiratory syncytial virus in adults and neonates. (6/215)

Innate and adaptive immune responses to respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) in neonates were assessed by cord blood mononuclear cell (MC) cytokine expression and proliferation and these responses were compared with those from adult peripheral blood MCs. In adult cells, inactivated and live virus invoked cytokines reflecting both innate and adaptive immunity (interleukin [IL]-6, interferon [IFN]-gamma, IL-2, tumor necrosis factor [TNF]-alpha, and IL-10). Low levels of IL-4 were detected, although only with inactivated virus. In contrast, in neonatal cells, inactivated virus invoked large levels of the innate immune cytokines IL-6, TNF-alpha, and IL-10 and reduced levels of IFN-gamma and IL-12 but no adaptive cytokines. Live virus induced fewer innate (IL-6, IL-10, and IFN-gamma) and no adaptive immune cytokines. RSV-induced proliferation was absent in neonatal MCs, although positive in adult MCs. Thus, exposure to RSV does not appear to occur before birth, and adaptive immune insufficiency or greater innate responses may account for early life RSV-induced illnesses. (+info)

Sucrose density gradient centrifugation and cross-flow filtration methods for the production of arbovirus antigens inactivated by binary ethylenimine. (7/215)

BACKGROUND: Sucrose density gradient centrifugation and cross-flow filtration methods have been developed and standardised for the safe and reproducible production of inactivated arbovirus antigens which are appropriate for use in diagnostic serological applications. METHODS: To optimise the maximum titre of growth during the propagation of arboviruses, the multiplicity of infection and choice of cell line were investigated using stocks of Ross River virus and Barmah Forest virus grown in both mosquito and mammalian cell lines. To standardise and improve the efficacy of the inactivation of arboviral suspensions, stocks of Ross River virus, Barmah Forest virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, Murray Valley encephalitis virus and Alfuy virus were chemically inactivated using binary ethylenimine at a final concentration of 3 mM. Aliquots were then taken at hourly intervals and crude inactivation rates were determined for each virus using a plaque assay. To ensure complete inactivation, the same aliquots were each passaged 3 times in Aedes albopictus C6/36 cells and the presence of viral growth was detected using an immunofluorescent assay. For larger quantities of viral suspensions, centrifugation on an isopycnic sucrose density gradient or cross-flow filtration was used to produce concentrated, pure antigens or partially concentrated, semi-purified antigens respectively. RESULTS: The results of the propagation experiments suggested that the maximum viral titres obtained for both Ross River virus and Barmah Forest virus were affected by the incubation period and choice of cell line, rather than the use of different multiplicity of infection values. Results of the binary ethylenimine inactivation trial suggested that standardised periods of 5 or 8 hours would be suitable to ensure effective and complete inactivation for a number of different arboviral antigens. CONCLUSION: Two methods used to prepare inactivated arbovirus antigens have been standardised to minimise production failure and expenditure and to provide reagents that conform to the highest quality and safety requirements of a diagnostic serology laboratory. The antigens are suitable for use in either enzyme linked immunosorbent assays or haemagglutination inhibition assays and the optimised protocols can be directly applied to produce antigens from new or emerging arboviral pathogens. (+info)

Replication-incompetent virions of Japanese encephalitis virus trigger neuronal cell death by oxidative stress in a culture system. (8/215)

It has been shown that replication of the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) can trigger infected cells to undergo apoptosis. In the present study, it is further demonstrated that replication-incompetent virions of JEV, obtained by short-wavelength ultraviolet (UV) irradiation, could also induce host-cell death. It was found that UV-inactivated JEV (UV-JEV) caused cell death in neuronal cells such as mouse neuroblastoma N18 and human neuronal NT-2 cells, but not in non-neuronal baby hamster kidney BHK-21 fibroblast or human cervical HeLa cells. Only actively growing, but not growth-arrested, cells were susceptible to the cytotoxic effects of UV-JEV. Killing of UV-JEV-infected N18 cells could be antagonized by co-infection with live, infectious JEV, suggesting that virions of UV-JEV might engage an as-yet-unidentified receptor-mediated death-signalling pathway. Characteristically, mitochondrial alterations were evident in UV-JEV-infected N18 cells, as revealed by electron microscopy and a loss of membrane potential. N18 cells infected by UV-JEV induced generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) as well as the activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappaB), and the addition of anti-oxidants or specific NF-kappaB inhibitors to the media greatly reduced the cytotoxicity of UV-JEV. Together, the results presented here suggest that replication-incompetent UV-JEV damages actively growing neuronal cells through a ROS-mediated pathway. (+info)

Virus inactivation is the process of reducing or eliminating the infectivity of a virus, making it no longer capable of replicating and causing infection. This can be achieved through various physical or chemical methods such as heat, radiation, chemicals (like disinfectants), or enzymes that damage the viral genome or disrupt the viral particle's structure.

It is important to note that virus inactivation does not necessarily mean complete destruction of the viral particles; it only implies that they are no longer infectious. The effectiveness of virus inactivation depends on factors such as the type and concentration of the virus, the inactivation method used, and the duration of exposure to the inactivating agent.

Virus inactivation is crucial in various settings, including healthcare, laboratory research, water treatment, food processing, and waste disposal, to prevent the spread of viral infections and ensure safety.

Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus that belongs to the family Caliciviridae. It is a common pathogen in cats and can cause a variety of clinical signs, including upper respiratory disease, oral ulcers, pneumonia, and limping syndrome. FCV is highly contagious and can be spread through direct contact with infected cats or contaminated objects.

FCV infection typically causes mild to moderate symptoms, such as sneezing, nasal discharge, conjunctivitis, and ulcers in the mouth. However, some strains of the virus can cause more severe disease, including virulent systemic disease (VSD), which is characterized by severe pneumonia, jaundice, and multi-organ failure. VSD is a rare but often fatal complication of FCV infection.

There are several vaccines available to protect cats against FCV infection. However, because there are many different strains of the virus, vaccination may not prevent infection altogether, but it can reduce the severity of clinical signs and the risk of complications. It is important to note that some vaccinated cats can still become infected with FCV and shed the virus, so it is still possible for them to transmit the virus to other cats.

In addition to vaccination, good hygiene practices, such as regular cleaning and disinfection of surfaces and cages, can help prevent the spread of FCV in multi-cat environments. It is also important to isolate sick cats from healthy ones to reduce the risk of transmission.

Disinfection is the process of eliminating or reducing harmful microorganisms from inanimate objects and surfaces through the use of chemicals, heat, or other methods. The goal of disinfection is to reduce the number of pathogens to a level that is considered safe for human health. Disinfection is an important step in preventing the spread of infectious diseases in healthcare settings, food processing facilities, and other environments where there is a risk of infection transmission.

It's important to note that disinfection is not the same as sterilization, which is the complete elimination of all microorganisms, including spores. Disinfection is generally less effective than sterilization but is often sufficient for most non-critical surfaces and objects. The choice between disinfection and sterilization depends on the level of risk associated with the item or surface being treated and the intended use of that item or surface.

A viral plaque assay is a laboratory technique used to measure the infectivity and concentration of viruses in a sample. This method involves infecting a monolayer of cells (usually in a petri dish or multi-well plate) with a known volume of a virus-containing sample, followed by overlaying the cells with a nutrient-agar medium to restrict viral spread and enable individual plaques to form.

After an incubation period that allows for viral replication and cell death, the cells are stained, and clear areas or "plaques" become visible in the monolayer. Each plaque represents a localized region of infected and lysed cells, caused by the progeny of a single infectious virus particle. The number of plaques is then counted, and the viral titer (infectious units per milliliter or PFU/mL) is calculated based on the dilution factor and volume of the original inoculum.

Viral plaque assays are essential for determining viral titers, assessing virus-host interactions, evaluating antiviral agents, and studying viral pathogenesis.

Poliovirus is a human enterovirus, specifically a type of picornavirus, that is the causative agent of poliomyelitis (polio). It is a small, non-enveloped, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus. There are three serotypes of Poliovirus (types 1, 2 and 3) which can cause different degrees of severity in the disease. The virus primarily spreads through the fecal-oral route and infects the gastrointestinal tract, from where it can invade the nervous system and cause paralysis.

The Poliovirus has an icosahedral symmetry, with a diameter of about 30 nanometers. It contains a single stranded RNA genome which is encapsidated in a protein shell called capsid. The capsid is made up of 60 units of four different proteins (VP1, VP2, VP3 and VP4).

Poliovirus has been eradicated from most countries of the world through widespread vaccination with inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) or oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV). However, it still remains endemic in a few countries and is considered a major public health concern.

Antiviral agents are a class of medications that are designed to treat infections caused by viruses. Unlike antibiotics, which target bacteria, antiviral agents interfere with the replication and infection mechanisms of viruses, either by inhibiting their ability to replicate or by modulating the host's immune response to the virus.

Antiviral agents are used to treat a variety of viral infections, including influenza, herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, hepatitis B and C, and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infections.

These medications can be administered orally, intravenously, or topically, depending on the type of viral infection being treated. Some antiviral agents are also used for prophylaxis, or prevention, of certain viral infections.

It is important to note that antiviral agents are not effective against all types of viruses and may have significant side effects. Therefore, it is essential to consult with a healthcare professional before starting any antiviral therapy.

RNA viruses are a type of virus that contain ribonucleic acid (RNA) as their genetic material, as opposed to deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). RNA viruses replicate by using an enzyme called RNA-dependent RNA polymerase to transcribe and replicate their RNA genome.

There are several different groups of RNA viruses, including:

1. Negative-sense single-stranded RNA viruses: These viruses have a genome that is complementary to the mRNA and must undergo transcription to produce mRNA before translation can occur. Examples include influenza virus, measles virus, and rabies virus.
2. Positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses: These viruses have a genome that can serve as mRNA and can be directly translated into protein after entry into the host cell. Examples include poliovirus, rhinoviruses, and coronaviruses.
3. Double-stranded RNA viruses: These viruses have a genome consisting of double-stranded RNA and use a complex replication strategy involving both transcription and reverse transcription. Examples include rotaviruses and reoviruses.

RNA viruses are known to cause a wide range of human diseases, ranging from the common cold to more severe illnesses such as hepatitis C, polio, and COVID-19. Due to their high mutation rates and ability to adapt quickly to new environments, RNA viruses can be difficult to control and treat with antiviral drugs or vaccines.

Vaccinia virus is a large, complex DNA virus that belongs to the Poxviridae family. It is the virus used in the production of the smallpox vaccine. The vaccinia virus is not identical to the variola virus, which causes smallpox, but it is closely related and provides cross-protection against smallpox infection.

The vaccinia virus has a unique replication cycle that occurs entirely in the cytoplasm of infected cells, rather than in the nucleus like many other DNA viruses. This allows the virus to evade host cell defenses and efficiently produce new virions. The virus causes the formation of pocks or lesions on the skin, which contain large numbers of virus particles that can be transmitted to others through close contact.

Vaccinia virus has also been used as a vector for the delivery of genes encoding therapeutic proteins, vaccines against other infectious diseases, and cancer therapies. However, the use of vaccinia virus as a vector is limited by its potential to cause adverse reactions in some individuals, particularly those with weakened immune systems or certain skin conditions.

Virus receptors are specific molecules (commonly proteins) on the surface of host cells that viruses bind to in order to enter and infect those cells. This interaction between the virus and its receptor is a critical step in the infection process. Different types of viruses have different receptor requirements, and identifying these receptors can provide important insights into the biology of the virus and potential targets for antiviral therapies.

Virus replication is the process by which a virus produces copies or reproduces itself inside a host cell. This involves several steps:

1. Attachment: The virus attaches to a specific receptor on the surface of the host cell.
2. Penetration: The viral genetic material enters the host cell, either by invagination of the cell membrane or endocytosis.
3. Uncoating: The viral genetic material is released from its protective coat (capsid) inside the host cell.
4. Replication: The viral genetic material uses the host cell's machinery to produce new viral components, such as proteins and nucleic acids.
5. Assembly: The newly synthesized viral components are assembled into new virus particles.
6. Release: The newly formed viruses are released from the host cell, often through lysis (breaking) of the cell membrane or by budding off the cell membrane.

The specific mechanisms and details of virus replication can vary depending on the type of virus. Some viruses, such as DNA viruses, use the host cell's DNA polymerase to replicate their genetic material, while others, such as RNA viruses, use their own RNA-dependent RNA polymerase or reverse transcriptase enzymes. Understanding the process of virus replication is important for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines.

Virus cultivation, also known as virus isolation or viral culture, is a laboratory method used to propagate and detect viruses by introducing them to host cells and allowing them to replicate. This process helps in identifying the specific virus causing an infection and studying its characteristics, such as morphology, growth pattern, and sensitivity to antiviral agents.

The steps involved in virus cultivation typically include:

1. Collection of a clinical sample (e.g., throat swab, blood, sputum) from the patient.
2. Preparation of the sample by centrifugation or filtration to remove cellular debris and other contaminants.
3. Inoculation of the prepared sample into susceptible host cells, which can be primary cell cultures, continuous cell lines, or embryonated eggs, depending on the type of virus.
4. Incubation of the inoculated cells under appropriate conditions to allow viral replication.
5. Observation for cytopathic effects (CPE), which are changes in the host cells caused by viral replication, such as cell rounding, shrinkage, or lysis.
6. Confirmation of viral presence through additional tests, like immunofluorescence assays, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), or electron microscopy.

Virus cultivation is a valuable tool in diagnostic virology, vaccine development, and research on viral pathogenesis and host-virus interactions. However, it requires specialized equipment, trained personnel, and biosafety measures due to the potential infectivity of the viruses being cultured.

Virus shedding refers to the release of virus particles by an infected individual, who can then transmit the virus to others through various means such as respiratory droplets, fecal matter, or bodily fluids. This occurs when the virus replicates inside the host's cells and is released into the surrounding environment, where it can infect other individuals. The duration of virus shedding varies depending on the specific virus and the individual's immune response. It's important to note that some individuals may shed viruses even before they show symptoms, making infection control measures such as hand hygiene, mask-wearing, and social distancing crucial in preventing the spread of infectious diseases.

Viral diseases are illnesses caused by the infection and replication of viruses in host organisms. These infectious agents are obligate parasites, meaning they rely on the cells of other living organisms to survive and reproduce. Viruses can infect various types of hosts, including animals, plants, and microorganisms, causing a wide range of diseases with varying symptoms and severity.

Once a virus enters a host cell, it takes over the cell's machinery to produce new viral particles, often leading to cell damage or death. The immune system recognizes the viral components as foreign and mounts an immune response to eliminate the infection. This response can result in inflammation, fever, and other symptoms associated with viral diseases.

Examples of well-known viral diseases include:

1. Influenza (flu) - caused by influenza A, B, or C viruses
2. Common cold - usually caused by rhinoviruses or coronaviruses
3. HIV/AIDS - caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
4. Measles - caused by measles morbillivirus
5. Hepatitis B and C - caused by hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV), respectively
6. Herpes simplex - caused by herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) or type 2 (HSV-2)
7. Chickenpox and shingles - both caused by varicella-zoster virus (VZV)
8. Rabies - caused by rabies lyssavirus
9. Ebola - caused by ebolaviruses
10. COVID-19 - caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)

Prevention and treatment strategies for viral diseases may include vaccination, antiviral medications, and supportive care to manage symptoms while the immune system fights off the infection.

Simian Virus 40 (SV40) is a polyomavirus that is found in both monkeys and humans. It is a DNA virus that has been extensively studied in laboratory settings due to its ability to transform cells and cause tumors in animals. In fact, SV40 was discovered as a contaminant of poliovirus vaccines that were prepared using rhesus monkey kidney cells in the 1950s and 1960s.

SV40 is not typically associated with human disease, but there has been some concern that exposure to the virus through contaminated vaccines or other means could increase the risk of certain types of cancer, such as mesothelioma and brain tumors. However, most studies have failed to find a consistent link between SV40 infection and cancer in humans.

The medical community generally agrees that SV40 is not a significant public health threat, but researchers continue to study the virus to better understand its biology and potential impact on human health.

Virus assembly, also known as virion assembly, is the final stage in the virus life cycle where individual viral components come together to form a complete viral particle or virion. This process typically involves the self-assembly of viral capsid proteins around the viral genome (DNA or RNA) and, in enveloped viruses, the acquisition of a lipid bilayer membrane containing viral glycoproteins. The specific mechanisms and regulation of virus assembly vary among different viral families, but it is often directed by interactions between viral structural proteins and genomic nucleic acid.

DNA viruses are a type of virus that contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) as their genetic material. These viruses replicate by using the host cell's machinery to synthesize new viral components, which are then assembled into new viruses and released from the host cell.

DNA viruses can be further classified based on the structure of their genomes and the way they replicate. For example, double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses have a genome made up of two strands of DNA, while single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) viruses have a genome made up of a single strand of DNA.

Examples of DNA viruses include herpes simplex virus, varicella-zoster virus, human papillomavirus, and adenoviruses. Some DNA viruses are associated with specific diseases, such as cancer (e.g., human papillomavirus) or neurological disorders (e.g., herpes simplex virus).

It's important to note that while DNA viruses contain DNA as their genetic material, RNA viruses contain RNA (ribonucleic acid) as their genetic material. Both DNA and RNA viruses can cause a wide range of diseases in humans, animals, and plants.

A plant virus is not defined in medical terms, as viruses are typically considered within the context of living organisms and plants are not classified as such. However, I can provide a general virology definition for you:

Plant viruses are small infectious agents that consist of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) enclosed in a protein coat. They infect various plant species, causing a wide range of symptoms and diseases, which can result in significant economic losses in agriculture and horticulture. Plant viruses lack the ability to replicate outside a host cell, and they rely on the host's metabolic machinery for their reproduction. They can be transmitted through various means, such as insect vectors, seeds, or mechanical contact.

Defective viruses are viruses that have lost the ability to complete a full replication cycle and produce progeny virions independently. These viruses require the assistance of a helper virus, which provides the necessary functions for replication. Defective viruses can arise due to mutations, deletions, or other genetic changes that result in the loss of essential genes. They are often non-infectious and cannot cause disease on their own, but they may interfere with the replication of the helper virus and modulate the course of infection. Defective viruses can be found in various types of viruses, including retroviruses, bacteriophages, and DNA viruses.

Viral inactivation is used widely in the blood plasma industry. In order to achieve inactivation of the viruses in the sample, ... Viral inactivation is to stop the viruses in a given sample from contaminating the desired product either by removing viruses ... Viral inactivation renders viruses unable to infect. Many viruses contain lipid or protein coats that can be inactivated by ... There is also no inactivation effect by the buffers used in this process. Inactivation of viruses by means of pasteurization ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_inactivation

Promoter insertion has helped researchers learn more about the HIV virus. The third mechanism is gene inactivation. An example ... Retroviruses, such as the mouse mammory tumor virus and murine leukemia virus, can be used to identify genes involved in ... Ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS) is also often used to generate animal, plant, and virus mutants. In a European Union law (as 2001/ ... of gene inactivation is using insertional mutagenesis to insert a retrovirus that disrupts the genome of the T cell in leukemia ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutagenesis_(molecular_biology_technique)

"Ionizing Radiation Inactivation of Medically Relevant Viruses" (Web). In Gazsó, L.G; Ponta, C.C (eds.). Radiation Inactivation ... Its action on viruses, on the other hand, results in damaged nucleic acids and viral inactivation. They have a sensory ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioremediation_of_radioactive_waste

The result is inactivation of bacteria or viruses. Copper complexes form radicals that inactivate viruses. Copper may disrupt ... Vasudevachari, M; Antony, A (1982). "Inhibition of avian myeloblastosis virus reverse transcriptase and virus inactivation by ... Noyce, JO; Michels, H; Keevil, CW (2007). "Inactivation of Influenza A Virus on Copper versus Stainless Steel Surfaces". ... Influenza A virus was found to survive in large numbers on stainless steel. Once surfaces are contaminated with virus particles ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial_properties_of_copper

Staehelin, Matthys (1959). "Inactivation of virus nucleic acid with glyoxal derivatives". Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 31 (2): 448- ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kethoxal

Bahnemann, H. G. (1976). "Inactivation of viruses in serum with binary ethyleneimine". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 3 (2 ... It is used to inactivate the foot-and-mouth disease virus in vaccines for cattle, as well as other viruses and mycoplasma in ... Bahnemann, H. G. (1975). "Binary ethylenimine as an inactivant for foot-and-mouth disease virus and its application for vaccine ... it was found that trimeric ethylenimine also alters proteins in virus preparations, especially at higher pH values. The ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_ethylenimine

Logrippo, Gerald A. (1960). "Investigations of the Use of Beta-Propiolactone in Virus Inactivation". Annals of the New York ... It is used to inactivate a wide variety of viruses, for example as a step in vaccine production. The principal use of ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Β-Propiolactone

The virus inactivation studies comprised experiments with several relevant viruses under various conditions. It turned out that ... Some applications include: Inactivation of lipid-enveloped viruses (e.g. HIV, HBV, HCV) in manufacturing of biopharmaceuticals ... where most virus inactivation steps in biopharmaceutical manufacturing are conducted, both Triton X-100 reduced and Nereid ... wiki Inactivation of Influenza Viruses by Triton X-100 (Chemical pages without ChemSpiderID, Articles without EBI source, ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triton_X-100

Madhusudana SN, Shamsundar R, Seetharaman S (January 2004). "In vitro inactivation of the rabies virus by ascorbic acid". ... Several studies found Vitamin C to have specific antiviral effects in which it inactivates the RNA or DNA of viruses or in the ... Lachapelle MY, Drouin G (February 2011). "Inactivation dates of the human and guinea pig vitamin C genes". Genetica. 139 (2): ... Murata A, Oyadomari R, Ohashi T, Kitagawa K (1975). "Mechanism of inactivation of bacteriophage deltaA containing single- ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_C

Kim, K. S; Moon, H. M; Sapienza, V; Carp, R. I; Pullarkat, R (1978). "Inactivation of cytomegalovirus and Semliki Forest virus ... First, there are studies that describe virus inactivation-where treatment with the chemical results in disrupted or otherwise ... which disrupt viruses by insertion of the chemical into the virus membrane, coat, or other structure, which are established ... Moreover, no group of articles constitute a series, reflecting long-term study of BHT in a host-virus pair by the same research ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butylated_hydroxytoluene

This inactivation was ultimately tested by the ELISA detection method. On the contrary, lower temperatures and low heat ... ApMV is a positive sense RNA based virus. The disease itself has several synonyms including Mild Apple Mosaic Virus, Hop Virus ... Apple mosaic virus (ApMV) is a plant pathogenic virus of the family Bromoviridae. It is named after its symptoms that were ... "Virus and Virus-like Diseases of Pome and Stone Fruits". Issuu. Retrieved 2021-01-14. Hunter, J. A.; Chamberlain, E. E.; ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_mosaic_virus

Hanson, C. V.; Riggs, J. L.; Lennette, E. H. (1978). "Photochemical Inactivation of DNA and RNA Viruses by Psoralen Derivatives ... "Field Evaluation of a Respiratory Syncytial Virus Vaccine and a Trivalent Parainfluenza Virus Vaccine in a Pediatric ... From 1941 to 1944 he was stationed in Brazil and did research on yellow fever and encephalitis viruses. From 1944 to 1946 he ... Smith, M. G.; Lennette, E. H.; Reames, H. R. (1941). "Isolation of the virus of herpes simplex and the demonstration of ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Herman_Lennette

The bottom figure shows the survival curves for inactivation of virus T4 by the DNA damaging agent mitomycin C (MMC). In this ... Escherichia virus T4 is a species of bacteriophages that infect Escherichia coli bacteria. It is a double-stranded DNA virus in ... Surviving T4 virus released from multicomplexes show no increase in mutation, indicating that MR of UV irradiated virus is an ... The time it takes for DNA replication in a living cell was measured as the rate of virus T4 DNA elongation in virus-infected E ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escherichia_virus_T4

... and inactivation of cymbidium mosaic and odontoglossum ringspot viruses". Plant Disease. 78 (6): 633-636. doi:10.1094/PD-78- ... When the virus infects TGB 1, it allows for the virus to move easily through the plasmodesmata. After the virus infects TGB 2 ... Cymbidium mosaic virus (CymMV) is a plant pathogenic virus of the family Alphaflexiviridae. Cymbidium mosaic virus and the ... It is related to the Narcissus mosaic virus (NMV), the Scallion virus X (SVX), the Pepino mosaic virus (PepMV) and the Potato ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cymbidium_mosaic_virus

Silver also leads to UV inactivation of bacteria and viruses because silver ions are photoactive in the presence of UV-A and UV ... Noyce JO, Michels H, Keevil CW (April 2007). "Inactivation of influenza A virus on copper versus stainless steel surfaces". ... Chitosan proves to be effective against bacteria, viruses, and fungi, however it is more effective against fungi and viruses ... However, the viruses can also be transmitted when a person touches respiratory droplets settled on an object or surface. It is ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial_surface

Removal of pathogenic bacteria and viruses occurs mainly by inactivation. Pathogens are inactivated as a result of a complex ... Both of these factors promote the removal of pathogenic bacteria and viruses. Given the high surface area of the maturation ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_stabilization_pond

The infectivity and inactivation of nucleic acid preparations from tobacco mosaic virus. Journal of General Microbiology 21 (2 ... and with Frederick Bawden on potato viruses. They studied the tobacco mosaic virus, demonstrating that the virus contained ... discovered that a virus can be crystallized by isolating tomato bushy stunt virus in 1936. This was an important milestone in ... Methods for the purification of tomato bushy stunt and tobacco mosaic viruses. Biochemical Journal 37 (1) pp. 66-70. Bawden, F ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Pirie

Murakami T, Niwa M, Tokunaga F, Miyata T, Iwanaga S (1991). "Direct virus inactivation of tachyplesin I and its isopeptides ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tachyplesin

Note that the meaning of Virus inactivation or Viral clearance is specific for the medical process industry, i. e. to remove ... 1997). "Inactivation of human viruses by povidone-iodine in comparison with other antiseptics". Dermatology. 195 (Suppl 2): 29- ... Croughan WS, Behbehani AM (February 1988). "Comparative study of inactivation of herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2 by commonly ... and other viruses, but coxsackievirus and polio was rather resistant or less sensitive to inactivation. In the beginning of the ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virucide

1997). "Inactivation of human viruses by povidone-iodine in comparison with other antiseptics". Dermatology. 195 Suppl 2 (2): ... Bidra AS, Pelletier JS, Westover JB, Frank S, Brown SM, Tessema B (August 2020). "Comparison of In Vitro Inactivation of SARS ... PVP-I in general covers "a wider virucidal spectrum, covering both enveloped and nonenveloped viruses, than the other ... second-line defense against severe acute respiratory coronavirus virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in dental healthcare". Infection Control ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouthwash

... the inactivation of H1N1 influenza A virus on surfaces has been demonstrated. The latter investigation suggests that ... meningopneumonitis virus strain Cal 10 and psittacosis virus strain 6BC), Group C streptococcus, type 1 pneumococcus, ... Turgeon N, Michel K, Ha TL, Robine E, Moineau S, Duchaine C (2016). "Resistance of Aerosolized Bacterial Viruses to Four ... Rudnick SN, McDevitt JJ, First MW, Spengler JD (2009). "Inactivating influenza viruses on surfaces using hydrogen peroxide or ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triethylene_glycol

A Suitable Marker of in vivo Efficacy for Pathogen Inactivation". Vox Sang. 95 (1): 76-8. doi:10.1111/j.1423-0410.2008.01050.x ... and the virus was named hepatitis F or Toga virus. Further investigations failed to confirm the existence of the virus, and it ... "orphan virus" with no causal links to any human disease. Uchida, T. (1993). "Genetic Variations of the Hepatitis B Virus and ... A subsequently-discovered virus thought to cause hepatitis was named Hepatitis G, though its role in hepatitis has not been ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatitis_F_virus

Double stranded DNA viruses like adenoviruses are more resistant to UV light inactivation than enteroviruses because they can ... human Influenza virus or avian influenza viruses respectively). Different viruses can have different routes of transmission; ... Visible light can also affect virus survival by a process called photodynamic inactivation but the length and intensity of the ... Bart De, De Gusseme (2010). "Inactivation of Viruses in Water by Biogenic Silver: Innovative and Environmentally Friendly ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_viruses_in_water

Ruane PH, Edrich R, Gampp D, Keil SD, Leonard RL, Goodrich RP (June 2004). "Photochemical inactivation of selected viruses and ... Another photochemical treatment process utilizing amotosalen and UVA light has been developed for the inactivation of viruses, ... Prowse CV (April 2013). "Component pathogen inactivation: a critical review". Vox Sanguinis. 104 (3): 183-199. doi:10.1111/j. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platelet

Ruane PH, et al., "Photochemical Inactivation of Selected Viruses and Bacteria in Platelet Concentrates Using Riboflavin and ... and non-living infectious agents such as viruses. Three blood-borne pathogens in particular, all viruses, are cited as of ... There are 26 different viruses that have been shown to present in healthcare workers as a result of occupational exposure. The ... Vector-borne diseases include West Nile virus, zika fever and malaria. Many blood-borne diseases can also be contracted by ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood-borne_disease

Ruane PH, Edrich R, Gampp D, Keil SD, Leonard RL, Goodrich RP (June 2004). "Photochemical inactivation of selected viruses and ... Viruses - both enveloped and non-enveloped including: Avian Flu, Chikungunya, CMV, Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, HIV, ... 2008). "Pathogen Inactivation of plasmodium Falciparum in Plasma and Platelet Concentrations with Riboflavin and UV Light". Vox ... This type of approach to increase blood safety is also known as "pathogen inactivation" in the industry. Despite measures that ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogen_reduction_using_riboflavin_and_UV_light

Hijnen, W.A.M. (2006). "Inactivation credit of UV radiation for viruses, bacteria and protozoan oocysts in water: A review". ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_bottle

... protects human immunodeficiency virus type 1 from inactivation by human complement". Eur J Immunol. 25 (1): 285-90. doi:10.1002 ... 2004). "Virus-receptor interactions of coxsackie B viruses and their putative influence on cardiotropism". Med. Microbiol. ... Echoviruses and coxsackie B viruses that use human decay-accelerating factor (DAF) as a receptor do not bind the rodent ... Spiller OB, Goodfellow IG, Evans DJ, Almond JW, Morgan BP (January 2000). "Echoviruses and coxsackie B viruses that use human ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decay-accelerating_factor

"Effect of chemical and physical treatments on the inactivation of striped jack nervous necrosis virus (SJNNV)". Aquaculture. ... virus Redspotted grouper nervous necrosis virus Striped jack nervous necrosis virus Tiger puffer nervous necrosis virus Sahul ... Betanodavirus, or nervous necrosis virus (NNV), is a genus of nonenveloped positive-strand RNA viruses in the family ... Replication follows the positive stranded RNA virus replication model. Positive stranded RNA virus transcription, using the ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betanodavirus

Duong YT, Meadows DC, Srivastava IK, Gervay-Hague J, North TW (May 2007). "Direct inactivation of human immunodeficiency virus ... Entry inhibitors, also known as fusion inhibitors, are a class of antiviral drugs that prevent a virus from entering a cell, ... VIR-576 is a synthesized peptide which binds to gp41, preventing fusion of the virus with a cell membrane. ITX5061 for ... Merck Manual.com Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection Table 4 [1] Williamson MP, McCormick TG, Nance CL, Shearer WT ( ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entry_inhibitor

Giardia or virus inactivation credits. For example, for a 90% reduction of Cryptosporidium, a minimum dose of 2,500 μW·s/cm2 is ... The degree of inactivation by ultraviolet radiation is directly related to the UV dose applied to the water. The dosage, a ... "Inactivation of Giardia muris by low pressure ultraviolet light" (PDF). EPA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 February ... Ma B, Gundy PM, Gerba CP, Sobsey MD, Linden KG (October 2021). Dudley EG (ed.). "UV Inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 across the UVC ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet_germicidal_irradiation

Foodborne enteric viruses are the leading cause of gastroenteritis in humans. (tennessee.edu)
Although outbreaks of nonbacterial gastroenteritis were recognized as a public health concern, electron microscopy (EM) proved to be a tedious and insensitive method for routine examination for enteric viruses in stool specimens collected during outbreak investigations. (cdc.gov)

On 20 September 2022, Uganda declared a fifth Sudan virus disease outbreak in the Mubende district, resulting in 142 confirmed and 22 probable cases by the end of the outbreak declaration on 11 January 2023. (cdc.gov)

1-3 The manufacturing process includes a solvent detergent treatment step (using tri-n-butyl phosphate and Triton® X-100) that is effective in inactivating lipid enveloped viruses such as hepatitis B , Hepatitis C , and HIV . (theodora.com)
High hydrostatic pressure has previously been shown to inactivate hepatitis A virus (HAV), a virus which can be transmitted through contact with human waste and through consumption of raw oysters and clams. (usda.gov)
Since shellfish treated at pressures as high as 59,400 psi are reported to be acceptable to consumers, this work suggests that high pressure treatment of shellfish may be a viable method for inactivating hepatitis A virus in potentially-contaminated and uncooked shellfish. (usda.gov)
Universal precautions preclude the necessity of selective treatment such as heat-inactivation for specimens from persons considered to be at increased risk for infection with HIV-1, hepatitis B virus, or other diseases caused by bloodborne pathogens. (cdc.gov)
Update: universal precautions for prevention of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B virus, and other bloodborne pathogens in health-care settings. (cdc.gov)
How is the hepatitis A virus transmitted? (cdc.gov)
Although viremia occurs early in infection, current data indicate that bloodborne transmission of hepatitis A virus is uncommon. (cdc.gov)
Who is at increased risk for acquiring hepatitis A virus (HAV) infection? (cdc.gov)
For more information about assessing risk for hepatitis A, refer to Table 3 in Prevention of Hepatitis A Virus Infection in the United States: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, 2020 . (cdc.gov)
What are the signs and symptoms of hepatitis A virus infection? (cdc.gov)
What is the incubation period for hepatitis A virus (HAV)? (cdc.gov)
How long does hepatitis A virus (HAV) survive outside the body? (cdc.gov)
How is the hepatitis A virus (HAV) killed? (cdc.gov)
Hepatitis B vaccination is the most effective measure to prevent hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection and its consequences, including cirrhosis of the liver, liver cancer, liver failure, and death. (cdc.gov)
In settings in which a high proportion of adults have risks for HBV infection (e.g., sexually transmitted disease/human immunodeficiency virus testing and treatment facilities, drug-abuse treatment and prevention settings, health-care settings targeting services to IDUs, health-care settings targeting services to MSM, and correctional facilities), ACIP recommends universal hepatitis B vaccination for all unvaccinated adults. (cdc.gov)
Hepatitis B is a disease caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV), which is transmitted through percutaneous (i.e., puncture through the skin) or mucosal (i.e., direct contact with mucous membranes) exposure to infectious blood or body fluids. (cdc.gov)
In particular, human noroviruses and hepatitis A virus (HAV) are the most important foodborne viral pathogens with regard to the number of outbreaks and people affected. (tennessee.edu)
Therefore, studies are needed to bridge existing data gaps and determine appropriate parameters for thermal inactivation methods for human norovirus and hepatitis A virus. (tennessee.edu)
The objectives of this study were to determine thermal inactivation behavior of human norovirus surrogates and hepatitis A virus (HAV) in buffer, mussel, spinach and turkey deli meat, to compare first-order and Weibull models in describing the data in terms of selected statistical parameters, to discuss inactivation mechanism during thermal treatment and to provide insight for future studies and industrial applications. (tennessee.edu)
We screen every pint of blood collected for markers of transfusion-transmissible diseases (HIV, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, HTLV-1/2, syphilis, West Nile Virus, and T. Cruzi, the cause of Chagas Disease) using serological as well as molecular (Nucleic Acid Amplification Testing) methods. (savealifenow.org)
Only 30 years ago, blood transfusions routinely transmitted the Hepatitis B virus, causing potentially lethal liver infections. (savealifenow.org)
transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) and mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) were used to determine effects of AT and RH on the survival of coronaviruses on stainless steel. (asm.org)

PVP-I was tested against Klebsiella pneumoniae and Streptococcus pneumoniae according to bactericidal quantitative suspension test EN13727 and against severe acute respiratory syndrome and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronaviruses (SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV), rotavirus strain Wa and influenza virus A subtype H1N1 according to virucidal quantitative suspension test EN14476. (springer.com)
PVP-I gargle/mouthwash diluted 1:30 (equivalent to a concentration of 0.23% PVP-I) showed effective bactericidal activity against Klebsiella pneumoniae and Streptococcus pneumoniae and rapidly inactivated SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, influenza virus A (H1N1) and rotavirus after 15 s of exposure. (springer.com)
The objective of this study was to evaluate the use of copper pots for inactivation of rotavirus present in water. (environmental-expert.com)
Subsequently, with the discovery of Norwalk virus ( 1 ), rotavirus ( 2 ), astrovirus ( 3,4 ), and enteric adenovirus ( 5 ), researchers began to recognize viruses as causative agents of gastroenteritis. (cdc.gov)

Sequencing of monkeypox virus from infected patients reveals viral genomes with APOBEC3-like editing, gene inactivation, and bacterial agents of skin superinfection. (bvsalud.org)
A large outbreak of Monkeypox virus (MPXV) infections has arisen in May 2022 in nonendemic countries. (bvsalud.org)

Some influenza clinical laboratory data and all other respiratory virus data are decreased in early 2020 and did not increase until spring 2021. (cdc.gov)
Uganda experienced five Ebola disease outbreaks caused by Bundibugyo virus (n = 1) and Sudan virus (SUDV) (n = 4) from 2000 to 2021. (cdc.gov)

Some of the more widely used processes are as follows: Solvent/detergent inactivation Pasteurization (heating) Acidic pH inactivation In some cases viral inactivation is not a viable removal alternative because even the denatured or otherwise inactivated viral particles can have deleterious effects on the process stream or the product itself. (wikipedia.org)
Virus-infected samples (in triplicate unless otherwise noted) were treated according to the specific testing parameters and dialyzed or run over detergent-removal columns to remove inactivating reagents. (cdc.gov)
Our virus inactivation offerings provide biopharma manufacturers with improved options for HTST pasteurization, low pH and chemical/detergent treatment, ensuring virus-free products while simplifying compliance and documentation. (sigmaaldrich.com)
They have developed a solvent/detergent process to eliminate dangerous viruses from plasma and plasma products, such as the clotting factor used by hemophiliacs. (savealifenow.org)

Phagocytes produce H2O2 and hydroxyl and ozone to kill bacteria and viruses. (silvermedicine.org)
The RNase T2 family consists of evolutionarily conserved endonucleases that express in many different species, including animals, plants, protozoans, bacteria, and viruses. (frontiersin.org)

Heat-inactivation of serum specimens before they are screened by enzyme immunoassay (EIA) for HIV antibody can give false-positive results (6,7). (cdc.gov)
Effect of heat-inactivation on results of HIV antibody detection by Western blot assay. (cdc.gov)
take a blood sample 4 weeks after the last injection and determine antibody level (usually by virus neutralization). (medscape.com)

Mutations in these histidine residues lead to the inactivation of RNase T2 both in vivo and in vitro ( Figure 1A ). (frontiersin.org)

In addition to seasonal endemic viruses, emerging and re-emerging virus outbreaks such as severe acute respiratory syndrome and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronaviruses (SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV) require close contact for human-to-human transmission and can spread nosocomially [ 5 , 6 ]. (springer.com)
Respiratory pathogens such as influenza are also transmitted via airborne dispersion of small particle aerosols (≤ 5 µm) when an infected individual breathes, coughs or sneezes [ 11 ], while respiratory syncytial viruses, SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV can be spread by large droplets propelled through the air and inoculated into the eyes, nose and mouth at close range [ 12 ]. (springer.com)
SARS-CoV-2 Inactivation in Aerosol by Means of Radiated Microwaves. (nih.gov)
Human cells infected with SARS-CoV-2 exhibit a decrease in TRMT1 protein levels and TRMT1-catalyzed tRNA modifications, consistent with TRMT1 cleavage and inactivation by Nsp5. (elifesciences.org)
Assessment of the risks posed by severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus (SARS-CoV) on surfaces requires data on survival of this virus on environmental surfaces and on how survival is affected by environmental variables, such as air temperature (AT) and relative humidity (RH). (asm.org)
The use of surrogate viruses has the potential to overcome the challenges of working with SARS-CoV and to increase the available data on coronavirus survival on surfaces. (asm.org)
TGEV and MHV could serve as conservative surrogates for modeling exposure, the risk of transmission, and control measures for pathogenic enveloped viruses, such as SARS-CoV and influenza virus, on health care surfaces. (asm.org)
Assessment of the risk posed by SARS-CoV on surfaces requires data on the survival of the virus on environmental surfaces and data on how this survival is affected by environmental variables, such as air temperature (AT) and relative humidity (RH). (asm.org)
Because working with SARS-CoV requires specially trained personnel working under biosafety level 3 (BSL-3) laboratory containment conditions, there are significant challenges in studying this virus, and only limited data on its survival and response to environmental stressors are available. (asm.org)

The use of radiation can break genetic material inside a virus, inactivating it and enhancing vaccine safety. (precisionxray.com)
These findings warrant a close genomic monitoring of MPXV to get a better picture of the genetic micro-evolution and mutational patterns of this virus , and a close clinical monitoring of skin bacterial superinfection in monkeypox patients . (bvsalud.org)
We found that functional inhibition, genetic ablation, and inactivation by post-translational modification of OGG1. (lu.se)
We found that functional inhibition, genetic ablation, and inactivation by post-translational modification of OGG1 significantly augment IFN-λ expression in epithelial cells infected by human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). (lu.se)
Furthermore, because of the antigenic and genetic diversity of "Norwalk-like viruses"* (NLVs) and the inability to cultivate these viruses in cell lines, developing assays to detect the full spectrum of NLVs associated with outbreaks of gastroenteritis was not possible. (cdc.gov)
Here, the 2022 Sudan virus disease (SVD) outbreak in Mubende District, Uganda, is summarized, and the genetic relatedness of the new variant is evaluated. (cdc.gov)
Genetic differences between viruses identified during the Mubende SVD outbreak were linked with epidemiological data to better interpret viral spread and contact tracing chains. (cdc.gov)

This judgment contrasts with the more definite and sensitive role of PCR in diagnosing HIV-1 infection in patients in whom a positive HIV-1 PCR result correlates with active HIV-1 infection and with PCR's usefulness in monitoring virus removal. (ox.ac.uk)
Understanding how long the virus can survive in different materials helps ensure proper sanitation after infection occurs at a farm. (usda.gov)
Role of the Centers for Disease Control in monitoring the quality of laboratory testing for human immunodeficiency virus infection. (cdc.gov)
We conducted a systematic review [ Reference Moher 6 ] to investigate the evidence supporting the effectiveness of face masks in reducing influenza virus infection under controlled and natural conditions. (cambridge.org)

Downstream viral clearance is accomplished by several steps that either remove or inactivate viruses. (sigmaaldrich.com)
Among the parameters and conditions reported, temperature is a nearly universal factor, where regardless of substrate, the virus will inactivate faster under a given set of conditions as the temperature increases, and freeze-thaw cycles can facilitate virus inactivation. (usda.gov)
Among laboratories testing for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and participating in CDC's Model Performance Evaluation Program (1,2), responses from May and September 1988 survey questionnaires show that 40 (3.9%) of 1034 and 41 (3.9%) of 1052 respondents, respectively, heat-inactivate serum specimens before testing for HIV-1. (cdc.gov)
Here, we report a strategy to inactivate the eBSV by editing the virus sequences. (nature.com)

Molecular diagnostics now enables detecting viruses in clinical and environmental specimens, linking of NLV strains causing outbreaks in multiple geographic locations, and tracing them to their sources in contaminated food or water. (cdc.gov)

Virus removal processes using nanofiltration techniques remove viruses specifically by size exclusion. (wikipedia.org)
Rather than simply rendering the virus inactive, some viral inactivation processes actually denature the virus completely. (wikipedia.org)
In order to achieve inactivation of the viruses in the sample, it is necessary to perform "special" purification processes that will chemically alter the virus in some way. (wikipedia.org)
by Gail Sofer, BioReliance Viruses present dangers (and therefore challenges) to biopharmaceutical manufacturing processes. (biopharminternational.com)
The manufacturing processes include cold ethanol fractionation of Ig and viral inactivation and removal steps. (medscape.com)
5-6 These two processes are designed to increase product safety by reducing the risk of transmission of enveloped and nonenveloped viruses, respectively. (theodora.com)

A comparison of polymerase chain reaction and an infectivity assay for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 titration during virus inactivation of blood components. (ox.ac.uk)
These data suggest that HIV-1 PCR levels do not parallel HIV-1 infectivity levels during virus-inactivation procedures involved in coagulation factor concentrate production. (ox.ac.uk)
Conclusion: At low relative humidity, influenza retains maximal infectivity and inactivation of the virus at higher relative humidity occurs rapidly after coughing. (cdc.gov)

Commission Implementing Decision (EU) 2018/1136 of 10 August 2018 on risk mitigation and reinforced biosecurity measures and early detection systems in relation to the risks posed by wild birds for the transmission of highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses to poultry (notified under document C(2018) 5243) (Text with EEA relevance. (europa.eu)
Infections with avian influenza viruses in domestic poultry cause two main forms of that disease that are distinguished by the virulence of the virus. (europa.eu)
Influenza viruses circulate around the world every year. (cambridge.org)
It is a never-before seen combination of human, swine, and avian influenza viruses. (cdc.gov)
Like other influenza viruses, it continues to evolve. (cdc.gov)

Evans RP, Shanson DC, Mortimer PP. Clinical evaluation of Abbott and Wellcome enzyme linked immunosorbent assays for detection of serum antibodies to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). (cdc.gov)
Detection rates improved with the development of immunologic assays ( 6-11 ), and 19%-42% of nonbacterial outbreaks were attributed to Norwalk virus in targeted studies conducted during the late 1970s and 1980s ( 12,13 ). (cdc.gov)

Viral inactivation is different from viral removal because, in the former process, the surface chemistry of the virus is altered and in many cases the (now non-infective) viral particles remain in the final product. (wikipedia.org)
PCR was able to detect the RNA associated with inactivated HIV-1 particles in the factor concentrates, which allows the conclusion that PCR is not a useful test with which to monitor virus-inactivation procedures such as heating at 80 degrees C for 72 hours. (ox.ac.uk)
After accumulation of HAV to >10,000 virus particles per oyster, the performance of high pressure against HAV directly within oysters was evaluated. (usda.gov)
Seventy-five percent of the edited events remained asymptomatic in comparison to the non-edited control plants under water stress conditions, confirming inactivation of eBSV into infectious viral particles. (nature.com)
NIOSH experts will participate in the panel discussion on what is known about the effectiveness of respirators and surgical masks with regard to influenza virus or particles of a similar size to provide worker protection. (cdc.gov)

and Viral inactivation of equine or other viruses in biological products. (who.int)

The effectiveness of this process can vary greatly between viruses and its efficiency can change based on the buffer used. (wikipedia.org)

Phou S, Kopko P. Pathogen inactivation. (pathologyoutlines.com)

The virus inactivation method chosen depends on the virus and its surrounding medium. (biopharminternational.com)

Pandemic influenza A (H1N1) virus emerged in Mexico in early 2009 and rapidly spread worldwide. (cambridge.org)
As we brace for the flu season, concerns are rising about the full impact of Novel H1N1 Influenza Virus (H1N1) also known as "Swine Flu. (cdc.gov)

Many viruses contain lipid or protein coats that can be inactivated by chemical alteration. (wikipedia.org)
This process is only effective for viruses enveloped in a lipid coat, however. (wikipedia.org)
Most enveloped viruses cannot exist without their lipid coating so are destroyed when exposed to these detergents. (wikipedia.org)

During the early 1970s, before the discovery of diarrhea-causing viruses, an etiologic agent could be detected only among a limited proportion of persons with gastroenteritis. (cdc.gov)

Avian influenza virus (AIV) is widespread among poultry and wild waterfowl. (usda.gov)

The weak enzyme coatings on cells which make them vulnerable to invasion by viruses make them susceptible to oxidation and elimination from the body, which then replaces them with healthy cells. (silvermedicine.org)

It is estimated that at lest 50% of ill people will seek medical care, and the number of hospitalizations and deaths will depend on the virulence of the pandemic virus. (cdc.gov)

Respiratory and Enteric Virus Surveillance System§ (NREVSS) (mul- tion of nonpharmaceutical interventions (e.g., cessation of tiple respiratory viruses). (cdc.gov)
Clinicians should be aware of increases in some 1020 Heat-Related Emergency Department Visits During respiratory virus activity and remain vigilant for off-season the Northwestern Heat Wave -- United States, increases. (cdc.gov)

These methods have been adapted to remove prions, which are not related to viruses, from blood products. (wikipedia.org)
This overarching process, which has come to be known simply as virus removal, is one in which all of the viruses in a given sample are removed by traditional extraction or [full energy] methods. (wikipedia.org)
Chromatographic methods of removing viruses are great for purifying the protein and are also effective against all types of viruses, but the level of virus removal is dependent on the column composition and the reagents that are used in the process. (wikipedia.org)
This survey article, organized by sample type, lists viral inactivation methods published during the past decade. (biopharminternational.com)

Further studies in controlled settings and studies of natural infections in healthcare and community settings are required to better define the effectiveness of face masks and respirators in preventing influenza virus transmission. (cambridge.org)
Interferons (IFNs) are secreted cytokines with the ability to activate expression of IFN stimulated genes that increase resistance of cells to virus infections. (lu.se)

Viral inactivation is used widely in the blood plasma industry. (wikipedia.org)
This process, developed by the New York Blood Center, is the most widely used viral inactivation method to date. (wikipedia.org)
The RNase T2 family are widely distributed in living organisms and highly conserved from viruses to mammals ( 1 ). (frontiersin.org)

At 4°C, infectious virus persisted for as long as 28 days, and the lowest level of inactivation occurred at 20% RH. (asm.org)

Following tissue damage, RNase T2 is secreted and participates in resistance against RNA viruses or functions as an alarm signaling molecule to regulate the host immune response and contributes to tissue remodeling and repair ( 12 , 13 ). (frontiersin.org)

4 WinRho® SDF is filtered using a Planova 35 nm Virus Filter which has been validated to be effective in the removal of some nonlipid enveloped viruses. (theodora.com)

Membrane chromatography is increasingly popular for virus purification and removal. (wikipedia.org)

This type of process is typically used for parvoviruses and other viruses containing a protein coat. (wikipedia.org)

Some materials cannot be easily treated with disinfectants, so environmental factors like temperature and humidity can be used to predict the rate of virus decay in different materials. (usda.gov)
High humidity leads to loss of infectious influenza virus from simulated coughs. (cdc.gov)

Taylor RN, Przybyszewski VA. Summary of the Centers for Disease Control human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) performance evaluation surveys for 1985 and 1986. (cdc.gov)

Norwalk-like viruses:" public health con- sequences and outbreak management. (cdc.gov)

Due to the absence of appropriate cell culture systems to propagate these viruses, cultivable surrogates (feline calicivirus, FCV-F9 and murine norovirus, MNV-1) are commonly used based on the assumption that they can mimic the viruses they represent. (tennessee.edu)