Scavenger receptors class a. Medical search

A family of scavenger receptors that are predominately localized to CAVEOLAE of the PLASMA MEMBRANE and bind HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS.

A large group of structurally diverse cell surface receptors that mediate endocytic uptake of modified LIPOPROTEINS. Scavenger receptors are expressed by MYELOID CELLS and some ENDOTHELIAL CELLS, and were originally characterized based on their ability to bind acetylated LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS. They can also bind a variety of other polyanionic ligand. Certain scavenger receptors can internalize micro-organisms as well as apoptotic cells.

A family of scavenger receptors that mediate the influx of LIPIDS into MACROPHAGES and are involved in FOAM CELL formation.

Leukocyte differentiation antigens and major platelet membrane glycoproteins present on MONOCYTES; ENDOTHELIAL CELLS; PLATELETS; and mammary EPITHELIAL CELLS. They play major roles in CELL ADHESION; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; and regulation of angiogenesis. CD36 is a receptor for THROMBOSPONDINS and can act as a scavenger receptor that recognizes and transports oxidized LIPOPROTEINS and FATTY ACIDS.

Cell surface proteins that bind lipoproteins with high affinity. Lipoprotein receptors in the liver and peripheral tissues mediate the regulation of plasma and cellular cholesterol metabolism and concentration. The receptors generally recognize the apolipoproteins of the lipoprotein complex, and binding is often a trigger for endocytosis.

Cell surface molecules on cells of the immune system that specifically bind surface molecules or messenger molecules and trigger changes in the behavior of cells. Although these receptors were first identified in the immune system, many have important functions elsewhere.

A class of lipoproteins of small size (4-13 nm) and dense (greater than 1.063 g/ml) particles. HDL lipoproteins, synthesized in the liver without a lipid core, accumulate cholesterol esters from peripheral tissues and transport them to the liver for re-utilization or elimination from the body (the reverse cholesterol transport). Their major protein component is APOLIPOPROTEIN A-I. HDL also shuttle APOLIPOPROTEINS C and APOLIPOPROTEINS E to and from triglyceride-rich lipoproteins during their catabolism. HDL plasma level has been inversely correlated with the risk of cardiovascular diseases.

A group of structurally related scavenger receptors expressed predominately by ENDOTHELIAL CELLS. They-contain repeats of EPIDERMAL GROWTH FACTOR-like cysteine-rich motifs in their extracellular domains.

Fatty acid esters of cholesterol which constitute about two-thirds of the cholesterol in the plasma. The accumulation of cholesterol esters in the arterial intima is a characteristic feature of atherosclerosis.

Proteins which are found in membranes including cellular and intracellular membranes. They consist of two types, peripheral and integral proteins. They include most membrane-associated enzymes, antigenic proteins, transport proteins, and drug, hormone, and lectin receptors.

The principal sterol of all higher animals, distributed in body tissues, especially the brain and spinal cord, and in animal fats and oils.

A class of lipoproteins of small size (18-25 nm) and light (1.019-1.063 g/ml) particles with a core composed mainly of CHOLESTEROL ESTERS and smaller amounts of TRIGLYCERIDES. The surface monolayer consists mostly of PHOSPHOLIPIDS, a single copy of APOLIPOPROTEIN B-100, and free cholesterol molecules. The main LDL function is to transport cholesterol and cholesterol esters to extrahepatic tissues.

Ubiquitously expressed integral membrane glycoproteins found in the LYSOSOME.

A superfamily of large integral ATP-binding cassette membrane proteins whose expression pattern is consistent with a role in lipid (cholesterol) efflux. It is implicated in TANGIER DISEASE characterized by accumulation of cholesteryl ester in various tissues.

Receptors on the plasma membrane of nonhepatic cells that specifically bind LDL. The receptors are localized in specialized regions called coated pits. Hypercholesteremia is caused by an allelic genetic defect of three types: 1, receptors do not bind to LDL; 2, there is reduced binding of LDL; and 3, there is normal binding but no internalization of LDL. In consequence, entry of cholesterol esters into the cell is impaired and the intracellular feedback by cholesterol on 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA reductase is lacking.

The relatively long-lived phagocytic cell of mammalian tissues that are derived from blood MONOCYTES. Main types are PERITONEAL MACROPHAGES; ALVEOLAR MACROPHAGES; HISTIOCYTES; KUPFFER CELLS of the liver; and OSTEOCLASTS. They may further differentiate within chronic inflammatory lesions to EPITHELIOID CELLS or may fuse to form FOREIGN BODY GIANT CELLS or LANGHANS GIANT CELLS. (from The Dictionary of Cell Biology, Lackie and Dow, 3rd ed.)

A group of inosine ribonucleotides in which the phosphate residues of each inosine ribonucleotide act as bridges in forming diester linkages between the ribose moieties.

A family of scavenger receptors with broad polyanionic ligand binding properties that are expressed in embryonic insect MACROPHAGES.

Lipid-laden macrophages originating from monocytes or from smooth muscle cells.

An enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of cholesterol in the presence of molecular oxygen to 4-cholesten-3-one and hydrogen peroxide. The enzyme is not specific for cholesterol, but will also oxidize other 3-hydroxysteroids. EC 1.1.3.6.

The most abundant protein component of HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS or HDL. This protein serves as an acceptor for CHOLESTEROL released from cells thus promoting efflux of cholesterol to HDL then to the LIVER for excretion from the body (reverse cholesterol transport). It also acts as a cofactor for LECITHIN CHOLESTEROL ACYLTRANSFERASE that forms CHOLESTEROL ESTERS on the HDL particles. Mutations of this gene APOA1 cause HDL deficiency, such as in FAMILIAL ALPHA LIPOPROTEIN DEFICIENCY DISEASE and in some patients with TANGIER DISEASE.

Lipid-protein complexes involved in the transportation and metabolism of lipids in the body. They are spherical particles consisting of a hydrophobic core of TRIGLYCERIDES and CHOLESTEROL ESTERS surrounded by a layer of hydrophilic free CHOLESTEROL; PHOSPHOLIPIDS; and APOLIPOPROTEINS. Lipoproteins are classified by their varying buoyant density and sizes.

Physiological processes in biosynthesis (anabolism) and degradation (catabolism) of LIPIDS.

CELL LINE derived from the ovary of the Chinese hamster, Cricetulus griseus (CRICETULUS). The species is a favorite for cytogenetic studies because of its small chromosome number. The cell line has provided model systems for the study of genetic alterations in cultured mammalian cells.

Mononuclear phagocytes derived from bone marrow precursors but resident in the peritoneum.

Strains of mice in which certain GENES of their GENOMES have been disrupted, or "knocked-out". To produce knockouts, using RECOMBINANT DNA technology, the normal DNA sequence of the gene being studied is altered to prevent synthesis of a normal gene product. Cloned cells in which this DNA alteration is successful are then injected into mouse EMBRYOS to produce chimeric mice. The chimeric mice are then bred to yield a strain in which all the cells of the mouse contain the disrupted gene. Knockout mice are used as EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL MODELS for diseases (DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL) and to clarify the functions of the genes.

A highly chlorinated polycyclic hydrocarbon insecticide whose large number of chlorine atoms makes it resistant to degradation. It has been shown to be toxic to mammals and causes abnormal cellular changes in laboratory animals.

A class of oxidized LDL receptors that contain LECTIN-like extracellular domains.

A subfamily in the family MURIDAE, comprising the hamsters. Four of the more common genera are Cricetus, CRICETULUS; MESOCRICETUS; and PHODOPUS.

A family of MEMBRANE TRANSPORT PROTEINS that require ATP hydrolysis for the transport of substrates across membranes. The protein family derives its name from the ATP-binding domain found on the protein.

Tetraspanin proteins that are involved in a variety of cellular functions including BASEMENT MEMBRANE assembly, and in the formation of a molecular complexes on the surface of LYMPHOCYTES.

Cholesterol which is contained in or bound to high-density lipoproteins (HDL), including CHOLESTEROL ESTERS and free cholesterol.

Substances that influence the course of a chemical reaction by ready combination with free radicals. Among other effects, this combining activity protects pancreatic islets against damage by cytokines and prevents myocardial and pulmonary perfusion injuries.

A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.

The movement of materials (including biochemical substances and drugs) through a biological system at the cellular level. The transport can be across cell membranes and epithelial layers. It also can occur within intracellular compartments and extracellular compartments.

An increase in circulating RETICULOCYTES, which is among the simplest and most reliable signs of accelerated ERYTHROCYTE production. Reticulocytosis occurs during active BLOOD regeneration (stimulation of red bone marrow) and in certain types of ANEMIA, particularly CONGENITAL HEMOLYTIC ANEMIA.

Intermediate-density subclass of the high-density lipoproteins, with particle sizes between 7 to 8 nm. As the larger lighter HDL2 lipoprotein, HDL3 lipoprotein is lipid-rich.

Inbred C57BL mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been produced by many generations of brother-sister matings, resulting in a high degree of genetic uniformity and homozygosity, making them widely used for biomedical research, including studies on genetics, immunology, cancer, and neuroscience.

Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.

The main structural component of the LIVER. They are specialized EPITHELIAL CELLS that are organized into interconnected plates called lobules.

Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.

Thickening and loss of elasticity of the walls of ARTERIES of all sizes. There are many forms classified by the types of lesions and arteries involved, such as ATHEROSCLEROSIS with fatty lesions in the ARTERIAL INTIMA of medium and large muscular arteries.

A thickening and loss of elasticity of the walls of ARTERIES that occurs with formation of ATHEROSCLEROTIC PLAQUES within the ARTERIAL INTIMA.

A class of protein components which can be found in several lipoproteins including HIGH-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS; VERY-LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS; and CHYLOMICRONS. Synthesized in most organs, Apo E is important in the global transport of lipids and cholesterol throughout the body. Apo E is also a ligand for LDL receptors (RECEPTORS, LDL) that mediates the binding, internalization, and catabolism of lipoprotein particles in cells. There are several allelic isoforms (such as E2, E3, and E4). Deficiency or defects in Apo E are causes of HYPERLIPOPROTEINEMIA TYPE III.

RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.

The entering of cells by viruses following VIRUS ATTACHMENT. This is achieved by ENDOCYTOSIS, by direct MEMBRANE FUSION of the viral membrane with the CELL MEMBRANE, or by translocation of the whole virus across the cell membrane.

Cellular uptake of extracellular materials within membrane-limited vacuoles or microvesicles. ENDOSOMES play a central role in endocytosis.

Absorptive cells in the lining of the INTESTINAL MUCOSA. They are differentiated EPITHELIAL CELLS with apical MICROVILLI facing the intestinal lumen. Enterocytes are more abundant in the SMALL INTESTINE than in the LARGE INTESTINE. Their microvilli greatly increase the luminal surface area of the cell by 14- to 40 fold.

A species of ENTEROVIRUS infecting humans and containing 10 serotypes, mostly coxsackieviruses.

A molecule that binds to another molecule, used especially to refer to a small molecule that binds specifically to a larger molecule, e.g., an antigen binding to an antibody, a hormone or neurotransmitter binding to a receptor, or a substrate or allosteric effector binding to an enzyme. Ligands are also molecules that donate or accept a pair of electrons to form a coordinate covalent bond with the central metal atom of a coordination complex. (From Dorland, 27th ed)

A generic term for fats and lipoids, the alcohol-ether-soluble constituents of protoplasm, which are insoluble in water. They comprise the fats, fatty oils, essential oils, waxes, phospholipids, glycolipids, sulfolipids, aminolipids, chromolipids (lipochromes), and fatty acids. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)

CELL LINES derived from the CV-1 cell line by transformation with a replication origin defective mutant of SV40 VIRUS, which codes for wild type large T antigen (ANTIGENS, POLYOMAVIRUS TRANSFORMING). They are used for transfection and cloning. (The CV-1 cell line was derived from the kidney of an adult male African green monkey (CERCOPITHECUS AETHIOPS).)

Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.

A drug used to lower LDL and HDL cholesterol yet has little effect on serum-triglyceride or VLDL cholesterol. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p993).

The uptake of naked or purified DNA by CELLS, usually meaning the process as it occurs in eukaryotic cells. It is analogous to bacterial transformation (TRANSFORMATION, BACTERIAL) and both are routinely employed in GENE TRANSFER TECHNIQUES.

The process in which substances, either endogenous or exogenous, bind to proteins, peptides, enzymes, protein precursors, or allied compounds. Specific protein-binding measures are often used as assays in diagnostic assessments.

A pair of glands located at the cranial pole of each of the two KIDNEYS. Each adrenal gland is composed of two distinct endocrine tissues with separate embryonic origins, the ADRENAL CORTEX producing STEROIDS and the ADRENAL MEDULLA producing NEUROTRANSMITTERS.

Specific molecular components of the cell capable of recognizing and interacting with a virus, and which, after binding it, are capable of generating some signal that initiates the chain of events leading to the biological response.

Lipids containing one or more phosphate groups, particularly those derived from either glycerol (phosphoglycerides see GLYCEROPHOSPHOLIPIDS) or sphingosine (SPHINGOLIPIDS). They are polar lipids that are of great importance for the structure and function of cell membranes and are the most abundant of membrane lipids, although not stored in large amounts in the system.

The interaction of two or more substrates or ligands with the same binding site. The displacement of one by the other is used in quantitative and selective affinity measurements.

A natural tocopherol and one of the most potent antioxidant tocopherols. It exhibits antioxidant activity by virtue of the phenolic hydrogen on the 2H-1-benzopyran-6-ol nucleus. It has four methyl groups on the 6-chromanol nucleus. The natural d form of alpha-tocopherol is more active than its synthetic dl-alpha-tocopherol racemic mixture.

Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control (induction or repression) of gene action at the level of transcription or translation.

A genus of the family Muridae consisting of eleven species. C. migratorius, the grey or Armenian hamster, and C. griseus, the Chinese hamster, are the two species used in biomedical research.

The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.

Laboratory mice that have been produced from a genetically manipulated EGG or EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN.

Surface antigens expressed on myeloid cells of the granulocyte-monocyte-histiocyte series during differentiation. Analysis of their reactivity in normal and malignant myelomonocytic cells is useful in identifying and classifying human leukemias and lymphomas.

Identification of proteins or peptides that have been electrophoretically separated by blot transferring from the electrophoresis gel to strips of nitrocellulose paper, followed by labeling with antibody probes.

Uptake of substances through the lining of the INTESTINES.

Human colonic ADENOCARCINOMA cells that are able to express differentiation features characteristic of mature intestinal cells, such as ENTEROCYTES. These cells are valuable in vitro tools for studies related to intestinal cell function and differentiation.

The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.

The outer layer of the adrenal gland. It is derived from MESODERM and comprised of three zones (outer ZONA GLOMERULOSA, middle ZONA FASCICULATA, and inner ZONA RETICULARIS) with each producing various steroids preferentially, such as ALDOSTERONE; HYDROCORTISONE; DEHYDROEPIANDROSTERONE; and ANDROSTENEDIONE. Adrenal cortex function is regulated by pituitary ADRENOCORTICOTROPIN.

Substances used to lower plasma CHOLESTEROL levels.

An emulsifying agent produced in the LIVER and secreted into the DUODENUM. Its composition includes BILE ACIDS AND SALTS; CHOLESTEROL; and ELECTROLYTES. It aids DIGESTION of fats in the duodenum.

A variation of the PCR technique in which cDNA is made from RNA via reverse transcription. The resultant cDNA is then amplified using standard PCR protocols.

The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION and GENETIC TRANSLATION.

A group of cell-surface receptors for oxidatively modified LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS. The group includes certain SCAVENGER RECEPTORS that contribute to the pathogenesis of ATHEROSCLEROSIS by uptake of oxidized LDL.

Proteins prepared by recombinant DNA technology.

The level of protein structure in which combinations of secondary protein structures (alpha helices, beta sheets, loop regions, and motifs) pack together to form folded shapes called domains. Disulfide bridges between cysteines in two different parts of the polypeptide chain along with other interactions between the chains play a role in the formation and stabilization of tertiary structure. Small proteins usually consist of only one domain but larger proteins may contain a number of domains connected by segments of polypeptide chain which lack regular secondary structure.

A species of CERCOPITHECUS containing three subspecies: C. tantalus, C. pygerythrus, and C. sabeus. They are found in the forests and savannah of Africa. The African green monkey (C. pygerythrus) is the natural host of SIMIAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS and is used in AIDS research.

A genus of FLAVIVIRIDAE causing parenterally-transmitted HEPATITIS C which is associated with transfusions and drug abuse. Hepatitis C virus is the type species.

The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.

The main trunk of the systemic arteries.

Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.

A broad category of receptor-like proteins that may play a role in transcriptional-regulation in the CELL NUCLEUS. Many of these proteins are similar in structure to known NUCLEAR RECEPTORS but appear to lack a functional ligand-binding domain, while in other cases the specific ligands have yet to be identified.

The lipid- and protein-containing, selectively permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

Unstable isotopes of iodine that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. I atoms with atomic weights 117-139, except I 127, are radioactive iodine isotopes.

Large, phagocytic mononuclear leukocytes produced in the vertebrate BONE MARROW and released into the BLOOD; contain a large, oval or somewhat indented nucleus surrounded by voluminous cytoplasm and numerous organelles.

The relationship between the dose of an administered drug and the response of the organism to the drug.

Immunologic method used for detecting or quantifying immunoreactive substances. The substance is identified by first immobilizing it by blotting onto a membrane and then tagging it with labeled antibodies.

A negative regulatory effect on physiological processes at the molecular, cellular, or systemic level. At the molecular level, the major regulatory sites include membrane receptors, genes (GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION), mRNAs (RNA, MESSENGER), and proteins.

A light microscopic technique in which only a small spot is illuminated and observed at a time. An image is constructed through point-by-point scanning of the field in this manner. Light sources may be conventional or laser, and fluorescence or transmitted observations are possible.

A CXC chemokine that has stimulatory and chemotactic activities towards NEUTROPHILS. It has specificity for CXCR1 RECEPTORS and CXCR2 RECEPTORS.

Cell surface proteins that bind signalling molecules external to the cell with high affinity and convert this extracellular event into one or more intracellular signals that alter the behavior of the target cell (From Alberts, Molecular Biology of the Cell, 2nd ed, pp693-5). Cell surface receptors, unlike enzymes, do not chemically alter their ligands.

Transport proteins that carry specific substances in the blood or across cell membranes.

Triglycerides are the most common type of fat in the body, stored in fat cells and used as energy; they are measured in blood tests to assess heart disease risk, with high levels often resulting from dietary habits, obesity, physical inactivity, smoking, and alcohol consumption.

Technique using an instrument system for making, processing, and displaying one or more measurements on individual cells obtained from a cell suspension. Cells are usually stained with one or more fluorescent dyes specific to cell components of interest, e.g., DNA, and fluorescence of each cell is measured as it rapidly transverses the excitation beam (laser or mercury arc lamp). Fluorescence provides a quantitative measure of various biochemical and biophysical properties of the cell, as well as a basis for cell sorting. Other measurable optical parameters include light absorption and light scattering, the latter being applicable to the measurement of cell size, shape, density, granularity, and stain uptake.

Microscopy of specimens stained with fluorescent dye (usually fluorescein isothiocyanate) or of naturally fluorescent materials, which emit light when exposed to ultraviolet or blue light. Immunofluorescence microscopy utilizes antibodies that are labeled with fluorescent dye.

The processes whereby the internal environment of an organism tends to remain balanced and stable.

Differentiation antigens residing on mammalian leukocytes. CD stands for cluster of differentiation, which refers to groups of monoclonal antibodies that show similar reactivity with certain subpopulations of antigens of a particular lineage or differentiation stage. The subpopulations of antigens are also known by the same CD designation.

A class of scavenger receptors that are specific for oxidized LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS and apoptotic cells. They are expressed almost exclusively in INTRACELLULAR MEMBRANES of MACROPHAGES.

Serum albumin from cows, commonly used in in vitro biological studies. (From Stedman, 25th ed)

Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.

A cell line derived from cultured tumor cells.

The engulfing and degradation of microorganisms; other cells that are dead, dying, or pathogenic; and foreign particles by phagocytic cells (PHAGOCYTES).

Short sequences (generally about 10 base pairs) of DNA that are complementary to sequences of messenger RNA and allow reverse transcriptases to start copying the adjacent sequences of mRNA. Primers are used extensively in genetic and molecular biology techniques.

Specialized phagocytic cells of the MONONUCLEAR PHAGOCYTE SYSTEM found on the luminal surface of the hepatic sinusoids. They filter bacteria and small foreign proteins out of the blood, and dispose of worn out red blood cells.

The genetic constitution of the individual, comprising the ALLELES present at each GENETIC LOCUS.

A single nucleotide variation in a genetic sequence that occurs at appreciable frequency in the population.

Membrane glycoproteins consisting of an alpha subunit and a BETA 2-MICROGLOBULIN beta subunit. In humans, highly polymorphic genes on CHROMOSOME 6 encode the alpha subunits of class I antigens and play an important role in determining the serological specificity of the surface antigen. Class I antigens are found on most nucleated cells and are generally detected by their reactivity with alloantisera. These antigens are recognized during GRAFT REJECTION and restrict cell-mediated lysis of virus-infected cells.

Cell surface proteins that bind albumin with high affinity and trigger intracellular changes influencing the behavior of cells.

A chemical reaction in which an electron is transferred from one molecule to another. The electron-donating molecule is the reducing agent or reductant; the electron-accepting molecule is the oxidizing agent or oxidant. Reducing and oxidizing agents function as conjugate reductant-oxidant pairs or redox pairs (Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry, 1982, p471).

The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.

Large, transmembrane, non-covalently linked glycoproteins (alpha and beta). Both chains can be polymorphic although there is more structural variation in the beta chains. The class II antigens in humans are called HLA-D ANTIGENS and are coded by a gene on chromosome 6. In mice, two genes named IA and IE on chromosome 17 code for the H-2 antigens. The antigens are found on B-lymphocytes, macrophages, epidermal cells, and sperm and are thought to mediate the competence of and cellular cooperation in the immune response. The term IA antigens used to refer only to the proteins encoded by the IA genes in the mouse, but is now used as a generic term for any class II histocompatibility antigen.

The parts of a macromolecule that directly participate in its specific combination with another molecule.

Compounds used extensively as acetylation, oxidation and dehydrating agents and in the modification of proteins and enzymes.

The insertion of recombinant DNA molecules from prokaryotic and/or eukaryotic sources into a replicating vehicle, such as a plasmid or virus vector, and the introduction of the resultant hybrid molecules into recipient cells without altering the viability of those cells.

Molecules or ions formed by the incomplete one-electron reduction of oxygen. These reactive oxygen intermediates include SINGLET OXYGEN; SUPEROXIDES; PEROXIDES; HYDROXYL RADICAL; and HYPOCHLOROUS ACID. They contribute to the microbicidal activity of PHAGOCYTES, regulation of signal transduction and gene expression, and the oxidative damage to NUCLEIC ACIDS; PROTEINS; and LIPIDS.

Analysis of macrophage scavenger receptor (SR-A) expression in human aortic atherosclerotic lesions. (1/329)

The class A scavenger receptors (SR-As) are trimeric, integral membrane glycoproteins that exhibit unusually broad ligand-binding properties. A number of studies have suggested that these receptors may play an important role in host defense and in many macrophage-associated pathological processes, including atherosclerosis and Alzheimer's disease. The study of the expression and function of these receptors in human disease has been hampered by the lack of suitable antibodies recognizing human SR-A. This has generated questions regarding the nature of receptors responsible for scavenger receptor activity detected in a variety of cell types, including monocytes, macrophages, smooth muscle cells, and endothelial cells. To address these questions, we have produced high-titer antisera recognizing human SR-A by using mice deficient for SR-A (SR-A -/-). We show that SR-A -/- mice produce a significantly higher-titer immune response than do wild-type (SR-A +/+) littermates, with antisera of the former having a broad species reactivity and recognizing SR-A from humans, mice, and rabbits. The antisera recognize both type I and II SR-A in a wide range of immunological techniques. Using these antisera we show that the expression of SR-A protein is induced during monocyte to macrophage differentiation and that SR-A mediates 80% of the uptake of acetylated low density lipoprotein by human monocyte-derived macrophages. We also establish that human SR-A is expressed by tissue macrophages in liver and lung and by macrophage-derived foam cells within aortic atherosclerotic lesions, with little detectable expression by smooth muscle cells or aortic endothelium. (+info)

Peptide model of a highly conserved, N-terminal domain of apolipoprotein E is able to modulate lipoprotein binding to a member of the class A scavenger receptor family. (2/329)

Apolipoprotein E plays a critical role in plasma lipoprotein clearance. Peptide models of a highly conserved, N-terminal domain of this protein have been shown to increase the binding of low density lipoprotein (LDL) to fibroblast cell surfaces independently of the low density lipoprotein receptor. Here we provide data to show that these peptides not only increase the binding of LDL, but also of high density lipoprotein, though not acetylated LDL. We also have data suggesting that this novel activity is mediated, at least in part, by a member of the scavenger receptor family, SR-AI. Furthermore, we show that this activity is also prominent in macrophages, a cell relevant to atherogenesis. In addition, this current paper provides evidence suggesting that this complex binding activity is initiated by a peptide-receptor interaction, and that our peptides are able to induce activity at physiologically relevant concentrations. This study provides evidence for a possible novel receptor interaction and further anti-atherogenic properties of apolipoprotein E and raises the possibility of a therapeutic potential of our peptide models. (+info)

Distinct scavenger receptor expression and function in the human CD14(+)/CD16(+) monocyte subset. (3/329)

The CD14(+)/CD16(+) subset of human blood monocytes, which expresses low levels of the lipopolysaccharide receptor CD14 and high levels of the Fc receptor CD16 and exhibits features of mature tissue macrophages, is expanded in certain inflammatory conditions and may be relevant in atherosclerosis. Scavenger receptors (ScR) are important for lipid accumulation into macrophage-derived foam cells in atherogenesis and for the clearance of pathogens. Hence, we compared the function and expression of ScR in CD33(low) CD16(+) and CD33(high) CD14(++) monocyte subsets. Double immunofluorescence analysis of isolated monocytes revealed that the CD33(low) subset showed lower specific, ScR-mediated binding of DiI-labeled modified low-density lipoproteins (LDL) than CD33(high) cells. Differences in modified LDL binding between subsets were accompanied by changes in mRNA expression. RT-PCR in sorted cells indicated lower ScR class A type I/II (ScR-AI/II) mRNA levels in CD14(+)/CD16(+) than in CD14(++) cells, whereas CD36 transcripts were unaltered. This was paralleled by findings in mostly CD16(+) monocyte-derived macrophages showing a marked reduction in ScR-mediated binding of acetylated LDL, but not in the binding of oxidized LDL, and lower expression of ScR-AI/II mRNA, but not CD36 transcripts, after exposure to tumor necrosis factor-alpha for 48 h in vitro. Thus the subset of CD14(+)/CD16(+) monocytes shows distinct ScR function and expression, possibly reflecting a preactivation by cytokines with a predilection for specific inflammatory or vascular conditions, e.g., atherogenesis. (+info)

De novo expression of the class-A macrophage scavenger receptor conferring resistance to apoptosis in differentiated human THP-1 monocytic cells. (4/329)

The class-A macrophage scavenger receptor (MSR) is a trimeric multifunctional protein expressed selectively in differentiated monomyeloid phagocytes which mediates uptake of chemically modified lipoproteins and bacterial products. This study investigated whether MSR plays a role in the regulation of apoptosis, a model of genetically programmed cell death. De novo expression of MSR occurred in human THP-1 monocytic cells differentiated with phorbol esters, which activated a nuclear transcription factor binding to the Ap1/ets-like domain of the MSR promoter. The phorbol ester-stimulated THP-1 cells also expressed increased levels of the pro-apoptotic gene products, caspase-3 and Fas ligand, but the cells exhibited no change in apoptosis. Global activation of GTP-binding proteins with fluoride anions triggered apoptosis of THP-1 cells in a time- and concentration-dependent manner, demonstrated by nuclear shrinkage and fragmentation and internucleosomal DNA fragmentation. However, the MSR-expressing THP-1 macrophage-like cells showed a significant reduction in apoptosis compared to undifferentiated control THP-1 cells, which produce MSR at undetectable levels. Fluoride stimulation also triggered apoptosis of human Jurkat T cells. Stimulation with phorbol ester made no difference in apoptosis between treated and untreated Jurkat cells. Finally, Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells overexpressing the class-A MSR type I by cDNA transfection showed markedly increased resistance to G-protein-coupled apoptosis. Thus, de novo expression of MSR associated with monocyte maturation into macrophages appears to confer the resistance of macrophages to apoptotic stimulation by G-protein activation. (+info)

Roles of a macrophage receptor with collagenous structure (MARCO) in host defense and heterogeneity of splenic marginal zone macrophages. (5/329)

Class A type I and type II macrophage scavenger receptors (MSR-A) and a macrophage receptor with collagenous structure (MARCO) are trimeric membrane glycoproteins mediating the uptake of chemically modified low density lipoproteins. MSR-A is expressed constitutively in several tissue macrophages and in liver sinusoidal endothelial cells, whereas MARCO is expressed constitutively in splenic marginal zone macrophages and in macrophages and endothelial cells in the lymphatic medullary sinuses of lymph nodes. The administration of LPS, zymosan, BCG, or L. monocytogenes to mice resulted in marked and transient MARCO expression and in the upregulation of MSR-A expression in the liver and spleen. In osteopetrotic (op) mutant mice defective in the production on M-CSF, ER-TR9-positive marginal zone macrophages and MOMA-1-positive marginal metallophilic macrophages were absent, whereas MARCO-expressing marginal zone macrophages were present, indicating the heterogeneity of marginal zone macrophages. Intravenous administration of BCG resulted in marked accumulation of BCG bacilli in the both marginal zone macrophages and marginal metallophilic macrophages in littermate control mice. In contrast, BCG bacilli were incorporated almost exclusively by MARCO-expressing marginal zone macrophages in op/op mice. These results indicate that MARCO is not only expressed constitutively in specific macrophage subpopulations but is also induced by various bacterial antigens and plays a role in host defense against bacteria. (+info)

Modification of type III VLDL, their remnants, and VLDL from ApoE-knockout mice by p-hydroxyphenylacetaldehyde, a product of myeloperoxidase activity, causes marked cholesteryl ester accumulation in macrophages. (6/329)

Very low density lipoproteins (VLDLs) from apolipoprotein (apo) E2/E2 subjects with type III hyperlipoproteinemia, VLDL remnants, and VLDL from apoE-knockout (EKO) mice are taken up poorly by macrophages. The present study examined whether VLDL modification by the reactive aldehyde p-hydroxyphenylacetaldehyde (pHA) enhances cholesteryl ester (CE) accumulation by J774A.1 macrophages. pHA is the major product derived from the oxidation of L-tyrosine by myeloperoxidase and is a component of human atherosclerotic lesions. Incubation of J774A.1 cells with native type III VLDL, their remnants, and EKO-VLDL increased cellular CE by only 3-, 5-, and 5-fold, respectively, compared with controls. In striking contrast, cells exposed to VLDL modified by purified pHA (pHA-VLDL) exhibited marked increases in cellular CE of 38-, 47-, and 35-fold, respectively (P95%, CE accumulation induced by copper-oxidized VLDL. These results demonstrate a novel mechanism for the conversion of type III VLDLs, their remnants, and EKO-VLDL into atherogenic particles and suggest that macrophage uptake of pHA-VLDL (1) requires catalytically active lipoprotein lipase, (2) involves acyl coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase-mediated cholesterol esterification, and (3) involves pathways distinct from the SR-A. (+info)

Lovastatin decreases the receptor-mediated degradation of acetylated and oxidized LDLs in human blood monocytes during the early stage of differentiation into macrophages. (7/329)

3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase inhibitors are used therapeutically to upregulate the LDL receptor-mediated removal of plasma cholesterol by the liver. Several lines of evidence indicate that these drugs also exert direct effects on the metabolism of native and modified LDL in extrahepatic cells. We studied the effects of lovastatin (LOV) on the degradation of native, acetylated, and oxidized LDL, and on levels of mRNA encoding for the LDL, types I and II class A macrophage scavenger, and CD36 receptors in human blood monocytes at different stages of their maturation into adherent macrophages. LOV (10 micromol/L) reduced the degradation of acetylated LDL when added to freshly isolated cells cultured for 2 (81+/-4% of control, P<0.05) and 5 (76+/-6%, of control, P<0.05) days. The degradation of oxidized LDL was also reduced in cells treated with LOV for 2 days after seeding (51+/-3% of control, P<0. 001) but not in 5-day-old cells. LOV had no significant effect on the degradation of either acetylated or oxidized LDL when added to fully matured macrophages allowed to differentiate under control conditions for 7 days before incubations with 10 micromol/L LOV for an additional 2 days. In contrast, LOV increased the degradation of native LDL in these cells at all 3 stages of cell differentiation. LOV also reduced class A types I and II macrophage scavenger receptor and CD36 mRNA levels in 2- and 5-day-old cells but not in the more mature macrophages. These data suggest that 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A inhibitors may reduce the expression and function of the class A types I and II macrophage scavenger receptor and CD36 in monocytes, during the early stages of their differentiation into adherent macrophages. These effects, if operative in vivo, may slow down the development of the atherosclerotic plaque and thus contribute to the beneficial effects of these drugs. (+info)

Scavenger receptor activity is increased in macrophages from rabbits with low atherosclerotic response: studies in normocholesterolemic high and low atherosclerotic response rabbits. (8/329)

We have previously described 2 strains of New Zealand White rabbits with a high (HAR) or low (LAR) atherosclerotic response to hypercholesterolemia. In the present study, we focused on class A scavenger receptor (SR-A) activity and ApoE expression in macrophages from both rabbit strains. These parameters play a crucial role in maintaining cholesterol homeostasis in the arterial wall and may be involved in the development of atherosclerosis. SR activity, as measured by uptake of DiI-labeled acetylated LDL, was significantly higher in macrophages from LAR rabbits (2177+/-253 ng/mg cell protein) than in macrophages from HAR rabbits (1153+/-200 ng/mg cell protein). The higher SR activity was caused by a greater number of SRs (apparent Vmax, 4100 ng/mg in LAR and 1980 ng/mg in HAR rabbits). The high SR activity in macrophages from LAR rabbits was associated with a significantly higher expression of SR-A mRNA compared with macrophages from HAR rabbits. However, the latter finding could not be explained by differences in the activity of transcription factor-activating protein 1 (AP-1), which was comparable in macrophages from both strains of rabbits. Because under certain circumstances SR-A mRNA expression is regulated in parallel with ApoE expression, we also evaluated this parameter. Although ApoE mRNA was 74% higher in macrophages from LAR rabbits, the difference did not reach statistical significance. In conclusion, the increased expression of SR-A in macrophages in the presence of adequate amounts of ApoE may play a role in attenuating atherosclerosis in LAR rabbits. (+info)

Scavenger receptors, class B (SR-B) are a type of scavenger receptors that play a crucial role in the cellular uptake and metabolism of lipids, particularly modified low-density lipoproteins (LDL), high-density lipoproteins (HDL), and other lipid-soluble molecules. They are membrane-bound glycoproteins that contain an extracellular domain with a characteristic structure, including cysteine-rich repeats and transmembrane domains.

The best-characterized member of this class is SR-B1 (also known as CD36b, SCARB1), which is widely expressed in various tissues, such as the liver, steroidogenic organs, macrophages, and endothelial cells. SR-B1 selectively binds to HDL and facilitates the transfer of cholesteryl esters from HDL particles into cells while allowing HDL to maintain its structural integrity and continue its function in reverse cholesterol transport.

SR-B1 has also been implicated in the uptake and degradation of oxidized LDL, contributing to the development of atherosclerosis. Additionally, SR-B1 is involved in several other cellular processes, including innate immunity, inflammation, and angiogenesis.

Other members of class B scavenger receptors include SR-BI, SR-B2 (also known as CLA-1 or LIMPII), SR-B3 (also known as CD36c or SCARB2), and SR-B4 (also known as CXorf24). These receptors have distinct expression patterns and functions but share structural similarities with SR-BI.

In summary, scavenger receptors, class B, are a group of membrane-bound glycoproteins that facilitate the cellular uptake and metabolism of lipids, particularly modified LDL and HDL particles. They play essential roles in maintaining lipid homeostasis and have implications in various pathological conditions, such as atherosclerosis and inflammation.

Scavenger receptors are a class of cell surface receptors that play a crucial role in the recognition and clearance of various biomolecules, including modified self-molecules, pathogens, and apoptotic cells. These receptors are expressed mainly by phagocytic cells such as macrophages and dendritic cells, but they can also be found on other cell types, including endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells.

Scavenger receptors have broad specificity and can bind to a wide range of ligands, including oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL), polyanionic molecules, advanced glycation end products (AGEs), and pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). The binding of ligands to scavenger receptors triggers various cellular responses, such as phagocytosis, endocytosis, signaling cascades, and the production of cytokines and chemokines.

Scavenger receptors are classified into several families based on their structural features and ligand specificity, including:

1. Class A (SR-A): This family includes SR-AI, SR-AII, and MARCO, which bind to oxLDL, bacteria, and apoptotic cells.
2. Class B (SR-B): This family includes SR-BI, CD36, and LIMPII, which bind to lipoproteins, phospholipids, and pathogens.
3. Class C (SR-C): This family includes DEC-205, MRC1, and LOX-1, which bind to various ligands, including apoptotic cells, bacteria, and oxLDL.
4. Class D (SR-D): This family includes SCARF1, which binds to PAMPs and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs).
5. Class E (SR-E): This family includes CXCL16, which binds to chemokine CXCR6 and phosphatidylserine.

Scavenger receptors play a critical role in maintaining tissue homeostasis by removing damaged or altered molecules and cells, modulating immune responses, and regulating lipid metabolism. Dysregulation of scavenger receptor function has been implicated in various pathological conditions, including atherosclerosis, inflammation, infection, and cancer.

Scavenger receptors, class A, are a group of membrane-bound proteins found on the surface of various cell types, including macrophages, dendritic cells, and endothelial cells. These receptors play an essential role in recognizing and removing modified or damaged self and foreign molecules from the body.

Class A scavenger receptors include three members: SR-A1 (also known as Macrophage Scavenger Receptor 1 or MSR1), SR-A2 (also known as SCARA2 or MSR2), and SR-A3 (also known as SCARA3). These receptors have a wide range of ligands, including oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL), polyanionic molecules, advanced glycation end products (AGEs), and pathogens.

SR-A1 is the best characterized among the three members and has been implicated in various physiological and pathological processes, such as atherosclerosis, immune response, and neurodegenerative disorders. SR-A2 and SR-A3 have overlapping functions with SR-A1 but are less well studied.

Overall, scavenger receptors, class A, contribute to the maintenance of tissue homeostasis by clearing cellular debris and modulating immune responses. However, dysregulation of these receptors has been associated with several diseases, making them potential therapeutic targets for various pathological conditions.

CD36 is a type of protein found on the surface of certain cells in the human body, including platelets, white blood cells (monocytes and macrophages), and fat (adipose) cells. It is a type of scavenger receptor that plays a role in various biological processes, such as:

1. Fatty acid uptake and metabolism: CD36 helps facilitate the transport of long-chain fatty acids into cells for energy production and storage.
2. Inflammation and immune response: CD36 is involved in the recognition and clearance of foreign substances (pathogens) and damaged or dying cells, which can trigger an immune response.
3. Angiogenesis: CD36 has been implicated in the regulation of blood vessel formation (angiogenesis), particularly during wound healing and tumor growth.
4. Atherosclerosis: CD36 has been associated with the development and progression of atherosclerosis, a condition characterized by the buildup of fats, cholesterol, and other substances in and on the artery walls. This is due to its role in the uptake of oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) by macrophages, leading to the formation of foam cells and the development of fatty streaks in the arterial wall.
5. Infectious diseases: CD36 has been identified as a receptor for various pathogens, including malaria parasites, HIV, and some bacteria, which can use this protein to gain entry into host cells.

As an antigen, CD36 is a molecule that can be targeted by the immune system to produce an immune response. Antibodies against CD36 have been found in various diseases, such as autoimmune disorders and certain infections. Modulation of CD36 activity has been suggested as a potential therapeutic strategy for several conditions, including atherosclerosis, diabetes, and infectious diseases.

Lipoprotein receptors are specialized proteins found on the surface of cells that play a crucial role in the metabolism of lipoproteins, which are complex particles composed of lipids and proteins. These receptors bind to specific lipoproteins in the bloodstream, facilitating their uptake into the cell for further processing.

There are several types of lipoprotein receptors, including:

1. LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein) Receptor: This receptor is responsible for recognizing and internalizing LDL particles, which are rich in cholesterol. Once inside the cell, LDL particles release their cholesterol, which can then be used for various cellular functions or stored for later use. Defects in the LDL receptor can lead to elevated levels of LDL cholesterol in the blood and an increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease.
2. HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) Receptor: This receptor is involved in the clearance of HDL particles from the bloodstream. HDL particles are responsible for transporting excess cholesterol from peripheral tissues to the liver, where it can be processed and eliminated from the body.
3. VLDL (Very Low-Density Lipoprotein) Receptor: This receptor recognizes and internalizes VLDL particles, which are produced by the liver and carry triglycerides and cholesterol to peripheral tissues. VLDL particles are subsequently converted into LDL particles in the bloodstream.
4. LRP (Low-Density Lipoprotein Receptor-Related Protein) Family: This family of receptors includes several members, such as LRP1 and LRP2, that play roles in various cellular processes, including lipid metabolism, protein trafficking, and cell signaling. They can bind to a variety of ligands, including lipoproteins, proteases, and extracellular matrix components.

In summary, lipoprotein receptors are essential for maintaining proper lipid metabolism and homeostasis by facilitating the uptake, processing, and elimination of lipoproteins in the body.

Immunologic receptors are specialized proteins found on the surface of immune cells that recognize and bind to specific molecules, known as antigens, on the surface of pathogens or infected cells. This binding triggers a series of intracellular signaling events that activate the immune cell and initiate an immune response.

There are several types of immunologic receptors, including:

1. T-cell receptors (TCRs): These receptors are found on the surface of T cells and recognize antigens presented in the context of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules.
2. B-cell receptors (BCRs): These receptors are found on the surface of B cells and recognize free antigens in solution.
3. Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs): These receptors are found inside immune cells and recognize conserved molecular patterns associated with pathogens, such as lipopolysaccharides and flagellin.
4. Fc receptors: These receptors are found on the surface of various immune cells and bind to the constant region of antibodies, mediating effector functions such as phagocytosis and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC).

Immunologic receptors play a critical role in the recognition and elimination of pathogens and infected cells, and dysregulation of these receptors can lead to immune disorders and diseases.

High-Density Lipoproteins (HDL) are a type of lipoprotein that play a crucial role in the transportation and metabolism of cholesterol in the body. They are often referred to as "good" cholesterol because they help remove excess cholesterol from cells and carry it back to the liver, where it can be broken down and removed from the body. This process is known as reverse cholesterol transport.

HDLs are composed of a lipid core containing cholesteryl esters and triglycerides, surrounded by a shell of phospholipids, free cholesterol, and apolipoproteins, primarily apoA-I. The size and composition of HDL particles can vary, leading to the classification of different subclasses of HDL with varying functions and metabolic fates.

Elevated levels of HDL have been associated with a lower risk of developing cardiovascular diseases, while low HDL levels increase the risk. However, it is essential to consider that HDL function and quality may be more important than just the quantity in determining cardiovascular risk.

Scavenger receptors, class F (SR-F), are a subclass of scavenger receptors that play a crucial role in the recognition and clearance of modified low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and other waste products in the body. These receptors are expressed mainly on the surface of macrophages, dendritic cells, and endothelial cells.

SR-F consists of two members: SR-FI and SR-FII. Both receptors contain multiple domains, including extracellular cysteine-rich domains, transmembrane regions, and intracellular signaling domains. These features enable them to bind various ligands, such as oxidized LDL, acetylated LDL, advanced glycation end products (AGEs), and apoptotic cells.

SR-F receptors have been implicated in several physiological processes, including lipid metabolism, immune response, inflammation, and atherosclerosis. Dysregulation of these receptors has been associated with the development of various diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders.

In summary, scavenger receptors, class F, are essential for maintaining homeostasis by recognizing and removing waste products in the body. Their dysfunction can contribute to several pathological conditions, making them an important area of research in biology and medicine.

Cholesteryl esters are formed when cholesterol, a type of lipid (fat) that is important for the normal functioning of the body, becomes combined with fatty acids through a process called esterification. This results in a compound that is more hydrophobic (water-repelling) than cholesterol itself, which allows it to be stored more efficiently in the body.

Cholesteryl esters are found naturally in foods such as animal fats and oils, and they are also produced by the liver and other cells in the body. They play an important role in the structure and function of cell membranes, and they are also precursors to the synthesis of steroid hormones, bile acids, and vitamin D.

However, high levels of cholesteryl esters in the blood can contribute to the development of atherosclerosis, a condition characterized by the buildup of plaque in the arteries, which can increase the risk of heart disease and stroke. Cholesteryl esters are typically measured as part of a lipid profile, along with other markers such as total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, and triglycerides.

Membrane proteins are a type of protein that are embedded in the lipid bilayer of biological membranes, such as the plasma membrane of cells or the inner membrane of mitochondria. These proteins play crucial roles in various cellular processes, including:

1. Cell-cell recognition and signaling
2. Transport of molecules across the membrane (selective permeability)
3. Enzymatic reactions at the membrane surface
4. Energy transduction and conversion
5. Mechanosensation and signal transduction

Membrane proteins can be classified into two main categories: integral membrane proteins, which are permanently associated with the lipid bilayer, and peripheral membrane proteins, which are temporarily or loosely attached to the membrane surface. Integral membrane proteins can further be divided into three subcategories based on their topology:

1. Transmembrane proteins, which span the entire width of the lipid bilayer with one or more alpha-helices or beta-barrels.
2. Lipid-anchored proteins, which are covalently attached to lipids in the membrane via a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor or other lipid modifications.
3. Monotopic proteins, which are partially embedded in the membrane and have one or more domains exposed to either side of the bilayer.

Membrane proteins are essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis and are targets for various therapeutic interventions, including drug development and gene therapy. However, their structural complexity and hydrophobicity make them challenging to study using traditional biochemical methods, requiring specialized techniques such as X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and single-particle cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM).

Cholesterol is a type of lipid (fat) molecule that is an essential component of cell membranes and is also used to make certain hormones and vitamins in the body. It is produced by the liver and is also obtained from animal-derived foods such as meat, dairy products, and eggs.

Cholesterol does not mix with blood, so it is transported through the bloodstream by lipoproteins, which are particles made up of both lipids and proteins. There are two main types of lipoproteins that carry cholesterol: low-density lipoproteins (LDL), also known as "bad" cholesterol, and high-density lipoproteins (HDL), also known as "good" cholesterol.

High levels of LDL cholesterol in the blood can lead to a buildup of cholesterol in the walls of the arteries, increasing the risk of heart disease and stroke. On the other hand, high levels of HDL cholesterol are associated with a lower risk of these conditions because HDL helps remove LDL cholesterol from the bloodstream and transport it back to the liver for disposal.

It is important to maintain healthy levels of cholesterol through a balanced diet, regular exercise, and sometimes medication if necessary. Regular screening is also recommended to monitor cholesterol levels and prevent health complications.

Low-density lipoproteins (LDL), also known as "bad cholesterol," are a type of lipoprotein that carry cholesterol and other fats from the liver to cells throughout the body. High levels of LDL in the blood can lead to the buildup of cholesterol in the walls of the arteries, which can increase the risk of heart disease and stroke.

Lipoproteins are complex particles composed of proteins (apolipoproteins) and lipids (cholesterol, triglycerides, and phospholipids) that are responsible for transporting fat molecules around the body in the bloodstream. LDL is one type of lipoprotein, along with high-density lipoproteins (HDL), very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), and chylomicrons.

LDL particles are smaller than HDL particles and can easily penetrate the artery walls, leading to the formation of plaques that can narrow or block the arteries. Therefore, maintaining healthy levels of LDL in the blood is essential for preventing cardiovascular disease.

Lysosome-Associated Membrane Glycoproteins (LAMPs) are a group of proteins found in the membrane of lysosomes, which are cellular organelles responsible for breaking down and recycling various biomolecules. LAMPs play a crucial role in maintaining the integrity and function of the lysosomal membrane.

There are two major types of LAMPs: LAMP-1 and LAMP-2. Both proteins share structural similarities, including a large heavily glycosylated domain that faces the lumen of the lysosome and a short hydrophobic region that anchors them to the membrane.

The primary function of LAMPs is to protect the lysosomal membrane from degradation by hydrolytic enzymes present inside the lysosome. They also participate in the process of autophagy, a cellular recycling mechanism, by fusing with autophagosomes (double-membraned vesicles formed during autophagy) to form autolysosomes, where the contents are degraded.

Moreover, LAMPs have been implicated in several cellular processes, such as antigen presentation, cholesterol homeostasis, and intracellular signaling. Mutations in LAMP-2 have been associated with certain genetic disorders, including Danon disease, a rare X-linked dominant disorder characterized by heart problems, muscle weakness, and intellectual disability.

ATP Binding Cassette Transporter 1 (ABC Transporter 1 or ABCB1) is a protein that belongs to the superfamily of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. These proteins utilize the energy from ATP hydrolysis to transport various substrates across membranes.

The ABCB1 gene encodes for the P-glycoprotein (P-gp), a 170 kDa protein, which is an efflux transporter primarily located in the plasma membrane of various cell types, including epithelial and endothelial cells. P-gp plays a crucial role in limiting the absorption and facilitating the excretion of many drugs by actively pumping them out of cells, thereby contributing to multidrug resistance (MDR) in cancer cells.

P-gp has a broad substrate specificity and can transport various structurally diverse compounds, including chemotherapeutic agents, antibiotics, antiviral drugs, and natural toxins. Its expression is often upregulated in cancer cells, leading to reduced intracellular drug accumulation and decreased therapeutic efficacy. In addition to its role in drug resistance, P-gp also functions in the absorption, distribution, and excretion of drugs in normal tissues, particularly in the intestine, liver, and kidney.

LDL receptors (Low-Density Lipoprotein Receptors) are cell surface receptors that play a crucial role in the regulation of cholesterol homeostasis within the body. They are responsible for recognizing and binding to LDL particles, also known as "bad cholesterol," which are then internalized by the cell through endocytosis.

Once inside the cell, the LDL particles are broken down, releasing their cholesterol content, which can be used for various cellular processes such as membrane synthesis and hormone production. The LDL receptors themselves are recycled back to the cell surface, allowing for continued uptake of LDL particles.

Mutations in the LDL receptor gene can lead to a condition called familial hypercholesterolemia, which is characterized by high levels of LDL cholesterol in the blood and an increased risk of premature cardiovascular disease.

Macrophages are a type of white blood cell that are an essential part of the immune system. They are large, specialized cells that engulf and destroy foreign substances, such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi, as well as damaged or dead cells. Macrophages are found throughout the body, including in the bloodstream, lymph nodes, spleen, liver, lungs, and connective tissues. They play a critical role in inflammation, immune response, and tissue repair and remodeling.

Macrophages originate from monocytes, which are a type of white blood cell produced in the bone marrow. When monocytes enter the tissues, they differentiate into macrophages, which have a larger size and more specialized functions than monocytes. Macrophages can change their shape and move through tissues to reach sites of infection or injury. They also produce cytokines, chemokines, and other signaling molecules that help coordinate the immune response and recruit other immune cells to the site of infection or injury.

Macrophages have a variety of surface receptors that allow them to recognize and respond to different types of foreign substances and signals from other cells. They can engulf and digest foreign particles, bacteria, and viruses through a process called phagocytosis. Macrophages also play a role in presenting antigens to T cells, which are another type of immune cell that helps coordinate the immune response.

Overall, macrophages are crucial for maintaining tissue homeostasis, defending against infection, and promoting wound healing and tissue repair. Dysregulation of macrophage function has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and chronic inflammatory conditions.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Poly I" is not a recognized medical term or abbreviation in the context of human diseases or conditions. It's possible that there might be a typo or misunderstanding in your query. If you intended to ask about a specific medical condition, medication, or concept, please provide the full and correct term so I can give you an accurate and helpful response.

Scavenger receptors, class C (SR-C) are a group of membrane-bound receptors that play a crucial role in the recognition and clearance of damaged or apoptotic cells, as well as various types of pathogens and modified lipoproteins. These receptors belong to the superfamily of scavenger receptors, which share a common feature of broad and often overlapping ligand specificity.

SR-C receptors are characterized by their multi-ligand binding capacity, including oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL), advanced glycation end products (AGEs), and pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). They contain several distinct structural domains, such as extracellular fibronectin type II (FNII) domains, transmembrane regions, and intracellular cytoplasmic tails.

There are three main members of the SR-C family: SR-CI, SR-CII, and SR-CIII. These receptors have been identified in various cell types, including macrophages, dendritic cells, endothelial cells, and fibroblasts. They contribute to several essential physiological processes, such as maintaining lipid homeostasis, modulating immune responses, and promoting tissue repair and remodeling.

Dysregulation of SR-C receptors has been implicated in the pathogenesis of various diseases, including atherosclerosis, diabetes, and autoimmune disorders. Therefore, understanding the structure and function of these receptors may provide valuable insights into developing novel therapeutic strategies for treating these conditions.

Foam cells are a type of cell that form when certain white blood cells, called macrophages, accumulate an excessive amount of lipids (fats) within their cytoplasm. This occurs due to the ingestion and breakdown of low-density lipoproteins (LDL), which then get trapped inside the macrophages, leading to the formation of large lipid-rich vacuoles that give the cells a foamy appearance under the microscope.

Foam cells are commonly found in the early stages of atherosclerosis, a condition characterized by the buildup of plaque in the walls of arteries. Over time, the accumulation of foam cells and other components of plaque can narrow or block the affected artery, leading to serious health problems such as heart attack or stroke.

Cholesterol oxidase is an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of cholesterol to cholest-4-en-3-one, while reducing molecular oxygen to hydrogen peroxide. This reaction is commonly used in clinical and research settings to measure cholesterol levels in samples of blood or other biological fluids. The enzyme is produced by various bacteria, fungi, and plants, and can be purified for use in diagnostic kits and biochemical assays. In addition to its role in cholesterol analysis, cholesterol oxidase has also been studied as a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of bacterial infections and cancer.

Apolipoprotein A-I (ApoA-I) is a major protein component of high-density lipoproteins (HDL) in human plasma. It plays a crucial role in the metabolism and transport of lipids, particularly cholesterol, within the body. ApoA-I facilitates the formation of HDL particles, which are involved in the reverse transport of cholesterol from peripheral tissues to the liver for excretion. This process is known as reverse cholesterol transport and helps maintain appropriate cholesterol levels in the body. Low levels of ApoA-I or dysfunctional ApoA-I have been associated with an increased risk of developing cardiovascular diseases.

Lipoproteins are complex particles composed of multiple proteins and lipids (fats) that play a crucial role in the transport and metabolism of fat molecules in the body. They consist of an outer shell of phospholipids, free cholesterols, and apolipoproteins, enclosing a core of triglycerides and cholesteryl esters.

There are several types of lipoproteins, including:

1. Chylomicrons: These are the largest lipoproteins and are responsible for transporting dietary lipids from the intestines to other parts of the body.
2. Very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL): Produced by the liver, VLDL particles carry triglycerides to peripheral tissues for energy storage or use.
3. Low-density lipoproteins (LDL): Often referred to as "bad cholesterol," LDL particles transport cholesterol from the liver to cells throughout the body. High levels of LDL in the blood can lead to plaque buildup in artery walls and increase the risk of heart disease.
4. High-density lipoproteins (HDL): Known as "good cholesterol," HDL particles help remove excess cholesterol from cells and transport it back to the liver for excretion or recycling. Higher levels of HDL are associated with a lower risk of heart disease.

Understanding lipoproteins and their roles in the body is essential for assessing cardiovascular health and managing risks related to heart disease and stroke.

Lipid metabolism is the process by which the body breaks down and utilizes lipids (fats) for various functions, such as energy production, cell membrane formation, and hormone synthesis. This complex process involves several enzymes and pathways that regulate the digestion, absorption, transport, storage, and consumption of fats in the body.

The main types of lipids involved in metabolism include triglycerides, cholesterol, phospholipids, and fatty acids. The breakdown of these lipids begins in the digestive system, where enzymes called lipases break down dietary fats into smaller molecules called fatty acids and glycerol. These molecules are then absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to the liver, which is the main site of lipid metabolism.

In the liver, fatty acids may be further broken down for energy production or used to synthesize new lipids. Excess fatty acids may be stored as triglycerides in specialized cells called adipocytes (fat cells) for later use. Cholesterol is also metabolized in the liver, where it may be used to synthesize bile acids, steroid hormones, and other important molecules.

Disorders of lipid metabolism can lead to a range of health problems, including obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). These conditions may be caused by genetic factors, lifestyle habits, or a combination of both. Proper diagnosis and management of lipid metabolism disorders typically involves a combination of dietary changes, exercise, and medication.

CHO cells, or Chinese Hamster Ovary cells, are a type of immortalized cell line that are commonly used in scientific research and biotechnology. They were originally derived from the ovaries of a female Chinese hamster (Cricetulus griseus) in the 1950s.

CHO cells have several characteristics that make them useful for laboratory experiments. They can grow and divide indefinitely under appropriate conditions, which allows researchers to culture large quantities of them for study. Additionally, CHO cells are capable of expressing high levels of recombinant proteins, making them a popular choice for the production of therapeutic drugs, vaccines, and other biologics.

In particular, CHO cells have become a workhorse in the field of biotherapeutics, with many approved monoclonal antibody-based therapies being produced using these cells. The ability to genetically modify CHO cells through various methods has further expanded their utility in research and industrial applications.

It is important to note that while CHO cells are widely used in scientific research, they may not always accurately represent human cell behavior or respond to drugs and other compounds in the same way as human cells do. Therefore, results obtained using CHO cells should be validated in more relevant systems when possible.

Peritoneal macrophages are a type of immune cell that are present in the peritoneal cavity, which is the space within the abdomen that contains the liver, spleen, stomach, and intestines. These macrophages play a crucial role in the body's defense against infection and injury by engulfing and destroying foreign substances such as bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms.

Macrophages are large phagocytic cells that originate from monocytes, which are a type of white blood cell produced in the bone marrow. When monocytes enter tissue, they can differentiate into macrophages, which have a variety of functions depending on their location and activation state.

Peritoneal macrophages are involved in various physiological processes, including the regulation of inflammation, tissue repair, and the breakdown of foreign substances. They also play a role in the development and progression of certain diseases, such as cancer and autoimmune disorders.

These macrophages can be collected from animals or humans for research purposes by injecting a solution into the peritoneal cavity and then withdrawing the fluid, which contains the macrophages. These cells can then be studied in vitro to better understand their functions and potential therapeutic targets.

A "knockout" mouse is a genetically engineered mouse in which one or more genes have been deleted or "knocked out" using molecular biology techniques. This allows researchers to study the function of specific genes and their role in various biological processes, as well as potential associations with human diseases. The mice are generated by introducing targeted DNA modifications into embryonic stem cells, which are then used to create a live animal. Knockout mice have been widely used in biomedical research to investigate gene function, disease mechanisms, and potential therapeutic targets.

Chlordecone is a synthetic chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide that was widely used in the past for agricultural purposes, particularly in banana plantations. It has been banned in many countries due to its persistence in the environment and its potential negative effects on human health.

Chlordecone is classified as a possible human carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Exposure to this chemical can occur through contaminated food, water, or air, and it has been linked to various health problems, including neurological effects, endocrine disruption, and an increased risk of certain cancers.

In the medical field, chlordecone exposure is often evaluated in patients who have been exposed to this chemical through environmental contamination or occupational exposure. Medical professionals may use various tests, such as blood or urine tests, to measure the levels of chlordecone in a patient's body and assess any potential health risks.

Scavenger receptors, class E (SR-E), also known as CD36 and scavenger receptor family member 8 (SCARF8), are a group of membrane-bound receptors found on the surface of various cell types, including macrophages, platelets, and endothelial cells. They play a crucial role in the recognition and clearance of damaged or modified self-molecules, as well as foreign substances, from the body.

SR-E receptors have a wide range of ligands, such as oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL), apoptotic cells, bacteria, and long-chain fatty acids. The binding of these ligands to SR-E triggers various intracellular signaling pathways that regulate cellular processes like phagocytosis, foam cell formation, inflammation, and lipid metabolism.

Dysregulation of SR-E receptors has been implicated in several diseases, including atherosclerosis, diabetes, obesity, and Alzheimer's disease. Therefore, understanding the function and regulation of these receptors can provide valuable insights into the pathogenesis of various disorders and potentially lead to the development of novel therapeutic strategies.

Cricetinae is a subfamily of rodents that includes hamsters, gerbils, and relatives. These small mammals are characterized by having short limbs, compact bodies, and cheek pouches for storing food. They are native to various parts of the world, particularly in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Some species are popular pets due to their small size, easy care, and friendly nature. In a medical context, understanding the biology and behavior of Cricetinae species can be important for individuals who keep them as pets or for researchers studying their physiology.

ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters are a family of membrane proteins that utilize the energy from ATP hydrolysis to transport various substrates across extra- and intracellular membranes. These transporters play crucial roles in several biological processes, including detoxification, drug resistance, nutrient uptake, and regulation of cellular cholesterol homeostasis.

The structure of ABC transporters consists of two nucleotide-binding domains (NBDs) that bind and hydrolyze ATP, and two transmembrane domains (TMDs) that form the substrate-translocation pathway. The NBDs are typically located adjacent to each other in the cytoplasm, while the TMDs can be either integral membrane domains or separate structures associated with the membrane.

The human genome encodes 48 distinct ABC transporters, which are classified into seven subfamilies (ABCA-ABCG) based on their sequence similarity and domain organization. Some well-known examples of ABC transporters include P-glycoprotein (ABCB1), multidrug resistance protein 1 (ABCC1), and breast cancer resistance protein (ABCG2).

Dysregulation or mutations in ABC transporters have been implicated in various diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, neurological disorders, and cancer. In cancer, overexpression of certain ABC transporters can contribute to drug resistance by actively effluxing chemotherapeutic agents from cancer cells, making them less susceptible to treatment.

CD81 is a type of protein that is found on the surface of certain cells in the human body. It is a member of the tetraspanin family of proteins, which are involved in various cellular processes including cell adhesion, motility, and activation. CD81 has been shown to be important in the function of the immune system, particularly in the regulation of T cells.

CD81 is also known as a potential antigen, which means that it can stimulate an immune response when introduced into the body. Specifically, CD81 can bind to another protein called CD19, and this interaction has been shown to be important for the activation and survival of B cells, which are a type of white blood cell involved in the production of antibodies.

In some cases, CD81 may be targeted by the immune system in certain autoimmune diseases or during rejection of transplanted organs. Additionally, CD81 has been identified as a potential target for cancer immunotherapy, as it is overexpressed on some types of cancer cells and can help to inhibit the anti-tumor immune response.

HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) cholesterol is often referred to as "good" cholesterol. It is a type of lipoprotein that helps remove excess cholesterol from cells and carry it back to the liver, where it can be broken down and removed from the body. High levels of HDL cholesterol have been associated with a lower risk of heart disease and stroke.

Free radical scavengers, also known as antioxidants, are substances that neutralize or stabilize free radicals. Free radicals are highly reactive atoms or molecules with unpaired electrons, capable of causing damage to cells and tissues in the body through a process called oxidative stress. Antioxidants donate an electron to the free radical, thereby neutralizing it and preventing it from causing further damage. They can be found naturally in foods such as fruits, vegetables, and nuts, or they can be synthesized and used as dietary supplements. Examples of antioxidants include vitamins C and E, beta-carotene, and selenium.

The liver is a large, solid organ located in the upper right portion of the abdomen, beneath the diaphragm and above the stomach. It plays a vital role in several bodily functions, including:

1. Metabolism: The liver helps to metabolize carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from the food we eat into energy and nutrients that our bodies can use.
2. Detoxification: The liver detoxifies harmful substances in the body by breaking them down into less toxic forms or excreting them through bile.
3. Synthesis: The liver synthesizes important proteins, such as albumin and clotting factors, that are necessary for proper bodily function.
4. Storage: The liver stores glucose, vitamins, and minerals that can be released when the body needs them.
5. Bile production: The liver produces bile, a digestive juice that helps to break down fats in the small intestine.
6. Immune function: The liver plays a role in the immune system by filtering out bacteria and other harmful substances from the blood.

Overall, the liver is an essential organ that plays a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being.

Biological transport refers to the movement of molecules, ions, or solutes across biological membranes or through cells in living organisms. This process is essential for maintaining homeostasis, regulating cellular functions, and enabling communication between cells. There are two main types of biological transport: passive transport and active transport.

Passive transport does not require the input of energy and includes:

1. Diffusion: The random movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until equilibrium is reached.
2. Osmosis: The diffusion of solvent molecules (usually water) across a semi-permeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration.
3. Facilitated diffusion: The assisted passage of polar or charged substances through protein channels or carriers in the cell membrane, which increases the rate of diffusion without consuming energy.

Active transport requires the input of energy (in the form of ATP) and includes:

1. Primary active transport: The direct use of ATP to move molecules against their concentration gradient, often driven by specific transport proteins called pumps.
2. Secondary active transport: The coupling of the movement of one substance down its electrochemical gradient with the uphill transport of another substance, mediated by a shared transport protein. This process is also known as co-transport or counter-transport.

Reticulocytosis is a medical term that refers to an increased number of reticulocytes in the peripheral blood. Reticulocytes are immature red blood cells produced in the bone marrow and released into the bloodstream. They still have remnants of RNA, which gives them a reticular or "net-like" appearance under a microscope when stained with certain dyes.

Reticulocytosis is typically seen in conditions associated with increased red blood cell production, such as:

1. Hemolysis: This is a condition where there is excessive destruction of red blood cells, leading to anemia. The body responds by increasing the production of reticulocytes to replace the lost red blood cells.
2. Blood loss: When there is significant blood loss, the body tries to compensate for the decrease in red blood cells by boosting the production of reticulocytes.
3. Recovery from bone marrow suppression: In cases where the bone marrow has been suppressed due to illness, medication, or chemotherapy, and then recovers, an increase in reticulocytosis may be observed as the bone marrow resumes normal red blood cell production.
4. Megaloblastic anemias: Conditions like vitamin B12 or folate deficiency can lead to megaloblastic anemia, where the red blood cells are larger and immature. Reticulocytosis may be present as the bone marrow tries to correct the anemia.
5. Congenital disorders: Certain inherited conditions, such as hereditary spherocytosis or thalassemias, can cause chronic hemolysis and lead to reticulocytosis.

It is essential to evaluate the underlying cause of reticulocytosis for appropriate diagnosis and treatment.

HDL3 (High-Density Lipoprotein 3) is a type of lipoprotein that plays a role in the transport and metabolism of cholesterol in the body. HDLs are commonly known as "good cholesterol" because they help remove excess cholesterol from cells and carry it back to the liver, where it can be broken down and removed from the body.

HDL3 is one of the subclasses of HDL based on its density and size. It is denser than HDL2 but less dense than HDL1. HDL3 is smaller in size and contains a higher proportion of protein to lipid compared to other HDL subclasses. It is also more efficient in reverse cholesterol transport, which is the process of removing cholesterol from tissues and delivering it to the liver for excretion.

It's worth noting that while high levels of HDL are generally associated with a lower risk of heart disease, recent research suggests that the relationship between HDL and cardiovascular health may be more complex than previously thought.

C57BL/6 (C57 Black 6) is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The term "inbred" refers to a strain of animals where matings have been carried out between siblings or other closely related individuals for many generations, resulting in a population that is highly homozygous at most genetic loci.

The C57BL/6 strain was established in 1920 by crossing a female mouse from the dilute brown (DBA) strain with a male mouse from the black strain. The resulting offspring were then interbred for many generations to create the inbred C57BL/6 strain.

C57BL/6 mice are known for their robust health, longevity, and ease of handling, making them a popular choice for researchers. They have been used in a wide range of biomedical research areas, including studies of cancer, immunology, neuroscience, cardiovascular disease, and metabolism.

One of the most notable features of the C57BL/6 strain is its sensitivity to certain genetic modifications, such as the introduction of mutations that lead to obesity or impaired glucose tolerance. This has made it a valuable tool for studying the genetic basis of complex diseases and traits.

Overall, the C57BL/6 inbred mouse strain is an important model organism in biomedical research, providing a valuable resource for understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying human health and disease.

A cell line is a culture of cells that are grown in a laboratory for use in research. These cells are usually taken from a single cell or group of cells, and they are able to divide and grow continuously in the lab. Cell lines can come from many different sources, including animals, plants, and humans. They are often used in scientific research to study cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and to test new drugs or treatments. Some common types of human cell lines include HeLa cells (which come from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks), HEK293 cells (which come from embryonic kidney cells), and HUVEC cells (which come from umbilical vein endothelial cells). It is important to note that cell lines are not the same as primary cells, which are cells that are taken directly from a living organism and have not been grown in the lab.

Hepatocytes are the predominant type of cells in the liver, accounting for about 80% of its cytoplasmic mass. They play a key role in protein synthesis, protein storage, transformation of carbohydrates, synthesis of cholesterol, bile salts and phospholipids, detoxification, modification, and excretion of exogenous and endogenous substances, initiation of formation and secretion of bile, and enzyme production. Hepatocytes are essential for the maintenance of homeostasis in the body.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

Arteriosclerosis is a general term that describes the hardening and stiffening of the artery walls. It's a progressive condition that can occur as a result of aging, or it may be associated with certain risk factors such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, diabetes, smoking, and a sedentary lifestyle.

The process of arteriosclerosis involves the buildup of plaque, made up of fat, cholesterol, calcium, and other substances, in the inner lining of the artery walls. Over time, this buildup can cause the artery walls to thicken and harden, reducing the flow of oxygen-rich blood to the body's organs and tissues.

Arteriosclerosis can affect any of the body's arteries, but it is most commonly found in the coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart, the cerebral arteries that supply blood to the brain, and the peripheral arteries that supply blood to the limbs. When arteriosclerosis affects the coronary arteries, it can lead to heart disease, angina, or heart attack. When it affects the cerebral arteries, it can lead to stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA). When it affects the peripheral arteries, it can cause pain, numbness, or weakness in the limbs, and in severe cases, gangrene and amputation.

Atherosclerosis is a medical condition characterized by the buildup of plaques, made up of fat, cholesterol, calcium, and other substances found in the blood, on the inner walls of the arteries. This process gradually narrows and hardens the arteries, reducing the flow of oxygen-rich blood to various parts of the body. Atherosclerosis can affect any artery in the body, including those that supply blood to the heart (coronary arteries), brain, limbs, and other organs. The progressive narrowing and hardening of the arteries can lead to serious complications such as coronary artery disease, carotid artery disease, peripheral artery disease, and aneurysms, which can result in heart attacks, strokes, or even death if left untreated.

The exact cause of atherosclerosis is not fully understood, but it is believed to be associated with several risk factors, including high blood pressure, high cholesterol levels, smoking, diabetes, obesity, physical inactivity, and a family history of the condition. Atherosclerosis can often progress without any symptoms for many years, but as the disease advances, it can lead to various signs and symptoms depending on which arteries are affected. Treatment typically involves lifestyle changes, medications, and, in some cases, surgical procedures to restore blood flow.

Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) is a protein involved in the metabolism of lipids, particularly cholesterol. It is produced primarily by the liver and is a component of several types of lipoproteins, including very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) and high-density lipoproteins (HDL).

ApoE plays a crucial role in the transport and uptake of lipids in the body. It binds to specific receptors on cell surfaces, facilitating the delivery of lipids to cells for energy metabolism or storage. ApoE also helps to clear cholesterol from the bloodstream and is involved in the repair and maintenance of tissues.

There are three major isoforms of ApoE, designated ApoE2, ApoE3, and ApoE4, which differ from each other by only a few amino acids. These genetic variations can have significant effects on an individual's risk for developing certain diseases, particularly cardiovascular disease and Alzheimer's disease. For example, individuals who inherit the ApoE4 allele have an increased risk of developing Alzheimer's disease, while those with the ApoE2 allele may have a reduced risk.

In summary, Apolipoprotein E is a protein involved in lipid metabolism and transport, and genetic variations in this protein can influence an individual's risk for certain diseases.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. This information is used by the cell's machinery to construct proteins, a process known as translation. After being transcribed from DNA, mRNA travels out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Once the protein has been synthesized, the mRNA may be degraded and recycled. Post-transcriptional modifications can also occur to mRNA, such as alternative splicing and addition of a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail, which can affect its stability, localization, and translation efficiency.

Virus internalization, also known as viral entry, is the process by which a virus enters a host cell to infect it and replicate its genetic material. This process typically involves several steps:

1. Attachment: The viral envelope proteins bind to specific receptors on the surface of the host cell.
2. Entry: The virus then enters the host cell through endocytosis or membrane fusion, depending on the type of virus.
3. Uncoating: Once inside the host cell, the viral capsid is removed, releasing the viral genome into the cytoplasm.
4. Replication: The viral genome then uses the host cell's machinery to replicate itself and produce new viral particles.

It's important to note that the specific mechanisms of virus internalization can vary widely between different types of viruses, and are an active area of research in virology and infectious disease.

Endocytosis is the process by which cells absorb substances from their external environment by engulfing them in membrane-bound structures, resulting in the formation of intracellular vesicles. This mechanism allows cells to take up large molecules, such as proteins and lipids, as well as small particles, like bacteria and viruses. There are two main types of endocytosis: phagocytosis (cell eating) and pinocytosis (cell drinking). Phagocytosis involves the engulfment of solid particles, while pinocytosis deals with the uptake of fluids and dissolved substances. Other specialized forms of endocytosis include receptor-mediated endocytosis and caveolae-mediated endocytosis, which allow for the specific internalization of molecules through the interaction with cell surface receptors.

Enterocytes are the absorptive cells that line the villi of the small intestine. They are a type of epithelial cell and play a crucial role in the absorption of nutrients from food into the bloodstream. Enterocytes have finger-like projections called microvilli on their apical surface, which increases their surface area and enhances their ability to absorb nutrients. They also contain enzymes that help digest and break down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats into smaller molecules that can be absorbed. Additionally, enterocytes play a role in the absorption of ions, water, and vitamins.

Enterovirus A, Human is a type of enterovirus that infects humans. Enteroviruses are small, single-stranded RNA viruses that belong to the Picornaviridae family. There are over 100 different types of enteroviruses, and they are divided into several species, including Enterovirus A, B, C, D, and Rhinovirus.

Enterovirus A includes several important human pathogens, such as polioviruses (which have been largely eradicated thanks to vaccination efforts), coxsackieviruses, echoviruses, and enterovirus 71. These viruses are typically transmitted through the fecal-oral route or respiratory droplets and can cause a range of illnesses, from mild symptoms like fever, rash, and sore throat to more severe diseases such as meningitis, encephalitis, myocarditis, and paralysis.

Poliovirus, which is the most well-known member of Enterovirus A, was responsible for causing poliomyelitis, a highly infectious disease that can lead to irreversible paralysis. However, due to widespread vaccination programs, wild poliovirus transmission has been eliminated in many parts of the world, and only a few countries still report cases of polio caused by vaccine-derived viruses.

Coxsackieviruses and echoviruses can cause various symptoms, including fever, rash, mouth sores, muscle aches, and respiratory illnesses. In some cases, they can also lead to more severe diseases such as meningitis or myocarditis. Enterovirus 71 is a significant pathogen that can cause hand, foot, and mouth disease, which is a common childhood illness characterized by fever, sore throat, and rash on the hands, feet, and mouth. In rare cases, enterovirus 71 can also lead to severe neurological complications such as encephalitis and polio-like paralysis.

Prevention measures for enterovirus A infections include good hygiene practices, such as washing hands frequently, avoiding close contact with sick individuals, and practicing safe food handling. Vaccination is available for poliovirus and can help prevent the spread of vaccine-derived viruses. No vaccines are currently available for other enterovirus A infections, but research is ongoing to develop effective vaccines against these viruses.

A ligand, in the context of biochemistry and medicine, is a molecule that binds to a specific site on a protein or a larger biomolecule, such as an enzyme or a receptor. This binding interaction can modify the function or activity of the target protein, either activating it or inhibiting it. Ligands can be small molecules, like hormones or neurotransmitters, or larger structures, like antibodies. The study of ligand-protein interactions is crucial for understanding cellular processes and developing drugs, as many therapeutic compounds function by binding to specific targets within the body.

Lipids are a broad group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar organic solvents. They include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, and phospholipids. Lipids serve many important functions in the body, including energy storage, acting as structural components of cell membranes, and serving as signaling molecules. High levels of certain lipids, particularly cholesterol and triglycerides, in the blood are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

COS cells are a type of cell line that are commonly used in molecular biology and genetic research. The name "COS" is an acronym for "CV-1 in Origin," as these cells were originally derived from the African green monkey kidney cell line CV-1. COS cells have been modified through genetic engineering to express high levels of a protein called SV40 large T antigen, which allows them to efficiently take up and replicate exogenous DNA.

There are several different types of COS cells that are commonly used in research, including COS-1, COS-3, and COS-7 cells. These cells are widely used for the production of recombinant proteins, as well as for studies of gene expression, protein localization, and signal transduction.

It is important to note that while COS cells have been a valuable tool in scientific research, they are not without their limitations. For example, because they are derived from monkey kidney cells, there may be differences in the way that human genes are expressed or regulated in these cells compared to human cells. Additionally, because COS cells express SV40 large T antigen, they may have altered cell cycle regulation and other phenotypic changes that could affect experimental results. Therefore, it is important to carefully consider the choice of cell line when designing experiments and interpreting results.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Probucol is not a medication that has a widely accepted or commonly used medical definition in the same way that many other medications do. However, probucol is a type of drug that was developed for use in treating cardiovascular disease. It is a cholesterol-lowering agent and antioxidant that was previously used in the management of hypercholesterolemia (high levels of cholesterol in the blood).

Probucol works by reducing the amount of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) or "bad" cholesterol in the body, which can help to lower the risk of heart disease and stroke. It is also believed to have antioxidant properties, which may help to protect against the damaging effects of free radicals on the body's cells.

Despite its potential benefits, probucol is not commonly used in clinical practice today due to concerns about its safety and efficacy. Some studies have suggested that probucol may be associated with an increased risk of death from heart disease, as well as other serious side effects. As a result, it is generally not recommended for use in the treatment of hypercholesterolemia or any other medical conditions.

Transfection is a term used in molecular biology that refers to the process of deliberately introducing foreign genetic material (DNA, RNA or artificial gene constructs) into cells. This is typically done using chemical or physical methods, such as lipofection or electroporation. Transfection is widely used in research and medical settings for various purposes, including studying gene function, producing proteins, developing gene therapies, and creating genetically modified organisms. It's important to note that transfection is different from transduction, which is the process of introducing genetic material into cells using viruses as vectors.

Protein binding, in the context of medical and biological sciences, refers to the interaction between a protein and another molecule (known as the ligand) that results in a stable complex. This process is often reversible and can be influenced by various factors such as pH, temperature, and concentration of the involved molecules.

In clinical chemistry, protein binding is particularly important when it comes to drugs, as many of them bind to proteins (especially albumin) in the bloodstream. The degree of protein binding can affect a drug's distribution, metabolism, and excretion, which in turn influence its therapeutic effectiveness and potential side effects.

Protein-bound drugs may be less available for interaction with their target tissues, as only the unbound or "free" fraction of the drug is active. Therefore, understanding protein binding can help optimize dosing regimens and minimize adverse reactions.

The adrenal glands are a pair of endocrine glands that are located on top of the kidneys. Each gland has two parts: the outer cortex and the inner medulla. The adrenal cortex produces hormones such as cortisol, aldosterone, and androgens, which regulate metabolism, blood pressure, and other vital functions. The adrenal medulla produces catecholamines, including epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which help the body respond to stress by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and alertness.

Virus receptors are specific molecules (commonly proteins) on the surface of host cells that viruses bind to in order to enter and infect those cells. This interaction between the virus and its receptor is a critical step in the infection process. Different types of viruses have different receptor requirements, and identifying these receptors can provide important insights into the biology of the virus and potential targets for antiviral therapies.

Phospholipids are a major class of lipids that consist of a hydrophilic (water-attracting) head and two hydrophobic (water-repelling) tails. The head is composed of a phosphate group, which is often bound to an organic molecule such as choline, ethanolamine, serine or inositol. The tails are made up of two fatty acid chains.

Phospholipids are a key component of cell membranes and play a crucial role in maintaining the structural integrity and function of the cell. They form a lipid bilayer, with the hydrophilic heads facing outwards and the hydrophobic tails facing inwards, creating a barrier that separates the interior of the cell from the outside environment.

Phospholipids are also involved in various cellular processes such as signal transduction, intracellular trafficking, and protein function regulation. Additionally, they serve as emulsifiers in the digestive system, helping to break down fats in the diet.

"Competitive binding" is a term used in pharmacology and biochemistry to describe the behavior of two or more molecules (ligands) competing for the same binding site on a target protein or receptor. In this context, "binding" refers to the physical interaction between a ligand and its target.

When a ligand binds to a receptor, it can alter the receptor's function, either activating or inhibiting it. If multiple ligands compete for the same binding site, they will compete to bind to the receptor. The ability of each ligand to bind to the receptor is influenced by its affinity for the receptor, which is a measure of how strongly and specifically the ligand binds to the receptor.

In competitive binding, if one ligand is present in high concentrations, it can prevent other ligands with lower affinity from binding to the receptor. This is because the higher-affinity ligand will have a greater probability of occupying the binding site and blocking access to the other ligands. The competition between ligands can be described mathematically using equations such as the Langmuir isotherm, which describes the relationship between the concentration of ligand and the fraction of receptors that are occupied by the ligand.

Competitive binding is an important concept in drug development, as it can be used to predict how different drugs will interact with their targets and how they may affect each other's activity. By understanding the competitive binding properties of a drug, researchers can optimize its dosage and delivery to maximize its therapeutic effect while minimizing unwanted side effects.

Alpha-tocopherol is the most active form of vitamin E in humans and is a fat-soluble antioxidant that helps protect cells from damage caused by free radicals. It plays a role in immune function, cell signaling, and metabolic processes. Alpha-tocopherol is found naturally in foods such as nuts, seeds, leafy green vegetables, and vegetable oils, and it is also available as a dietary supplement.

'Gene expression regulation' refers to the processes that control whether, when, and where a particular gene is expressed, meaning the production of a specific protein or functional RNA encoded by that gene. This complex mechanism can be influenced by various factors such as transcription factors, chromatin remodeling, DNA methylation, non-coding RNAs, and post-transcriptional modifications, among others. Proper regulation of gene expression is crucial for normal cellular function, development, and maintaining homeostasis in living organisms. Dysregulation of gene expression can lead to various diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders.

"Cricetulus" is a genus of rodents that includes several species of hamsters. These small, burrowing animals are native to Asia and have a body length of about 8-15 centimeters, with a tail that is usually shorter than the body. They are characterized by their large cheek pouches, which they use to store food. Some common species in this genus include the Chinese hamster (Cricetulus griseus) and the Daurian hamster (Cricetulus dauuricus). These animals are often kept as pets or used in laboratory research.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

Transgenic mice are genetically modified rodents that have incorporated foreign DNA (exogenous DNA) into their own genome. This is typically done through the use of recombinant DNA technology, where a specific gene or genetic sequence of interest is isolated and then introduced into the mouse embryo. The resulting transgenic mice can then express the protein encoded by the foreign gene, allowing researchers to study its function in a living organism.

The process of creating transgenic mice usually involves microinjecting the exogenous DNA into the pronucleus of a fertilized egg, which is then implanted into a surrogate mother. The offspring that result from this procedure are screened for the presence of the foreign DNA, and those that carry the desired genetic modification are used to establish a transgenic mouse line.

Transgenic mice have been widely used in biomedical research to model human diseases, study gene function, and test new therapies. They provide a valuable tool for understanding complex biological processes and developing new treatments for a variety of medical conditions.

Antigens are substances (usually proteins) on the surface of cells, or viruses, bacteria, and other microorganisms, that can stimulate an immune response.

Differentiation in the context of myelomonocytic cells refers to the process by which these cells mature and develop into specific types of immune cells, such as monocytes, macrophages, and neutrophils.

Myelomonocytic cells are a type of white blood cell that originate from stem cells in the bone marrow. They give rise to two main types of immune cells: monocytes and granulocytes (which include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils).

Therefore, 'Antigens, Differentiation, Myelomonocytic' refers to the study or examination of how antigens affect the differentiation process of myelomonocytic cells into specific types of immune cells. This is an important area of research in immunology and hematology as it relates to understanding how the body responds to infections, inflammation, and cancer.

Western blotting is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to detect and quantify specific proteins in a mixture of many different proteins. This technique is commonly used to confirm the expression of a protein of interest, determine its size, and investigate its post-translational modifications. The name "Western" blotting distinguishes this technique from Southern blotting (for DNA) and Northern blotting (for RNA).

The Western blotting procedure involves several steps:

1. Protein extraction: The sample containing the proteins of interest is first extracted, often by breaking open cells or tissues and using a buffer to extract the proteins.
2. Separation of proteins by electrophoresis: The extracted proteins are then separated based on their size by loading them onto a polyacrylamide gel and running an electric current through the gel (a process called sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis or SDS-PAGE). This separates the proteins according to their molecular weight, with smaller proteins migrating faster than larger ones.
3. Transfer of proteins to a membrane: After separation, the proteins are transferred from the gel onto a nitrocellulose or polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane using an electric current in a process called blotting. This creates a replica of the protein pattern on the gel but now immobilized on the membrane for further analysis.
4. Blocking: The membrane is then blocked with a blocking agent, such as non-fat dry milk or bovine serum albumin (BSA), to prevent non-specific binding of antibodies in subsequent steps.
5. Primary antibody incubation: A primary antibody that specifically recognizes the protein of interest is added and allowed to bind to its target protein on the membrane. This step may be performed at room temperature or 4°C overnight, depending on the antibody's properties.
6. Washing: The membrane is washed with a buffer to remove unbound primary antibodies.
7. Secondary antibody incubation: A secondary antibody that recognizes the primary antibody (often coupled to an enzyme or fluorophore) is added and allowed to bind to the primary antibody. This step may involve using a horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-conjugated or alkaline phosphatase (AP)-conjugated secondary antibody, depending on the detection method used later.
8. Washing: The membrane is washed again to remove unbound secondary antibodies.
9. Detection: A detection reagent is added to visualize the protein of interest by detecting the signal generated from the enzyme-conjugated or fluorophore-conjugated secondary antibody. This can be done using chemiluminescent, colorimetric, or fluorescent methods.
10. Analysis: The resulting image is analyzed to determine the presence and quantity of the protein of interest in the sample.

Western blotting is a powerful technique for identifying and quantifying specific proteins within complex mixtures. It can be used to study protein expression, post-translational modifications, protein-protein interactions, and more. However, it requires careful optimization and validation to ensure accurate and reproducible results.

Intestinal absorption refers to the process by which the small intestine absorbs water, nutrients, and electrolytes from food into the bloodstream. This is a critical part of the digestive process, allowing the body to utilize the nutrients it needs and eliminate waste products. The inner wall of the small intestine contains tiny finger-like projections called villi, which increase the surface area for absorption. Nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream through the walls of the capillaries in these villi, and then transported to other parts of the body for use or storage.

Caco-2 cells are a type of human epithelial colorectal adenocarcinoma cell line that is commonly used in scientific research, particularly in the field of drug development and toxicology. These cells are capable of forming a monolayer with tight junctions, which makes them an excellent model for studying intestinal absorption, transport, and metabolism of drugs and other xenobiotic compounds.

Caco-2 cells express many of the transporters and enzymes that are found in the human small intestine, making them a valuable tool for predicting drug absorption and bioavailability in humans. They are also used to study the mechanisms of drug transport across the intestinal epithelium, including passive diffusion and active transport by various transporters.

In addition to their use in drug development, Caco-2 cells are also used to study the toxicological effects of various compounds on human intestinal cells. They can be used to investigate the mechanisms of toxicity, as well as to evaluate the potential for drugs and other compounds to induce intestinal damage or inflammation.

Overall, Caco-2 cells are a widely used and valuable tool in both drug development and toxicology research, providing important insights into the absorption, transport, metabolism, and toxicity of various compounds in the human body.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

The adrenal cortex is the outer portion of the adrenal gland, which is located on top of the kidneys. It plays a crucial role in producing hormones that are essential for various bodily functions. The adrenal cortex is divided into three zones:

1. Zona glomerulosa: This outermost zone produces mineralocorticoids, primarily aldosterone. Aldosterone helps regulate sodium and potassium balance and thus influences blood pressure by controlling the amount of fluid in the body.
2. Zona fasciculata: The middle layer is responsible for producing glucocorticoids, with cortisol being the most important one. Cortisol regulates metabolism, helps manage stress responses, and has anti-inflammatory properties. It also plays a role in blood sugar regulation and maintaining the body's response to injury and illness.
3. Zona reticularis: The innermost zone produces androgens, primarily dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulfate form (DHEAS). These androgens are weak compared to those produced by the gonads (ovaries or testes), but they can be converted into more potent androgens or estrogens in peripheral tissues.

Disorders related to the adrenal cortex can lead to hormonal imbalances, affecting various bodily functions. Examples include Addison's disease (insufficient adrenal cortical hormone production) and Cushing's syndrome (excessive glucocorticoid levels).

Anticholesteremic agents are a class of medications that are used to lower the levels of cholesterol and other fats called lipids in the blood. These medications work by reducing the production of cholesterol in the body, increasing the removal of cholesterol from the bloodstream, or preventing the absorption of cholesterol in the digestive tract.

There are several types of anticholesteremic agents, including:

1. Statins: These medications work by blocking a liver enzyme that is necessary for the production of cholesterol. Examples of statins include atorvastatin, simvastatin, and rosuvastatin.
2. Bile acid sequestrants: These medications bind to bile acids in the digestive tract and prevent them from being reabsorbed into the bloodstream. This causes the liver to produce more bile acids, which in turn lowers cholesterol levels. Examples of bile acid sequestrants include cholestyramine and colesevelam.
3. Nicotinic acid: Also known as niacin, this medication works by reducing the production of very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) in the liver, which are a major source of bad cholesterol.
4. Fibrates: These medications work by increasing the removal of cholesterol from the bloodstream and reducing the production of VLDL in the liver. Examples of fibrates include gemfibrozil and fenofibrate.
5. PCSK9 inhibitors: These are a newer class of medications that work by blocking the action of a protein called PCSK9, which helps regulate the amount of cholesterol in the blood. By blocking PCSK9, these medications increase the number of LDL receptors on the surface of liver cells, which leads to increased removal of LDL from the bloodstream.

Anticholesteremic agents are often prescribed for people who have high cholesterol levels and are at risk for heart disease or stroke. By lowering cholesterol levels, these medications can help reduce the risk of heart attack, stroke, and other cardiovascular events.

Bile is a digestive fluid that is produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. It plays an essential role in the digestion and absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins in the small intestine. Bile consists of bile salts, bilirubin, cholesterol, phospholipids, electrolytes, and water.

Bile salts are amphipathic molecules that help to emulsify fats into smaller droplets, increasing their surface area and allowing for more efficient digestion by enzymes such as lipase. Bilirubin is a breakdown product of hemoglobin from red blood cells and gives bile its characteristic greenish-brown color.

Bile is released into the small intestine in response to food, particularly fats, entering the digestive tract. It helps to break down large fat molecules into smaller ones that can be absorbed through the walls of the intestines and transported to other parts of the body for energy or storage.

Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to amplify and detect specific DNA sequences. This technique is particularly useful for the detection and quantification of RNA viruses, as well as for the analysis of gene expression.

The process involves two main steps: reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In the first step, reverse transcriptase enzyme is used to convert RNA into complementary DNA (cDNA) by reading the template provided by the RNA molecule. This cDNA then serves as a template for the PCR amplification step.

In the second step, the PCR reaction uses two primers that flank the target DNA sequence and a thermostable polymerase enzyme to repeatedly copy the targeted cDNA sequence. The reaction mixture is heated and cooled in cycles, allowing the primers to anneal to the template, and the polymerase to extend the new strand. This results in exponential amplification of the target DNA sequence, making it possible to detect even small amounts of RNA or cDNA.

RT-PCR is a sensitive and specific technique that has many applications in medical research and diagnostics, including the detection of viruses such as HIV, hepatitis C virus, and SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19). It can also be used to study gene expression, identify genetic mutations, and diagnose genetic disorders.

Gene expression is the process by which the information encoded in a gene is used to synthesize a functional gene product, such as a protein or RNA molecule. This process involves several steps: transcription, RNA processing, and translation. During transcription, the genetic information in DNA is copied into a complementary RNA molecule, known as messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA then undergoes RNA processing, which includes adding a cap and tail to the mRNA and splicing out non-coding regions called introns. The resulting mature mRNA is then translated into a protein on ribosomes in the cytoplasm through the process of translation.

The regulation of gene expression is a complex and highly controlled process that allows cells to respond to changes in their environment, such as growth factors, hormones, and stress signals. This regulation can occur at various stages of gene expression, including transcriptional activation or repression, RNA processing, mRNA stability, and translation. Dysregulation of gene expression has been implicated in many diseases, including cancer, genetic disorders, and neurological conditions.

Oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxidized LDL) receptors are proteins found on the surface of certain cells, such as immune cells and endothelial cells, that bind to and help remove oxidized LDL particles from the bloodstream.

Low-density lipoprotein (LDL), also known as "bad" cholesterol, can become oxidized when it is exposed to oxidative stress or inflammation in the body. Oxidized LDL is more easily taken up by immune cells and can contribute to the development of atherosclerosis, a buildup of plaque in the arteries that can lead to heart disease and stroke.

There are several types of oxidized LDL receptors, including scavenger receptors and lectin-like oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor-1 (LOX-1). These receptors play a role in the clearance of oxidized LDL from the bloodstream and help to regulate the immune response to oxidized LDL.

It is important to note that while oxidized LDL receptors play a role in the removal of oxidized LDL, high levels of oxidized LDL in the bloodstream can still contribute to the development of atherosclerosis and other cardiovascular diseases. Therefore, it is important to maintain healthy levels of LDL cholesterol and reduce exposure to oxidative stress and inflammation through lifestyle choices such as a healthy diet, regular exercise, and avoiding smoking.

Recombinant proteins are artificially created proteins produced through the use of recombinant DNA technology. This process involves combining DNA molecules from different sources to create a new set of genes that encode for a specific protein. The resulting recombinant protein can then be expressed, purified, and used for various applications in research, medicine, and industry.

Recombinant proteins are widely used in biomedical research to study protein function, structure, and interactions. They are also used in the development of diagnostic tests, vaccines, and therapeutic drugs. For example, recombinant insulin is a common treatment for diabetes, while recombinant human growth hormone is used to treat growth disorders.

The production of recombinant proteins typically involves the use of host cells, such as bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells, which are engineered to express the desired protein. The host cells are transformed with a plasmid vector containing the gene of interest, along with regulatory elements that control its expression. Once the host cells are cultured and the protein is expressed, it can be purified using various chromatography techniques.

Overall, recombinant proteins have revolutionized many areas of biology and medicine, enabling researchers to study and manipulate proteins in ways that were previously impossible.

Tertiary protein structure refers to the three-dimensional arrangement of all the elements (polypeptide chains) of a single protein molecule. It is the highest level of structural organization and results from interactions between various side chains (R groups) of the amino acids that make up the protein. These interactions, which include hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, van der Waals forces, and disulfide bridges, give the protein its unique shape and stability, which in turn determines its function. The tertiary structure of a protein can be stabilized by various factors such as temperature, pH, and the presence of certain ions. Any changes in these factors can lead to denaturation, where the protein loses its tertiary structure and thus its function.

'Cercopithecus aethiops' is the scientific name for the monkey species more commonly known as the green monkey. It belongs to the family Cercopithecidae and is native to western Africa. The green monkey is omnivorous, with a diet that includes fruits, nuts, seeds, insects, and small vertebrates. They are known for their distinctive greenish-brown fur and long tail. Green monkeys are also important animal models in biomedical research due to their susceptibility to certain diseases, such as SIV (simian immunodeficiency virus), which is closely related to HIV.

Hepacivirus is a genus of viruses in the family Flaviviridae. The most well-known member of this genus is Hepatitis C virus (HCV), which is a major cause of liver disease worldwide. HCV infection can lead to chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, and liver cancer.

Hepaciviruses are enveloped viruses with a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genome. They have a small icosahedral capsid and infect a variety of hosts, including humans, non-human primates, horses, and birds. The virus enters the host cell by binding to specific receptors on the cell surface and is then internalized through endocytosis.

HCV has a high degree of genetic diversity and is classified into seven major genotypes and numerous subtypes based on differences in its RNA sequence. This genetic variability can affect the virus's ability to evade the host immune response, making treatment more challenging.

In addition to HCV, other hepaciviruses have been identified in various animal species, including equine hepacivirus (EHCV), rodent hepacivirus (RHV), and bat hepacivirus (BtHepCV). These viruses are being studied to better understand the biology of hepaciviruses and their potential impact on human health.

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."

1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.

2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.

3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.

4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).

Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.

The aorta is the largest artery in the human body, which originates from the left ventricle of the heart and carries oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. It can be divided into several parts, including the ascending aorta, aortic arch, and descending aorta. The ascending aorta gives rise to the coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle. The aortic arch gives rise to the brachiocephalic, left common carotid, and left subclavian arteries, which supply blood to the head, neck, and upper extremities. The descending aorta travels through the thorax and abdomen, giving rise to various intercostal, visceral, and renal arteries that supply blood to the chest wall, organs, and kidneys.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Orphan nuclear receptors are a subfamily of nuclear receptor proteins that are classified as "orphans" because their specific endogenous ligands (natural activating molecules) have not yet been identified. These receptors are still functional transcription factors, which means they can bind to specific DNA sequences and regulate the expression of target genes when activated by a ligand. However, in the case of orphan nuclear receptors, the identity of these ligands remains unknown or unconfirmed.

These receptors play crucial roles in various biological processes, including development, metabolism, and homeostasis. Some orphan nuclear receptors have been found to bind to synthetic ligands (man-made molecules), which has led to the development of potential therapeutic agents for various diseases. Over time, as research progresses, some orphan nuclear receptors may eventually have their endogenous ligands identified and be reclassified as non-orphan nuclear receptors.

A cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, is a thin semi-permeable phospholipid bilayer that surrounds all cells in animals, plants, and microorganisms. It functions as a barrier to control the movement of substances in and out of the cell, allowing necessary molecules such as nutrients, oxygen, and signaling molecules to enter while keeping out harmful substances and waste products. The cell membrane is composed mainly of phospholipids, which have hydrophilic (water-loving) heads and hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails. This unique structure allows the membrane to be flexible and fluid, yet selectively permeable. Additionally, various proteins are embedded in the membrane that serve as channels, pumps, receptors, and enzymes, contributing to the cell's overall functionality and communication with its environment.

Iodine radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element iodine, which decays and emits radiation in the form of gamma rays. Some commonly used iodine radioisotopes include I-123, I-125, I-131. These radioisotopes have various medical applications such as in diagnostic imaging, therapy for thyroid disorders, and cancer treatment.

For example, I-131 is commonly used to treat hyperthyroidism and differentiated thyroid cancer due to its ability to destroy thyroid tissue. On the other hand, I-123 is often used in nuclear medicine scans of the thyroid gland because it emits gamma rays that can be detected by a gamma camera, allowing for detailed images of the gland's structure and function.

It is important to note that handling and administering radioisotopes require specialized training and safety precautions due to their radiation-emitting properties.

Monocytes are a type of white blood cell that are part of the immune system. They are large cells with a round or oval shape and a nucleus that is typically indented or horseshoe-shaped. Monocytes are produced in the bone marrow and then circulate in the bloodstream, where they can differentiate into other types of immune cells such as macrophages and dendritic cells.

Monocytes play an important role in the body's defense against infection and tissue damage. They are able to engulf and digest foreign particles, microorganisms, and dead or damaged cells, which helps to clear them from the body. Monocytes also produce cytokines, which are signaling molecules that help to coordinate the immune response.

Elevated levels of monocytes in the bloodstream can be a sign of an ongoing infection, inflammation, or other medical conditions such as cancer or autoimmune disorders.

A dose-response relationship in the context of drugs refers to the changes in the effects or symptoms that occur as the dose of a drug is increased or decreased. Generally, as the dose of a drug is increased, the severity or intensity of its effects also increases. Conversely, as the dose is decreased, the effects of the drug become less severe or may disappear altogether.

The dose-response relationship is an important concept in pharmacology and toxicology because it helps to establish the safe and effective dosage range for a drug. By understanding how changes in the dose of a drug affect its therapeutic and adverse effects, healthcare providers can optimize treatment plans for their patients while minimizing the risk of harm.

The dose-response relationship is typically depicted as a curve that shows the relationship between the dose of a drug and its effect. The shape of the curve may vary depending on the drug and the specific effect being measured. Some drugs may have a steep dose-response curve, meaning that small changes in the dose can result in large differences in the effect. Other drugs may have a more gradual dose-response curve, where larger changes in the dose are needed to produce significant effects.

In addition to helping establish safe and effective dosages, the dose-response relationship is also used to evaluate the potential therapeutic benefits and risks of new drugs during clinical trials. By systematically testing different doses of a drug in controlled studies, researchers can identify the optimal dosage range for the drug and assess its safety and efficacy.

Immunoblotting, also known as western blotting, is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology and immunogenetics to detect and quantify specific proteins in a complex mixture. This technique combines the electrophoretic separation of proteins by gel electrophoresis with their detection using antibodies that recognize specific epitopes (protein fragments) on the target protein.

The process involves several steps: first, the protein sample is separated based on size through sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Next, the separated proteins are transferred onto a nitrocellulose or polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane using an electric field. The membrane is then blocked with a blocking agent to prevent non-specific binding of antibodies.

After blocking, the membrane is incubated with a primary antibody that specifically recognizes the target protein. Following this, the membrane is washed to remove unbound primary antibodies and then incubated with a secondary antibody conjugated to an enzyme such as horseradish peroxidase (HRP) or alkaline phosphatase (AP). The enzyme catalyzes a colorimetric or chemiluminescent reaction that allows for the detection of the target protein.

Immunoblotting is widely used in research and clinical settings to study protein expression, post-translational modifications, protein-protein interactions, and disease biomarkers. It provides high specificity and sensitivity, making it a valuable tool for identifying and quantifying proteins in various biological samples.

Down-regulation is a process that occurs in response to various stimuli, where the number or sensitivity of cell surface receptors or the expression of specific genes is decreased. This process helps maintain homeostasis within cells and tissues by reducing the ability of cells to respond to certain signals or molecules.

In the context of cell surface receptors, down-regulation can occur through several mechanisms:

1. Receptor internalization: After binding to their ligands, receptors can be internalized into the cell through endocytosis. Once inside the cell, these receptors may be degraded or recycled back to the cell surface in smaller numbers.
2. Reduced receptor synthesis: Down-regulation can also occur at the transcriptional level, where the expression of genes encoding for specific receptors is decreased, leading to fewer receptors being produced.
3. Receptor desensitization: Prolonged exposure to a ligand can lead to a decrease in receptor sensitivity or affinity, making it more difficult for the cell to respond to the signal.

In the context of gene expression, down-regulation refers to the decreased transcription and/or stability of specific mRNAs, leading to reduced protein levels. This process can be induced by various factors, including microRNA (miRNA)-mediated regulation, histone modification, or DNA methylation.

Down-regulation is an essential mechanism in many physiological processes and can also contribute to the development of several diseases, such as cancer and neurodegenerative disorders.

Confocal microscopy is a powerful imaging technique used in medical and biological research to obtain high-resolution, contrast-rich images of thick samples. This super-resolution technology provides detailed visualization of cellular structures and processes at various depths within a specimen.

In confocal microscopy, a laser beam focused through a pinhole illuminates a small spot within the sample. The emitted fluorescence or reflected light from this spot is then collected by a detector, passing through a second pinhole that ensures only light from the focal plane reaches the detector. This process eliminates out-of-focus light, resulting in sharp images with improved contrast compared to conventional widefield microscopy.

By scanning the laser beam across the sample in a raster pattern and collecting fluorescence at each point, confocal microscopy generates optical sections of the specimen. These sections can be combined to create three-dimensional reconstructions, allowing researchers to study cellular architecture and interactions within complex tissues.

Confocal microscopy has numerous applications in medical research, including studying protein localization, tracking intracellular dynamics, analyzing cell morphology, and investigating disease mechanisms at the cellular level. Additionally, it is widely used in clinical settings for diagnostic purposes, such as analyzing skin lesions or detecting pathogens in patient samples.

Chemokine CXCL6 is a type of small signaling protein that belongs to the CXC chemokine family. Its primary function is to attract and guide the movement (chemotaxis) of specific types of immune cells, such as neutrophils, to sites of inflammation or infection in the body.

CXCL6 is also known as granulocyte chemotactic protein 2 (GCP-2) and is produced by various cell types, including monocytes, macrophages, endothelial cells, and fibroblasts. It binds to and activates the CXCR1 and CXCR2 receptors found on the surface of neutrophils, which triggers a series of intracellular signaling events that lead to the migration of these cells towards the source of the chemokine.

In addition to its role in inflammation and immune response, CXCL6 has been implicated in several disease processes, including cancer, atherosclerosis, and rheumatoid arthritis. Elevated levels of CXCL6 have been found in the tumor microenvironment, where it may promote tumor growth and metastasis by recruiting immune cells that support tumor progression.

Cell surface receptors, also known as membrane receptors, are proteins located on the cell membrane that bind to specific molecules outside the cell, known as ligands. These receptors play a crucial role in signal transduction, which is the process of converting an extracellular signal into an intracellular response.

Cell surface receptors can be classified into several categories based on their structure and mechanism of action, including:

1. Ion channel receptors: These receptors contain a pore that opens to allow ions to flow across the cell membrane when they bind to their ligands. This ion flux can directly activate or inhibit various cellular processes.
2. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs): These receptors consist of seven transmembrane domains and are associated with heterotrimeric G proteins that modulate intracellular signaling pathways upon ligand binding.
3. Enzyme-linked receptors: These receptors possess an intrinsic enzymatic activity or are linked to an enzyme, which becomes activated when the receptor binds to its ligand. This activation can lead to the initiation of various signaling cascades within the cell.
4. Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs): These receptors contain intracellular tyrosine kinase domains that become activated upon ligand binding, leading to the phosphorylation and activation of downstream signaling molecules.
5. Integrins: These receptors are transmembrane proteins that mediate cell-cell or cell-matrix interactions by binding to extracellular matrix proteins or counter-receptors on adjacent cells. They play essential roles in cell adhesion, migration, and survival.

Cell surface receptors are involved in various physiological processes, including neurotransmission, hormone signaling, immune response, and cell growth and differentiation. Dysregulation of these receptors can contribute to the development of numerous diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

Carrier proteins, also known as transport proteins, are a type of protein that facilitates the movement of molecules across cell membranes. They are responsible for the selective and active transport of ions, sugars, amino acids, and other molecules from one side of the membrane to the other, against their concentration gradient. This process requires energy, usually in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).

Carrier proteins have a specific binding site for the molecule they transport, and undergo conformational changes upon binding, which allows them to move the molecule across the membrane. Once the molecule has been transported, the carrier protein returns to its original conformation, ready to bind and transport another molecule.

Carrier proteins play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of ions and other molecules inside and outside of cells, and are essential for many physiological processes, including nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, and nutrient uptake.

Triglycerides are the most common type of fat in the body, and they're found in the food we eat. They're carried in the bloodstream to provide energy to the cells in our body. High levels of triglycerides in the blood can increase the risk of heart disease, especially in combination with other risk factors such as high LDL (bad) cholesterol, low HDL (good) cholesterol, and high blood pressure.

It's important to note that while triglycerides are a type of fat, they should not be confused with cholesterol, which is a waxy substance found in the cells of our body. Both triglycerides and cholesterol are important for maintaining good health, but high levels of either can increase the risk of heart disease.

Triglyceride levels are measured through a blood test called a lipid panel or lipid profile. A normal triglyceride level is less than 150 mg/dL. Borderline-high levels range from 150 to 199 mg/dL, high levels range from 200 to 499 mg/dL, and very high levels are 500 mg/dL or higher.

Elevated triglycerides can be caused by various factors such as obesity, physical inactivity, excessive alcohol consumption, smoking, and certain medical conditions like diabetes, hypothyroidism, and kidney disease. Medications such as beta-blockers, steroids, and diuretics can also raise triglyceride levels.

Lifestyle changes such as losing weight, exercising regularly, eating a healthy diet low in saturated and trans fats, avoiding excessive alcohol consumption, and quitting smoking can help lower triglyceride levels. In some cases, medication may be necessary to reduce triglycerides to recommended levels.

Flow cytometry is a medical and research technique used to measure physical and chemical characteristics of cells or particles, one cell at a time, as they flow in a fluid stream through a beam of light. The properties measured include:

* Cell size (light scatter)
* Cell internal complexity (granularity, also light scatter)
* Presence or absence of specific proteins or other molecules on the cell surface or inside the cell (using fluorescent antibodies or other fluorescent probes)

The technique is widely used in cell counting, cell sorting, protein engineering, biomarker discovery and monitoring disease progression, particularly in hematology, immunology, and cancer research.

Fluorescence microscopy is a type of microscopy that uses fluorescent dyes or proteins to highlight and visualize specific components within a sample. In this technique, the sample is illuminated with high-energy light, typically ultraviolet (UV) or blue light, which excites the fluorescent molecules causing them to emit lower-energy, longer-wavelength light, usually visible light in the form of various colors. This emitted light is then collected by the microscope and detected to produce an image.

Fluorescence microscopy has several advantages over traditional brightfield microscopy, including the ability to visualize specific structures or molecules within a complex sample, increased sensitivity, and the potential for quantitative analysis. It is widely used in various fields of biology and medicine, such as cell biology, neuroscience, and pathology, to study the structure, function, and interactions of cells and proteins.

There are several types of fluorescence microscopy techniques, including widefield fluorescence microscopy, confocal microscopy, two-photon microscopy, and total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy, each with its own strengths and limitations. These techniques can provide valuable insights into the behavior of cells and proteins in health and disease.

Homeostasis is a fundamental concept in the field of medicine and physiology, referring to the body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment, despite changes in external conditions. It is the process by which biological systems regulate their internal environment to remain in a state of dynamic equilibrium. This is achieved through various feedback mechanisms that involve sensors, control centers, and effectors, working together to detect, interpret, and respond to disturbances in the system.

For example, the body maintains homeostasis through mechanisms such as temperature regulation (through sweating or shivering), fluid balance (through kidney function and thirst), and blood glucose levels (through insulin and glucagon secretion). When homeostasis is disrupted, it can lead to disease or dysfunction in the body.

In summary, homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment within biological systems, through various regulatory mechanisms that respond to changes in external conditions.

CD (cluster of differentiation) antigens are cell-surface proteins that are expressed on leukocytes (white blood cells) and can be used to identify and distinguish different subsets of these cells. They are important markers in the field of immunology and hematology, and are commonly used to diagnose and monitor various diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and infectious diseases.

CD antigens are designated by numbers, such as CD4, CD8, CD19, etc., which refer to specific proteins found on the surface of different types of leukocytes. For example, CD4 is a protein found on the surface of helper T cells, while CD8 is found on cytotoxic T cells.

CD antigens can be used as targets for immunotherapy, such as monoclonal antibody therapy, in which antibodies are designed to bind to specific CD antigens and trigger an immune response against cancer cells or infected cells. They can also be used as markers to monitor the effectiveness of treatments and to detect minimal residual disease (MRD) after treatment.

It's important to note that not all CD antigens are exclusive to leukocytes, some can be found on other cell types as well, and their expression can vary depending on the activation state or differentiation stage of the cells.

Scavenger receptors, class D (SR-D), are a group of membrane-bound proteins found on the surface of various cell types including macrophages and endothelial cells. They play a crucial role in the recognition and clearance of damaged or modified self-molecules, as well as foreign substances such as pathogens and toxins.

SR-D receptors are characterized by their ability to bind to a wide range of ligands, including oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL), advanced glycation end products (AGEs), and apoptotic cells. This broad specificity is due to the presence of several distinct domains in the receptor structure, such as the scavenger receptor cysteine-rich domain (SRCR) and the transmembrane and cytoplasmic tails.

The activation of SR-D receptors triggers various intracellular signaling pathways that lead to the uptake and degradation of ligands, as well as the modulation of immune responses and inflammation. Dysregulation of SR-D function has been implicated in several diseases, including atherosclerosis, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders.

In summary, scavenger receptors, class D, are a family of multifunctional receptors involved in the recognition and clearance of damaged or modified self-molecules and foreign substances, playing a critical role in maintaining tissue homeostasis and modulating immune responses.

Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) is not a medical term per se, but a biochemical term. It is widely used in medical and biological research. Here's the definition:

Bovine Serum Albumin is a serum albumin protein derived from cows. It is often used as a stabilizer, an emulsifier, or a protein source in various laboratory and industrial applications, including biochemical experiments, cell culture media, and diagnostic kits. BSA has a high solubility in water and can bind to many different types of molecules, making it useful for preventing unwanted interactions between components in a solution. It also has a consistent composition and is relatively inexpensive compared to human serum albumin, which are factors that contribute to its widespread use.

Animal disease models are specialized animals, typically rodents such as mice or rats, that have been genetically engineered or exposed to certain conditions to develop symptoms and physiological changes similar to those seen in human diseases. These models are used in medical research to study the pathophysiology of diseases, identify potential therapeutic targets, test drug efficacy and safety, and understand disease mechanisms.

The genetic modifications can include knockout or knock-in mutations, transgenic expression of specific genes, or RNA interference techniques. The animals may also be exposed to environmental factors such as chemicals, radiation, or infectious agents to induce the disease state.

Examples of animal disease models include:

1. Mouse models of cancer: Genetically engineered mice that develop various types of tumors, allowing researchers to study cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis.
2. Alzheimer's disease models: Transgenic mice expressing mutant human genes associated with Alzheimer's disease, which exhibit amyloid plaque formation and cognitive decline.
3. Diabetes models: Obese and diabetic mouse strains like the NOD (non-obese diabetic) or db/db mice, used to study the development of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, respectively.
4. Cardiovascular disease models: Atherosclerosis-prone mice, such as ApoE-deficient or LDLR-deficient mice, that develop plaque buildup in their arteries when fed a high-fat diet.
5. Inflammatory bowel disease models: Mice with genetic mutations affecting intestinal barrier function and immune response, such as IL-10 knockout or SAMP1/YitFc mice, which develop colitis.

Animal disease models are essential tools in preclinical research, but it is important to recognize their limitations. Differences between species can affect the translatability of results from animal studies to human patients. Therefore, researchers must carefully consider the choice of model and interpret findings cautiously when applying them to human diseases.

A cell line that is derived from tumor cells and has been adapted to grow in culture. These cell lines are often used in research to study the characteristics of cancer cells, including their growth patterns, genetic changes, and responses to various treatments. They can be established from many different types of tumors, such as carcinomas, sarcomas, and leukemias. Once established, these cell lines can be grown and maintained indefinitely in the laboratory, allowing researchers to conduct experiments and studies that would not be feasible using primary tumor cells. It is important to note that tumor cell lines may not always accurately represent the behavior of the original tumor, as they can undergo genetic changes during their time in culture.

Phagocytosis is the process by which certain cells in the body, known as phagocytes, engulf and destroy foreign particles, bacteria, or dead cells. This mechanism plays a crucial role in the immune system's response to infection and inflammation. Phagocytes, such as neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages, have receptors on their surface that recognize and bind to specific molecules (known as antigens) on the target particles or microorganisms.

Once attached, the phagocyte extends pseudopodia (cell extensions) around the particle, forming a vesicle called a phagosome that completely encloses it. The phagosome then fuses with a lysosome, an intracellular organelle containing digestive enzymes and other chemicals. This fusion results in the formation of a phagolysosome, where the engulfed particle is broken down by the action of these enzymes, neutralizing its harmful effects and allowing for the removal of cellular debris or pathogens.

Phagocytosis not only serves as a crucial defense mechanism against infections but also contributes to tissue homeostasis by removing dead cells and debris.

DNA primers are short single-stranded DNA molecules that serve as a starting point for DNA synthesis. They are typically used in laboratory techniques such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing. The primer binds to a complementary sequence on the DNA template through base pairing, providing a free 3'-hydroxyl group for the DNA polymerase enzyme to add nucleotides and synthesize a new strand of DNA. This allows for specific and targeted amplification or analysis of a particular region of interest within a larger DNA molecule.

Kupffer cells are specialized macrophages that reside in the liver, particularly in the sinusoids of the liver's blood circulation system. They play a crucial role in the immune system by engulfing and destroying bacteria, microorganisms, and other particles that enter the liver via the portal vein. Kupffer cells also contribute to the clearance of damaged red blood cells, iron metabolism, and the regulation of inflammation in the liver. They are named after the German pathologist Karl Wilhelm von Kupffer who first described them in 1876.

Genotype, in genetics, refers to the complete heritable genetic makeup of an individual organism, including all of its genes. It is the set of instructions contained in an organism's DNA for the development and function of that organism. The genotype is the basis for an individual's inherited traits, and it can be contrasted with an individual's phenotype, which refers to the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism that result from the expression of its genes in combination with environmental influences.

It is important to note that an individual's genotype is not necessarily identical to their genetic sequence. Some genes have multiple forms called alleles, and an individual may inherit different alleles for a given gene from each parent. The combination of alleles that an individual inherits for a particular gene is known as their genotype for that gene.

Understanding an individual's genotype can provide important information about their susceptibility to certain diseases, their response to drugs and other treatments, and their risk of passing on inherited genetic disorders to their offspring.

Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) is a type of genetic variation that occurs when a single nucleotide (A, T, C, or G) in the DNA sequence is altered. This alteration must occur in at least 1% of the population to be considered a SNP. These variations can help explain why some people are more susceptible to certain diseases than others and can also influence how an individual responds to certain medications. SNPs can serve as biological markers, helping scientists locate genes that are associated with disease. They can also provide information about an individual's ancestry and ethnic background.

Histocompatibility antigens, class I are proteins found on the surface of most cells in the body. They play a critical role in the immune system's ability to differentiate between "self" and "non-self." These antigens are composed of three polypeptides - two heavy chains and one light chain - and are encoded by genes in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) on chromosome 6 in humans.

Class I MHC molecules present peptide fragments from inside the cell to CD8+ T cells, also known as cytotoxic T cells. This presentation allows the immune system to detect and destroy cells that have been infected by viruses or other intracellular pathogens, or that have become cancerous.

There are three main types of class I MHC molecules in humans: HLA-A, HLA-B, and HLA-C. The term "HLA" stands for human leukocyte antigen, which reflects the original identification of these proteins on white blood cells (leukocytes). The genes encoding these molecules are highly polymorphic, meaning there are many different variants in the population, and matching HLA types is essential for successful organ transplantation to minimize the risk of rejection.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Receptors, Albumin" is not a standard medical term or concept.

Albumin is a type of protein produced by the liver that circulates in blood plasma. It plays several important roles, such as maintaining oncotic pressure (helping to keep fluid in the blood vessels), transporting various substances like hormones, drugs, and fatty acids, and acting as an antioxidant.

Receptors, on the other hand, are proteins on the surface of cells that interact with specific molecules (like hormones, neurotransmitters, or drugs) to trigger a response within the cell. Different receptors respond to different molecules, and there are many types of receptors in the human body.

If you meant something else or need information on a related topic, please provide more context or clarify your question.

Oxidation-Reduction (redox) reactions are a type of chemical reaction involving a transfer of electrons between two species. The substance that loses electrons in the reaction is oxidized, and the substance that gains electrons is reduced. Oxidation and reduction always occur together in a redox reaction, hence the term "oxidation-reduction."

In biological systems, redox reactions play a crucial role in many cellular processes, including energy production, metabolism, and signaling. The transfer of electrons in these reactions is often facilitated by specialized molecules called electron carriers, such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+/NADH) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD/FADH2).

The oxidation state of an element in a compound is a measure of the number of electrons that have been gained or lost relative to its neutral state. In redox reactions, the oxidation state of one or more elements changes as they gain or lose electrons. The substance that is oxidized has a higher oxidation state, while the substance that is reduced has a lower oxidation state.

Overall, oxidation-reduction reactions are fundamental to the functioning of living organisms and are involved in many important biological processes.

Signal transduction is the process by which a cell converts an extracellular signal, such as a hormone or neurotransmitter, into an intracellular response. This involves a series of molecular events that transmit the signal from the cell surface to the interior of the cell, ultimately resulting in changes in gene expression, protein activity, or metabolism.

The process typically begins with the binding of the extracellular signal to a receptor located on the cell membrane. This binding event activates the receptor, which then triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling molecules, such as second messengers, protein kinases, and ion channels. These molecules amplify and propagate the signal, ultimately leading to the activation or inhibition of specific cellular responses.

Signal transduction pathways are highly regulated and can be modulated by various factors, including other signaling molecules, post-translational modifications, and feedback mechanisms. Dysregulation of these pathways has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

Histocompatibility antigens Class II are a group of cell surface proteins that play a crucial role in the immune system's response to foreign substances. They are expressed on the surface of various cells, including immune cells such as B lymphocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, and activated T lymphocytes.

Class II histocompatibility antigens are encoded by the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II genes, which are located on chromosome 6 in humans. These antigens are composed of two non-covalently associated polypeptide chains, an alpha (α) and a beta (β) chain, which form a heterodimer. There are three main types of Class II histocompatibility antigens, known as HLA-DP, HLA-DQ, and HLA-DR.

Class II histocompatibility antigens present peptide antigens to CD4+ T helper cells, which then activate other immune cells, such as B cells and macrophages, to mount an immune response against the presented antigen. Because of their role in initiating an immune response, Class II histocompatibility antigens are important in transplantation medicine, where mismatches between donor and recipient can lead to rejection of the transplanted organ or tissue.

In the context of medical and biological sciences, a "binding site" refers to a specific location on a protein, molecule, or cell where another molecule can attach or bind. This binding interaction can lead to various functional changes in the original protein or molecule. The other molecule that binds to the binding site is often referred to as a ligand, which can be a small molecule, ion, or even another protein.

The binding between a ligand and its target binding site can be specific and selective, meaning that only certain ligands can bind to particular binding sites with high affinity. This specificity plays a crucial role in various biological processes, such as signal transduction, enzyme catalysis, or drug action.

In the case of drug development, understanding the location and properties of binding sites on target proteins is essential for designing drugs that can selectively bind to these sites and modulate protein function. This knowledge can help create more effective and safer therapeutic options for various diseases.

Acetic anhydride is a chemical compound with the formula (CH3CO)2O. It is a colorless liquid that is used as a reagent in organic synthesis, particularly in the production of cellulose acetate and other acetate esters. Acetic anhydride is also an important intermediate in the synthesis of certain pharmaceuticals and dyes.

In medical terminology, acetic anhydride is not typically used as a diagnostic or therapeutic agent. However, it can be used in laboratory settings to synthesize compounds that may have medical applications. For example, acetic anhydride has been used to produce certain antiviral drugs and antibiotics.

It is important to note that acetic anhydride can be harmful or fatal if swallowed, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin. It can cause burns and eye damage, and may be harmful to the respiratory system if inhaled. Therefore, it should be handled with care and used only in well-ventilated areas with appropriate personal protective equipment.

Molecular cloning is a laboratory technique used to create multiple copies of a specific DNA sequence. This process involves several steps:

1. Isolation: The first step in molecular cloning is to isolate the DNA sequence of interest from the rest of the genomic DNA. This can be done using various methods such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction), restriction enzymes, or hybridization.
2. Vector construction: Once the DNA sequence of interest has been isolated, it must be inserted into a vector, which is a small circular DNA molecule that can replicate independently in a host cell. Common vectors used in molecular cloning include plasmids and phages.
3. Transformation: The constructed vector is then introduced into a host cell, usually a bacterial or yeast cell, through a process called transformation. This can be done using various methods such as electroporation or chemical transformation.
4. Selection: After transformation, the host cells are grown in selective media that allow only those cells containing the vector to grow. This ensures that the DNA sequence of interest has been successfully cloned into the vector.
5. Amplification: Once the host cells have been selected, they can be grown in large quantities to amplify the number of copies of the cloned DNA sequence.

Molecular cloning is a powerful tool in molecular biology and has numerous applications, including the production of recombinant proteins, gene therapy, functional analysis of genes, and genetic engineering.

Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) are highly reactive molecules containing oxygen, including peroxides, superoxide, hydroxyl radical, and singlet oxygen. They are naturally produced as byproducts of normal cellular metabolism in the mitochondria, and can also be generated by external sources such as ionizing radiation, tobacco smoke, and air pollutants. At low or moderate concentrations, ROS play important roles in cell signaling and homeostasis, but at high concentrations, they can cause significant damage to cell structures, including lipids, proteins, and DNA, leading to oxidative stress and potential cell death.

... is a class A scavenger receptor that is found on particular subsets of macrophages. Scavenger receptors are pattern ... Other members of the class A scavenger receptors tend to have alpha helical coiled coil domains, but MARCO does not. The C- ... Bowdish DM, Gordon S (January 2009). "Conserved domains of the class A scavenger receptors: evolution and function". ... February 1995). "Cloning of a novel bacteria-binding receptor structurally related to scavenger receptors and expressed in a ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MARCO

CD36 and scavenger receptor class BI are identified as genes encoding for oxidized LDL receptors and classified into scavenger ... A Drosophila class C scavenger receptor (dSR-C1) also has a mucin-like structure. Lectin-like oxidized LDL receptor-1 (LOX-1) ... Scavenger+receptors at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) Human scavenger-like receptors in ... receptor scavenger receptor class B type I reveals its key role in HDL metabolism". Proceedings of the National Academy of ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scavenger_receptor_(immunology)

"Entrez Gene: SCARB2 scavenger receptor class B, member 2". "Protein sequence of human SCARB2 (Uniprot ID: Q14108)". Cardiac ... Mulcahy JV, Riddell DR, Owen JS (Feb 2004). "Human scavenger receptor class B type II (SR-BII) and cellular cholesterol efflux ... "Intraretinal lipid transport is dependent on high density lipoprotein-like particles and class B scavenger receptors". ... "Scavenger receptor B2 is a cellular receptor for enterovirus 71". Nature Medicine. 15 (7): 798-801. doi:10.1038/nm.1992. PMID ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCARB2

SR-BI functions as a receptor for high-density lipoprotein. Scavenger receptor class B, type I (SR-BI) is an integral membrane ... Valacchi G, Sticozzi C, Lim Y, Pecorelli A (July 2011). "Scavenger receptor class B type I: a multifunctional receptor". Annals ... Connelly MA, Williams DL (June 2004). "Scavenger receptor BI: a scavenger receptor with a mission to transport high density ... "Phosphatidylserine binding of class B scavenger receptor type I, a phagocytosis receptor of testicular sertoli cells". The ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCARB1

1996). "Structures of class A macrophage scavenger receptors. Electron microscopic study of flexible, multidomain, fibrous ... Kosswig N, Rice S, Daugherty A, Post SR (2003). "Class A scavenger receptor-mediated adhesion and internalization require ... This gene encodes the class A macrophage scavenger receptors, which include three different types (1, 2, 3) generated by ... and interspecies reactivities of monoclonal antibodies against human class A macrophage scavenger receptors". Atherosclerosis. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSR1

"Targeted disruption of the class B scavenger receptor CD36 protects against atherosclerotic lesion development in mice". ... TRPV1 is the transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1 receptor (also termed capsaicin receptor or ... 13(S)-HODE stimulates the proliferation of human MCF-7 estrogen receptor positive and MBA-MD-231 estrogen receptor negative ... a scavenger receptor for oxidized low density lipoproteins, native lipoproteins, oxidized phospholipids, and long-chain fatty ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/13-Hydroxyoctadecadienoic_acid

The protein itself belongs to the class B scavenger receptor family which includes receptors for selective cholesteryl ester ... It imports fatty acids inside cells and is a member of the class B scavenger receptor family of cell surface proteins. CD36 ... April 2000). "Targeted disruption of the class B scavenger receptor CD36 protects against atherosclerotic lesion development in ... On macrophages CD36 forms part of a non-opsonic receptor (the scavenger receptor CD36/alpha-v beta-3 complex) and is involved ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD36

... of the PDZK1 gene in mice causes tissue-specific depletion of the high density lipoprotein receptor scavenger receptor class B ... "Identification of a PDZ-domain-containing protein that interacts with the scavenger receptor class B type I". Proc. Natl. Acad ... Silver DL (2002). "A carboxyl-terminal PDZ-interacting domain of scavenger receptor B, type I is essential for cell surface ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDZK1

2002). "The human scavenger receptor class B type I is a novel candidate receptor for the hepatitis C virus". The EMBO Journal ... This work would later inform the development of a novel class of antiretroviral agents, HIV integrase inhibitors, and ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riccardo_Cortese

"MicroRNAs 125a and 455 repress lipoprotein-supported steroidogenesis by targeting scavenger receptor class B type I in ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir-455_microRNA_precursor_family

Basis for the Recognition of Oxidized Phospholipids in Oxidized Low Density Lipoproteins by Class B Scavenger Receptors CD36 ... "Oxidized high-density lipoprotein inhibits platelet activation and aggregation via scavenger receptor BI". Blood. 111 (4): 1962 ... of the Binding Site for Specific Oxidized Phospholipids and Oxidized Low Density Lipoprotein of Scavenger Receptor CD36". ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Zahid_Ashraf

The receptors for EV71 and CVA16 have been identified as P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 and scavenger receptor class B, ... PMID 29111273 Nishimura Y, Shimizu H (2012). "Cellular receptors for human enterovirus species A." Front Microbiol. 3: 105. doi ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterovirus_71

"Macrophage Class A Scavenger Receptor-Mediated Phagocytosis of Escherichia coli: Role of Cell Heterogeneity, Microbial Strain, ... Phagocytes recognize bacteria directly [e.g., through the so-called scavenger receptor A which recognizes bacterial ... Human cells have receptors that recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). When bacteria bind to these receptors ... which coat the bacteria and are recognized by the Fcγ receptors and integrinαmβ2 (complement receptor 3). For instance, ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_effector_protein

Toll-like receptors(TLRs), the scavenger receptor, CD14, and Mac-1. PRRs can be divided into three classes: signaling PRRs that ... Thus TGF-β signaling involves a direct pathway from the receptors on the surface of a cell to the nucleus. Toll-like receptors ... class switching to IgE and IgG4 during the development of immune responses. Ig is a class of antibody found only in mammals ... effectors via EP2 and EP4 receptors signaling. EP2 and EP4 receptors signal primarily through stimulatory G protein (Gs), ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_macrophage

At the enterocyte cell wall, β-carotene is taken up by the membrane transporter protein scavenger receptor class B, type 1 ( ... At the enterocyte cell wall, β-carotene is taken up by the membrane transporter protein scavenger receptor class B, type 1 ( ... β-carotene is taken into cells via receptor SCARB1. Human tissues differ in expression of SCARB1, and hence β-carotene content ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Β-Carotene

Cai L, de Beer MC, de Beer FC, van der Westhuyzen DR (Jan 2005). "Serum amyloid A is a ligand for scavenger receptor class B ... These receptors include the G protein-coupled chemoattractant receptor FPR2 (formyl peptide receptor 2), believed to mediate ... The P2X7 purinergic receptor is another receptor used by SAA1 for a number of cellular functions including the activation of ... This effect is believed to be mediated through FPR2, a G protein-coupled chemoattractant receptor. The same receptor also ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serum_amyloid_A1

The encoded protein contains a type II transmembrane domain, a receptor class A domain, a scavenger receptor cysteine-rich ... the scavenger receptor cysteine-rich domain (SRCR). This domain may be implicated in the binding of extracellular molecules and ... SARS-CoV-2 uses the SARS-CoV receptor ACE2 for entry and the serine protease TMPRSS2 for S protein priming. Cleavage of the ... domain in the stem region that has been examined through mutational analysis is the low density lipoprotein receptor class A ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TMPRSS2

... and related proteins such as class A macrophage scavenger receptors, ectodysplasin A or the MARCO1 receptor, are also part of ... Cellular receptors for collagens belong to the family of β1 integrins. Collagen XXIII interacts in an ion-and conformation- ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collagen,_type_XXIII,_alpha_1

The taste receptors are able to detect enzymes in the water and help the fish identify if it is from a possible food source or ... The abyssal zone scavengers Coryphaenoides armatus possess one small mandible barbel that they use to search the seafloor for ... This class of genes are signalling genes that provide migrating cells directional information during morphogenesis. In most ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbel_(anatomy)

... receptors identified for receptor-mediated endocytosis of nanoparticle delivery systems are the scavenger receptor class B type ... I (SR-BI), LDL receptor (LRP1), transferrin receptor, and insulin receptor. As long as a receptor exists on the endothelial ... ApoE constituents bind to nanoparticles, and then this complex binds to a low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) in the BBB ... This mechanism also relies on certain receptors located on the luminal surface of endothelial cells of the BBB. Ligands coated ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoparticles_for_drug_delivery_to_the_brain

... β-carotene is taken up by the membrane transporter protein scavenger receptor class B, type 1 (SCARB1). Absorbed β-carotene is ... Unlike retinol, β-carotene is taken up by enterocytes by the membrane transporter protein scavenger receptor B1 (SCARB1). The ... Unlike retinol, β-carotene is taken up by enterocytes by the membrane transporter protein scavenger receptor B1 (SCARB1), which ... The receptors undergo a conformational change that causes co-repressors to dissociate from the receptors. Coactivators can then ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_A

Scavenger Receptor Class D, Member 1, SCARD1, and LAMP4. The mouse equivalent is known as "macrosialin". CD68 is functionally ... Cluster of differentiation Lysosome-associated membrane glycoprotein Scavenger receptor (immunology) GRCh38: Ensembl release 89 ... the scavenger receptor family, whose members typically function to clear cellular debris, promote phagocytosis, and mediate the ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD68

In rat it has been shown that LSECs express scavenger receptors (SR) class A, B, E and H. The latter exists as stabilin-1 (SR- ... Moreover, LSECs also express high levels of the macrophage mannose receptor (MMR) and the Fc-gamma receptor IIb2 (FcγRIIb2), ... The abundant expression of receptors such as the endocytic FcγRIIb2 and pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) i.e. toll like ... density lipoprotein receptor‐related protein‐1). The capacity of LSECs as scavengers of blood borne waste assigns an important ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liver_sinusoidal_endothelial_cell

... activatory receptor on NK cells and by various receptors on other cells including Fc receptor and scavenger class A receptor. ... On T cells and B cells, trogocytosis is triggered when the T cell receptor (TCR) on T cells or B cell receptor (BCR) on B cells ... Patel, Dhaval M.; Arnold, Paula Y.; White, Gregory A.; Nardella, John P.; Mannie, Mark D. (15 November 1999). "Class II MHC/ ... Trogocytosis is specifically triggered by antigen receptor signalling on T and B cells, by killer inhibitory and killer ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trogocytosis

Pages 376-379 Characterization of the Isoflavone Pratensein as a Novel Transcriptional Up-Regulator of Scavenger Receptor Class ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pratensein

... may stand for: Macrophage scavenger receptor class A, a receptor found in macrophages New York Metropolitan Squash ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSRA

... class F scavenger receptors (SCARF1, SCARF2), stabilins (STAB1, STAB2), agrin (AGRIN), angiopoietin-1 receptor (TEK), perlecan ... This leads to cell signalling through integrins and dystroglycan (and possibly other receptors) recruited to the adherent ... Neurons of the peripheral nervous system express integrin receptors that attach to laminins and promote neuroregeneration after ... sulphatides and the cell surface receptor dystroglycan. Laminin G-containing proteins appear to have a wide variety of roles in ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminin

As a class, ginsenosides exhibit a large variety of subtle and difficult-to-characterize biological effects when studied in ... Some ginsenosides have also been shown to be partial agonists of steroid hormone receptors. It is not known how these ... Ginsenosides have been observed to increase internal antioxidant enzymes and act as a free-radical scavenger. Ginsenosides Rg3 ... Ginsenosides or panaxosides are a class of natural product steroid glycosides and triterpene saponins. Compounds in this family ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginsenoside

H 2S is also active in the brain, where it increases the response of the NMDA receptor and facilitates long term potentiation, ... Gasotransmitters is a class of neurotransmitters. The molecules are distinguished from other bioactive endogenous gaseous ... be carried to remote targets by scavengers and released there, and modulate functions of remote target cells; It is ... As such, its effects do not rely on the cognate membrane receptors. It can have endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine effects. In ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasotransmitter

... and melatonin receptor 2 (nanomolar binding affinity), both of which belong to the class of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs ... although melatonin receptor 1 is also Gq-coupled. Melatonin also acts as a high-capacity free radical scavenger within ... "Melatonin receptors , G protein-coupled receptors , IUPHAR/BPS Guide to Pharmacology". www.guidetopharmacology.org. Retrieved 7 ... Emet M, Ozcan H, Ozel L, Yayla M, Halici Z, Hacimuftuoglu A (June 2016). "A Review of Melatonin, Its Receptors and Drugs". The ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melatonin

Instructions on how to enable JavaScript on different browsers can be found here: http://www.google.com/support/bin/answer.py? ...

https://www.wikigenes.org/e/gene/e/486241.html

... were used to evaluate the interaction of lipoprotein receptors w ... Involvement of scavenger receptor class B type 1 and low- ... In these experiments, two lipoprotein receptors, scavenger receptor class B type 1 (SR-B1) and low-density lipoprotein receptor ... density lipoprotein receptor in the internalization of liposomes into HepG2 cells. In this study, HepG2 cells, an in vitro ... model system for human hepatocytes, were used to evaluate the interaction of lipoprotein receptors with liposomes carrying ...

https://www.researcher-app.com/paper/41014

... Abstract. The risk of atherosclerosis ... These results suggest that SR-BI may have both scavenger receptor and HDL-receptor function in the ovary. SR-BI, SR-BII and a ... Tissue distribution and regulation of SR-BI indicate that it may function both as a scavenger receptor and as a receptor for ... was to examine the changes in gene expression during foam cell formation and to study the HDL-receptor scavenger receptor class ...

https://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/15388

MARCO is a class A scavenger receptor that is found on particular subsets of macrophages. Scavenger receptors are pattern ... Other members of the class A scavenger receptors tend to have alpha helical coiled coil domains, but MARCO does not. The C- ... Bowdish DM, Gordon S (January 2009). "Conserved domains of the class A scavenger receptors: evolution and function". ... February 1995). "Cloning of a novel bacteria-binding receptor structurally related to scavenger receptors and expressed in a ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MARCO

SCARB2: scavenger receptor class B member 2. *SCN1A: sodium voltage-gated channel alpha subunit 1 ...

https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene-s/

... scavenger receptor type I (SR-AI), oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor 1 (LOX-1), and scavenger receptor class B type I ( ... scavenger receptor class B type I, SR-BI) is moderately downregulated; (3) The iron and heme are taken up through increased ... scavenger receptor type I, SR-AI; oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor 1, LOX-1); (2) The expression of the cholesterol ... Notably, scavenger receptor CD36 plays a key role in facilitating the macrophage binding and internalization of oxLDL. ...

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-33776-x?error=cookies_not_supported&code=437cd7c8-6073-45f3-a90d-580428c14dfa

The macrophage class A scavenger receptor (SRA) facilitates the clearance of noxious particles, oxidants, and infectious ... The macrophage class A scavenger receptor (SRA) facilitates the clearance of noxious particles, oxidants, and infectious ... The macrophage class A scavenger receptor (SRA) facilitates the clearance of noxious particles, oxidants, and infectious ... The macrophage class A scavenger receptor (SRA) facilitates the clearance of noxious particles, oxidants, and infectious ...

https://pure.psu.edu/en/publications/housing-conditions-modulate-the-severity-of-mycoplasma-pulmonis-i

The Scavenger Receptor Class B type 1 (SR-B1) is a multifunctional protein found on the surface of a variety of cells. Research ... Scavenger Receptor Class B type 1 (SR-B1) and the modifiable risk factors of stroke. Access & Citations. * 9307 Article ...

https://cnjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s41016-019-0178-3/metrics

Phagocytosis is a term coined from the Greek to describe the receptor-mediated engulfment and degradation of dead cells and ... Phagocytosis is a term coined from the Greek to describe the receptor-mediated engulfment and degradation of dead cells and ... scavenger receptor class A; SR-B1, scavenger receptor class B1; TIM, T-cell-immunoglobulin-mucin; TLR, toll-like receptor; ... receptors, integrin receptors, Ig superfamily-receptors, and scavenger and related receptors. For more details on the receptors ...

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fncel.2013.00006/full

... despite exposure of these cells to a deciduogenic stimulus and normal progesterone receptor expression. These molecular ... Steroid receptor coactivator-3 (SRC-3; also known as NCOA3 or AIB1) is a member of the multifunctional p160/SRC family of ... Steroid receptor coactivator-3 is a member of the multifunctional p160/SRC family of coactivators, which also includes SRC-1 ... scavenger receptor class A member 5; DCN; decorin; IL15, interleukin 15; and PGR, progesterone receptor. ...

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frph.2022.1033581/full

i,Results,/i,. Scavenger receptor class A member 5 (SCARA5) was proved to be the downstream driving gene of ,i,THSD7A,/i,. ... We found that scavenger receptor class A member 5(SCARA5), located on chromosome 8p21.1, is the downstream driving gene of ... Scavenger receptor class A member 5 (SCARA5) was proved to be the downstream driving gene of THSD7A. SCARA5 promoted cell ... J. He, H. Liu, and C. Wu, "Identification of SCARA3, SCARA5 and MARCO of class A scavenger receptor-like family in ...

https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jir/2022/2555647/

Multiligand receptors * Is the class A macrophage scavenger receptor (SR-A) multifunctional? - The mouses tale Nick Platt et ... Scavenger receptor class B type I is a multiligand HDL receptor that influences diverse physiologic systems Monty Krieger ... Platt, N, Gordon, S. Is the class A macrophage scavenger receptor (SR-A) multifunctional? - The mouses tale. J Clin Invest ... CD36: a class B scavenger receptor involved in angiogenesis, atherosclerosis, inflammation, and lipid metabolism Maria Febbraio ...

https://www.jci.org/articles/view/14002

Rat SCARB1 (Scavenger receptor class B member 1) ELISA Kit , G-EC-05852 Rat SCARB1 (Scavenger receptor class B member 1) ELISA ... Rat SCARB1 (Scavenger receptor class B member 1) ELISA Kit , G-EC-05852 ... Mouse SCARB1 (Scavenger receptor class B member 1) ELISA Kit , G-EC-04324 ... Human SCARB1 (Scavenger receptor class B member 1) ELISA Kit , G-EC-03621 ...

https://caslab.com/microbiology-elisa/

Knockout Tested Rabbit recombinant monoclonal Scavenging Receptor SR-BI antibody [EP1556Y]. Validated in WB, IHC and tested in ... Kuroda S Binding of Hepatitis B Virus Pre-S1 Domain-Derived Synthetic Myristoylated Peptide to Scavenger Receptor Class B Type ... HRP Anti-Scavenging Receptor SR-BI antibody [EP1556Y] (ab206233) *Anti-Scavenging Receptor SR-BI antibody [EP1556Y] - BSA and ... Anti-Scavenging Receptor SR-BI antibody [EP1556Y]. See all Scavenging Receptor SR-BI primary antibodies. ...

https://www.abcam.com/products/primary-antibodies/scavenging-receptor-sr-bi-antibody-ep1556y-ab52629.html

RefSeq) scavenger receptor class F member 1. KO. K24318 scavenger receptor class F member 1. ... Scavenger receptors. 8578 (SCARF1). Domain-containing proteins not elsewhere classified [BR:hsa04990]. Laminin domain- ...

https://www.genome.jp/dbget-bin/www_bget?hsa:8578

Gene Description: scavenger receptor class B, member 2. Synonyms: 9330185J12Rik, Cd36l2, LGP85, LIMP-2, LIMP II. Gene Family:. ...

https://www.taconic.com/knockout-mouse/scarb2-trapped

scavenger receptor class B, member 1. ISO. RGD. PMID:21718801. RGD:6484679. NCBI chr12:31,296,143...31,362,649 Ensembl chr12: ... signaling receptor and transporter of retinol STRA6. ISO. RGD. PMID:21782034 PMID:21621639. RGD:6484671, RGD:6484672. NCBI chr ... alcohol dehydrogenase 4 (class II), pi polypeptide. IEA. KEGG. rno:00830. NCBI chr 2:226,948,717...226,966,747 Ensembl chr 2: ... alcohol dehydrogenase 5 (class III), chi polypeptide. IEA. KEGG. rno:00830. NCBI chr 2:226,975,184...226,987,591 Ensembl chr 2: ...

https://rgd.mcw.edu/rgdweb/ontology/annot.html?acc_id=PW:0000406

Scavengers Helper - SR-BI (scavenger receptor class B member 1, SCARB1). SR-B1 belongs to the CD36 scavenger receptor family ... SR-BI (scavenger receptor class B member 1, SCARB1) belongs to the CD36 family and acts as a cell surface lipoprotein receptor ... Farnesoid X receptor agonist GW4064 indirectly inhibits HCV entry into cells via down-regulating scavenger receptor class B ... Scarselli E, Ansuini H, Cerino R et al The human scavenger receptor class B type I is a novel candidate receptor for the ...

https://www.novusbio.com/products/sr-bi-antibody_nb400-104

Protein Aliases: CD68; CD68 antigen; Gp110; macrophage antigen CD68; Macrosialin; scavenger receptor class D, member 1 ...

https://www.thermofisher.com/antibody/product/CD68-Antibody-clone-OTI6D3-Monoclonal/TA802966

The Class B Scavenger Receptor CD36 Mediates Free Radical Production and Tissue Injury in Cerebral Ischemia Sunghee Cho, Eun-Mi ... NMDA Receptor-Dependent Synaptic Translocation of Insulin Receptor Substrate p53 via Protein Kinase C Signaling Kei Hori, ... Canonical Transient Receptor Potential 1 Plays a Role in Basic Fibroblast Growth Factor (bFGF)/FGF Receptor-1-Induced Ca2+ ... Cortical Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors Contribute to Habituation of a Simple Odor-Evoked Behavior Aaron R. Best, Jason V. ...

https://www.jneurosci.org/content/25/10

Previous research showed that scavenger receptor class A member 5 (SCARA5) was one of the potential biomarkers of OSCC, and its ... SCARA5, scavenger receptor class A member 5, is a member of the scavenger receptor family and participates in several human ... 28] Li Y, Peng F, Tan X, Wang J, Xu Y. Tumor suppressive effect of scavenger receptor class A member 5 overexpression in ... Therapeutic upregulation of Class A scavenger receptor member 5 inhibits tumor growth and metastasis. Cancer Sci. 2012;103:1631 ...

https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/med-2023-0627/html

The unrelated class A scavenger receptor (class A SR) also mediates the adhesion of microglial cells to amyloid fibrils. SPs ... The receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) may be one of these receptors. RAGE is a member of the immunoglobulin ... Patient Education. When counseling patients following a diagnosis of AD, it is essential to involve the patients family and ... For patient education information, see the Dementia Center ,as well as Alzheimer Disease, Alzheimer Disease in Individuals With ...

https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1134817

SR-A - class A scavenger receptors. TNFR1 - TNF-α receptor 1. TNF-α - tumour necrosis factor α ... However, this receptor has not been identified, and it is possible that other receptors on the surface of bovine WBC play the ... role of typical fMLP receptors or that co-receptors are involved. These are merely speculations because these receptors have ... Of note, unlike in humans, typical fMLP receptors are not expressed on the surface of WBC in cattle, and this fact has never ...

https://www.researchsquare.com/article/rs-10994/v6

2. Lp-PLA2, scavenger receptor class B type I gene (SCARB1) rs10846744 variant, and cardiovascular disease Manichaikul, Ani; ...

https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/search?f%5Bauthor_ssim%5D%5B%5D=Herrington%2C+David+M.&sort=Published+Earliest

The inventors work established that CXCL16, a membrane-bound scavenger receptor, influences the uptake, subcellular ... these cell types differ in their ability to bind and respond to structurally distinct classes of CpG oligonucleotides. ... The inventors work established that CXCL16, a membranebound scavenger receptor, influences the uptake, subcellular ... Identification of a Cell-Surface Co-Receptor that Mediates the Uptake and Immunostimulatory Activity of D Type CpG ...

https://www.fda.gov/science-research/licensing-and-collaboration-opportunities/identification-cell-surface-co-receptor-mediates-uptake-and-immunostimulatory-activity-d-type-cpg

Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology, Ministry of Education and Health, Shanghai Medical College, and Institutes of ... Higher expression of scavenger receptor CD163 on CD16+ monocytes in active tuberculosis patients. Previously, the scavenger ... To our knowledge, scavenger receptor CD163 can be expressed on the surface of monocytes and macrophages, as well as in a ... CD163, a scavenger receptor that serves as an M2 macrophage phenotype marker, is also expressed on monocytes, and binds to ...

https://bmcinfectdis.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12879-019-4525-y

The salivary scavenger and agglutinin (SALSA), also known as gp340 and dmbt1, is an antimicrobial and inflammation-regulating ... scavenger receptors, and signalling receptors. Despite the high level of structural conservation of SRCR domains, no unifying ... ufacturers instructions. The resulting protein extracts were stored at 280˚C. ... Scavenger receptors are innate immune molecules recognizing and inducing the clearance of non-host as well as modified host ...

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267044924_The_Salivary_Scavenger_and_Agglutinin_in_Early_Life_Diverse_Roles_in_Amniotic_Fluid_and_in_the_Infant_Intestine

https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1134817-overview

Finally, we found that scavenger receptor class B type I promoted RHV-rn1 entry in vitro and in vivo. Conclusions The RHV-rn1 ... However, it was shown that blockade of estrogen receptor beta (ER beta), a major hypothalamic estrogen receptor, was ... Neutralization and receptor use of infectious culture-derived rat hepacivirus as a model for HCV HEPATOLOGY 2022 NOV; 76(5): ... Estrogen receptor beta activity contributes to both tumor necrosis factor alpha expression in the hypothalamic paraventricular ...

https://www.rockefeller.edu/research/publications-search/?l=1

Scavenger receptor, Class B, Type I provides an alternative means for beta-VLDL uptake independent of the LDL receptor in ... The unfolded protein response is a negative regulator of scavenger receptor class B, type I (SR-BI) expression. ... Differential basolateral-apical distribution of scavenger receptor, class B, type I in cultured cells and the liver. ... Inhibition of mTOR down-regulates scavenger receptor, class B, type I (SR-BI) expression, reduces endothelial cell migration ...

https://www.gu.se/en/about/find-staff/stefaniefruhwurth

In 5 people with high HDL-C, the researchers found a genetic variant within the gene SCARB1 , which codes for the major HDL receptor on liver cells, scavenger receptor class BI (SR-BI). (nih.gov)
APOE associated to the LVP allows the initial virus attachment to cell surface receptors such as the heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), syndecan-1 (SDC1), syndecan-1 (SDC2), the low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) and scavenger receptor class B type I (SCARB1) (PubMed:12970454, PubMed:12356718, PubMed:12913001, PubMed:28404852, PubMed:22767607). (proteopedia.org)
The Hopkins group has also developed a simple blood test for this variation of the scavenger receptor class B type 1 gene (SCARB1) but emphasized there is no approved therapy yet to address the problem in infertile women. (healthnewstrack.com)
SCARB1 belongs to class B of Scavenger receptors (SRs) that are known to be involved in binding and endocytosis of various pathogens. (bvsalud.org)
SRs have emerging role in regulating innate immunity and host-pathogen interactions by acting in co-ordination with Toll-like receptors .Query Little is known about the function of SCARB1 in milk -derived mammary epithelial cells (MECs). (bvsalud.org)

Macrophage receptor with collagenous structure (MARCO) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MARCO gene. (wikipedia.org)
Alveolar macrophages (AMs) express the class A scavenger receptor macrophage receptor with collagenous structure (MARCO), but its role in vivo in lung defense against bacteria and environmental particles has not been studied. (silverchair.com)

From NCBI Gene: This gene encodes a macrophage scavenger receptor-like protein. (nih.gov)
Rabbit atherosclerotic lesions express scavenger receptor AIII mRNA, a naturally occurring splice variant that encodes a non-functional, dominant negative form of the macrophage scavenger receptor. (ox.ac.uk)

A group of structurally related scavenger receptors expressed predominately by ENDOTHELIAL CELLS . (nih.gov)

MARCO is a class A scavenger receptor that is found on particular subsets of macrophages. (wikipedia.org)
Class A scavenger receptor (SR-A) is a multifunctional molecule that functions during differentiation of monocyte into macrophages and osteoclasts. (ijbs.com)

The SCARB2 gene provides instructions for making a protein called lysosomal integral membrane protein-2 (LIMP-2). (medlineplus.gov)
Both extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and c-Jun N-terminal protein kinase (JNK), but not p38, signaling pathways were downregulated in receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand (RANKL)-stimulated SR-A -/- osteoclasts. (ijbs.com)
The protein encoded by this gene is a plasma membrane receptor for high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL). (antibodies-online.com)
In addition, this protein is a receptor for hepatitis C virus glycoprotein E2. (antibodies-online.com)
PDZK1 is a PDZ domain-containing scaffolding protein which facilitates localization of cell surface proteins and has a key part in cholesterol metabolism by regulating the HDL receptor, scavenger receptor class B type 1. (prospecbio.com)
This reduced GCase enzyme activity in idiopathic PD cells was accompanied by decreased expression of the GBA trafficking receptor, LIMP2, and increased ER retention of the GBA protein in these cells. (biomedcentral.com)
Formation of a protein corona on silver nanoparticles mediates cellular toxicity via scavenger receptors. (musc.edu)
The protein encoded by this gene is similar to SCARF1/SREC-I, a scavenger receptor protein that mediates the binding and degradation of acetylated low density lipoprotein (Ac-LDL). (nih.gov)
The association of this protein with SCARF1 is suppressed by the presence of scavenger ligands. (nih.gov)
Classes for this protein according to Protein ANalysis THrough Evolutionary Relationships (PANTHER) Classification System. (nih.gov)
Classes for this protein according to by Drug Target Ontology (DTO). (nih.gov)
These included obesity, National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III metabolic syndrome and its components, elevated homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance, C-reactive protein, hyperuricaemia and elevated depressive symptoms (EDS, Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression score $ 16). (nih.gov)

The scavenger receptor SR-F1 binds to and mediates the internalization of a wide range of ligands, and is involved in several immunological processes. (frontiersin.org)
SR-F1 is now viewed as a multifaceted receptor ( 9 ), which can bind and mediate cell internalization of a wide range of endogenous and exogenous ligands, suggesting key roles in immune responses and tissue homeostasis. (frontiersin.org)
The scavenger receptor cysteine-rich (SRCR) domain at the end of the extracellular side of MARCO binds ligands to activate the subsequent immune responses. (wikipedia.org)
Identified a new class of the CD36 scavenger receptor ligands. (nih.gov)
The recently described type III receptor (SR-AIII), which lacks amino acids encoded by exon 10 of the SR-A gene, is unable to mediate the uptake of ligands and acts as a dominant negative regulator in the trimeric SR-A molecule. (ox.ac.uk)
In prior studies we have shown that selective antibody-mediated blockade of inhibitory FcgRIIB receptor on human DCs in the presence of activating immunoglobulin (Ig) ligands leads to DC maturation and enhanced immunity to antibody-coated tumor cells. (gsea-msigdb.org)

This gene encodes a member of the scavenger receptor cysteine-rich (SRCR) superfamily. (nih.gov)

Signal initiation by the high-density lipoprotein (HDL) receptor scavenger receptor class B, type I (SR-BI), which is important to actions of HDL on endothelium and other processes, requires cholesterol efflux and the C-terminal transmembrane domain. (nih.gov)

A class of membrane-bound proteins termed scavenger receptors (SRs) are closely linked to the initiation and progression of atherosclerosis. (ucl.ac.uk)

Scavenger receptors are pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) found most commonly on immune cells. (wikipedia.org)
Pattern recognition receptors respond not only to pathogen-associated molecular patterns, including bacterial and viral nucleic acids, lipoproteins and carbohydrates, but also to host-derived damage-associated molecular patterns such as ATP, high-mobility group box 1 and self-DNA. (biomedcentral.com)
The recognition by pattern recognition receptors of these pathogen-associated molecular patterns and/or damage-associated molecular patterns results in cell signaling and activation of transcription factors such as NF-κB and IFN regulatory factors (IRFs) [ 10 ]. (biomedcentral.com)

Initially, the microglia clear the Aβ, which binds to receptors such as MARCO. (wikipedia.org)
Researchers at the Luxembourg Institute of Health (LIH) are developing a novel molecule that binds to and blocks a previously unknown opioid receptor in the brain - holding great promise for the design of alternative therapeutic strategies. (fnr.lu)
The revolutionary molecule developed by Luxembourg researchers - called LIH383 - binds to and blocks a fifth receptor in the brain. (fnr.lu)
The LIH383 molecule binds to an unusual opioid receptor called ACKR3, which has so far been little studied in this context. (fnr.lu)
The new molecule LIH383 binds to and blocks the ACKR3 receptor. (fnr.lu)
It binds to a specific high affinity receptor ( RECEPTOR, MACROPHAGE COLONY-STIMULATING FACTOR ). (lookformedical.com)

The novel functions of the SRCR domain on regulating the efficacy of receptor trafficking and ligand binding may lead to possible approaches on modulating the innate immunity in Alzheimer's disease and atherosclerosis. (biomedcentral.com)

In studies performed in COS-M6 cells, mutation of a highly conserved C-terminal transmembrane domain glutamine to alanine (SR-BI-Q445A) decreased PM cholesterol interaction with the receptor by 71% without altering HDL binding or cholesterol uptake or efflux, and it yielded a receptor incapable of HDL-induced signaling. (nih.gov)
We report the discovery of a facile peptide macrocyclization and stapling strategy based on a fluorine thiol displacement reaction (FTDR), which renders a class of peptide analogues with enhanced stability, affinity, cellular uptake, and inhibition of cancer cells. (nature.com)
The repertoire of receptors expressed on the alveolar macrophage (AM) surface is critical for binding, uptake, and response to microbes and inhaled unopsonized environmental particles. (silverchair.com)
Deficiency of scavenger receptor class A (SR-A), but not inhibition of galectin-3 or class B scavenger receptors, in BMDCs reduced the uptake of Pyr-OVA. (tu-darmstadt.de)
Without the receptor, the mice had abnormally high levels of HDL in the blood since their bodies were unable to uptake the cholesterol. (healthnewstrack.com)
Macrophage class A scavenger receptor types I and II (SR-AI and II) mediate the uptake of oxidized LDL in atherosclerotic lesions. (ox.ac.uk)

There is proof that transportation of carotenoids in the retina28 and intestine29 is certainly a facilitated procedure mediated with the scavenger receptor course B type I (SR-BI). (biosemiotics2013.org)
Evaluation of LDL receptor and Scavenger Receptor, Class B, Type 1 in the malignant and benign breast tumors: The correlation with the expression of miR-199a-5p, miR-199b-5p and miR-455-5p. (antibodies-online.com)
Mouse MARCO is a type II transmembrane glycoprotein belonging to the class A scavenger receptor family. (rndsystems.com)
Scavenger receptor class B type I regulates cellular cholesterol metabolism and cell signaling associated with breast cancer development. (jefferson.edu)
Increased SU did not correlate with arterial scavenger receptor class B type I levels but paralleled increased lipoprotein lipase (LPL) levels and LPL distribution in the arterial wall. (jci.org)
Clinical impact of scavenger receptor class B type I gene polymorphisms on human female fertility. (cdc.gov)
A class of oxidized LDL receptors that contain C-type lectin-like extracellular domains. (bvsalud.org)
One of the catabolic scavenger receptor class B, type difficulty in thinking or being confused and losing full Guidelines. (nutshellurl.com)
Some of these differences may be related to the bifurcation of toll-like receptor signaling that distinguishes interferon regulatory factor 7-mediated type I interferon production from nuclear factor-κB-driven proinflammatory cytokine expression. (biomedcentral.com)
Accordingly, idiopathic and pristane-induced systemic autoimmunity require both type I interferon and proinflammatory cytokines whereas the less aggressive mercury-induced autoimmunity, although dependent on nucleic acid-binding toll-like receptors, does not require type I interferon but needs proinflammatory cytokines. (biomedcentral.com)
Here we show that Fcg receptor (FcgR) mediated activation of human monocytes and monocyte-derived DCs is associated with a distinct gene expression pattern, including several inflammation associated chemokines as well as type 1 interferon (IFN) response genes including the activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1). (gsea-msigdb.org)

Previously we have identified scavenger receptor class A (SR-A) of microglia mediates oligomeric amyloid-β peptide (oAβ) internalization by siRNA approach. (biomedcentral.com)

The present disclosure relates to a scFv amino acid sequence capable of recognizing CD19 antigen and a nucleotide sequence encoding the same, and also relates to a chimeric antigen receptor, a nucleic acid encoding the same and a cell expressing the same, and their uses in the manufacture of a medicament for treating tumors. (justia.com)
The chimeric antigen receptor of the present disclosure comprises at least one extracellular domain, an optional transmembrane domain and at least one intracellular costimulatory signaling domain, wherein the extracellular domain comprises a CD19 antigen-recognizing and binding domain. (justia.com)
The chimeric antigen receptor of the present disclosure has been humanized, resulting in a longer survival period in vivo, and a corresponding extended complete remission period in patients. (justia.com)
system_update_altデータシートsystem_update_alt安全性データシート概要商品名:Human HLA-B27 ELISA Kit製品コード:HUFI01652サイズ:96Tエイリアス:HLA-B27, HLA class I histocompatibility antigen, B-27 alpha chain, HLAB, MHC class I (assaygenie.jp)

The C-terminal SRCR domain of MARCO affects the ability of the receptor to bind and take up ligand, activate inflammatory signaling, and adhere to surfaces. (wikipedia.org)
Whether the SRCR domain of SR-AI modulates the receptor surface targeting and ligand internalization was investigated by expressing truncated SR-A variants in COS-7 cells. (biomedcentral.com)

Signaling prompted by cholesterol efflux to methyl-β-cyclodextrin also was prevented, indicating that PM cholesterol interaction with the receptor enables it to serve as a PM cholesterol sensor. (nih.gov)
Rare variant in scavenger receptor BI raises HDL cholesterol and increases risk of coronary heart disease. (nih.gov)
Following up studies in female mice that first linked a deficiency in these receptors for HDL - the so-called "good" or "healthy" cholesterol - and infertility, researchers report finding the same link in studies of women with a history of infertility. (healthnewstrack.com)
Rodriguez, who is also director of the Johns Hopkins Diabetes and Cholesterol Metabolism Center, based her work on research with mice genetically engineered without the receptor for good cholesterol. (healthnewstrack.com)
Fibrates are a unique hypolipidemic drugs that lower plasma triglyceride and cholesterol levels through their action as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα) agonists. (biomedcentral.com)

All membrane-bound splice variants showed receptor activity toward fluorescent AcLDL when expressed transiently in COS-1 cells ( 10 ). (frontiersin.org)

The multifunctional nanoparticles W20/XD4-SPIONs were constructed by the conjugation of oligomer-specific scFv antibody W20 and class A scavenger receptor (SR-A) activator XD4 onto superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs). (dovepress.com)

This long tail is only shared with another member of the class F family, a SR-F1 homolog, named SREC-II ( 1 ), or SCARF2. (frontiersin.org)
Our results essentially led to a previously unknown mechanism for refining the opioid system and therapeutically affecting the availability of naturally occurring opioids by targeting ACKR3, the fifth member of the opioid receptor family," Chevigné concludes. (fnr.lu)

Estrogen signaling in mammalian cells is primarily mediated at the molecular level by two members of the nuclear receptor superfamily-estrogen receptors alpha (ER-α) and beta (ER-β). (nih.gov)
PPARα is a transcriptional nuclear receptor and forms a heterodimer with another nuclear receptor, retinoid X receptor (RXR). (biomedcentral.com)

Scavenger receptor B1 facilitates the endocytosis of Escherichia coli via TLR4 signaling in mammary gland infection. (bvsalud.org)

In this review, we consider the main classes of SRs that are implicated in arterial disease. (ucl.ac.uk)

They perform their natural analgesic and antidepressant functions by interacting with four specific opioid receptors (so-called "molecular switches") located on the surface of brain cells. (fnr.lu)

Through phagocytosis, MARCO also brings pathogens into the cell, which are processed by intracellular compartments that contain other signaling receptors such as TLR3, NOD2, and NALP3. (wikipedia.org)

Die Verwendung von Scavenger-Rezeptor Klasse A (SR-A)-defizienten BMDCs, aber nicht die Inhibition von Galectin-3 oder Klasse B Scavenger-Rezeptoren, reduzierte die Aufnahme von Pyr-OVA. (tu-darmstadt.de)

We investigated whether the level of this putative protective adipocytokine could be increased by treatment with a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPAR-γ) agonist in diabetic patients. (diabetesjournals.org)
They function as agonists for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα). (biomedcentral.com)

33. RelB attenuates cigarette smoke extract-induced apoptosis in association with transcriptional regulation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor. (nih.gov)

Other members of the class A scavenger receptors tend to have alpha helical coiled coil domains, but MARCO does not. (wikipedia.org)
MARCO, being a PRR, is able to bind to a wide variety of bacteria, making it an important receptor for activating an immune response against bacteria. (wikipedia.org)
One way MARCO does this is by tethering a pathogen to other receptors on the cell, including PRRs such as TLR2, which then lead to the activation of the transcription factor NF-κB, which regulates expression of genes that encode cytokines. (wikipedia.org)

Previously, we showed an inverse correlation between HSP27 serum levels and experimental atherogenesis in ApoE(-/-) mice that over-express HSP27 and speculated that the apparent binding of HSP27 to scavenger receptor-A (SR-A) was of mechanistic importance in attenuating foam cell formation. (mcmaster.ca)
The drug is no longer approved for use in the United States, partly because of concerns that it unsafely lowers HDL, but that very "side effect" seemed a good fit for mice with missing HDL receptors. (healthnewstrack.com)

Scavenger receptors were first defined by their ability to bind and induce metabolization of modified low density lipoproteins (LDLs) such as acetylated LDL (AcLDL) and oxidized LDL (OxLDL) ( 8 ). (frontiersin.org)
l-rhamnose-binding lectin (RBL), which is a class of animal lectins independent of Ca2+, can specifically bind l-rhamnose or d-galactose. (researchgate.net)
Opioids bind to opioid receptors on the surface of nerve cells, mainly in the brain, but also in the spinal cord and in the intestine. (fnr.lu)
It does this by 'capturing' naturally occurring opioids that would normally bind to and activate the four conventional opioid receptors. (fnr.lu)

One family of receptors likely to be important for normal host defense of the lung are the class A macrophage scavenger receptors (SRAs). (silverchair.com)

Fusion with the host cell is most likely mediated by both E1 and E2, through conformational rearrangements of the heterodimer required for fusion rather than a classical class II fusion mechanism (PubMed:16533059, PubMed:29505618, PubMed:24698129). (proteopedia.org)
E1/E2 heterodimer binding on CD81 activates the epithelial growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling pathway (PubMed:22855500). (proteopedia.org)

The primary function of scavenger receptors is to regulate phagocytosis of pathogens, but they also participate in cell-cell recognition and initiation of inflammatory responses. (wikipedia.org)
Silver Nanoparticle-Directed Mast Cell Degranulation Is Mediated through Calcium and PI3K Signaling Independent of the High Affinity IgE Receptor. (nih.gov)
Furthermore, we identified a role for scavenger receptor B1 (SR-B1) in AgNP-mediated mast cell degranulation. (nih.gov)
NK cell scavenger receptor (SR) expression was measured by microarray analysis, validated by qRT-PCR and flow cytometry. (biomedcentral.com)

The LIH383 molecule has important implications for the development of a new class of drugs for acute and chronic pain, for depression but also for the treatment of brain cancer. (fnr.lu)

The ACKR3 opioid receptor therefore reduces the availability of naturally occurring opioids in the nervous system, thereby indirectly reducing their analgesic and anxiolytic activity. (fnr.lu)
It therefore prevents the receptor from capturing naturally secreted opioids. (fnr.lu)

Synthetic opioid drugs commonly used to treat acute pain - including morphine, oxycodone and fentanyl - act by targeting and activating the same receptors. (fnr.lu)

Anatomy19

Organisms8

Diseases4

Chemicals and Drugs54

Analytical, Diagnostic and Therapeutic Techniques and Equipment10

Phenomena and Processes25

Information Science3

Analysis of macrophage scavenger receptor (SR-A) expression in human aortic atherosclerotic lesions. (1/329)

Peptide model of a highly conserved, N-terminal domain of apolipoprotein E is able to modulate lipoprotein binding to a member of the class A scavenger receptor family. (2/329)

Distinct scavenger receptor expression and function in the human CD14(+)/CD16(+) monocyte subset. (3/329)

De novo expression of the class-A macrophage scavenger receptor conferring resistance to apoptosis in differentiated human THP-1 monocytic cells. (4/329)

Roles of a macrophage receptor with collagenous structure (MARCO) in host defense and heterogeneity of splenic marginal zone macrophages. (5/329)

Modification of type III VLDL, their remnants, and VLDL from ApoE-knockout mice by p-hydroxyphenylacetaldehyde, a product of myeloperoxidase activity, causes marked cholesteryl ester accumulation in macrophages. (6/329)

Lovastatin decreases the receptor-mediated degradation of acetylated and oxidized LDLs in human blood monocytes during the early stage of differentiation into macrophages. (7/329)

Scavenger receptor activity is increased in macrophages from rabbits with low atherosclerotic response: studies in normocholesterolemic high and low atherosclerotic response rabbits. (8/329)

Scavenger Receptors, Class B

Receptors, Scavenger

Scavenger Receptors, Class A

Antigens, CD36

Receptors, Lipoprotein

Receptors, Immunologic

Lipoproteins, HDL

Scavenger Receptors, Class F

Cholesterol Esters

Membrane Proteins

Cholesterol

Lipoproteins, LDL

Lysosome-Associated Membrane Glycoproteins

ATP Binding Cassette Transporter 1

Receptors, LDL

Macrophages

Poly I

Scavenger Receptors, Class C

Foam Cells

Cholesterol Oxidase

Apolipoprotein A-I

Lipoproteins

Lipid Metabolism

CHO Cells

Macrophages, Peritoneal

Mice, Knockout

Chlordecone

Scavenger Receptors, Class E

Cricetinae

ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters

Antigens, CD81

Cholesterol, HDL

Free Radical Scavengers

Liver

Biological Transport

Reticulocytosis

Lipoproteins, HDL3

Mice, Inbred C57BL

Cell Line

Hepatocytes

Cells, Cultured

Arteriosclerosis

Atherosclerosis

Apolipoproteins E

RNA, Messenger

Virus Internalization

Endocytosis

Enterocytes

Enterovirus A, Human

Ligands

Lipids

COS Cells

Molecular Sequence Data

Probucol

Transfection

Protein Binding

Adrenal Glands

Receptors, Virus

Phospholipids

Binding, Competitive

alpha-Tocopherol

Gene Expression Regulation

Cricetulus

Amino Acid Sequence

Mice, Transgenic

Antigens, Differentiation, Myelomonocytic

Blotting, Western

Intestinal Absorption

Caco-2 Cells

Base Sequence

Adrenal Cortex

Anticholesteremic Agents

Bile

Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction

Gene Expression

Receptors, Oxidized LDL

Recombinant Proteins

Protein Structure, Tertiary

Cercopithecus aethiops

Hepacivirus