Retinal diseases refer to a diverse group of vision-threatening disorders that affect the retina's structure and function, including age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, retinal detachment, retinitis pigmentosa, and macular edema, among others.
A retrogressive pathological change in the retina, focal or generalized, caused by genetic defects, inflammation, trauma, vascular disease, or aging. Degeneration affecting predominantly the macula lutea of the retina is MACULAR DEGENERATION. (Newell, Ophthalmology: Principles and Concepts, 7th ed, p304)
The ten-layered nervous tissue membrane of the eye. It is continuous with the OPTIC NERVE and receives images of external objects and transmits visual impulses to the brain. Its outer surface is in contact with the CHOROID and the inner surface with the VITREOUS BODY. The outer-most layer is pigmented, whereas the inner nine layers are transparent.
Hereditary, progressive degeneration of the neuroepithelium of the retina characterized by night blindness and progressive contraction of the visual field.
Specialized PHOTOTRANSDUCTION neurons in the vertebrates, such as the RETINAL ROD CELLS and the RETINAL CONE CELLS. Non-visual photoreceptor neurons have been reported in the deep brain, the PINEAL GLAND and organs of the circadian system.
Recording of electric potentials in the retina after stimulation by light.
The single layer of pigment-containing epithelial cells in the RETINA, situated closely to the tips (outer segments) of the RETINAL PHOTORECEPTOR CELLS. These epithelial cells are macroglia that perform essential functions for the photoreceptor cells, such as in nutrient transport, phagocytosis of the shed photoreceptor membranes, and ensuring retinal attachment.
A rare degenerative inherited eye disease that appears at birth or in the first few months of life that results in a loss of vision. Not to be confused with LEBER HEREDITARY OPTIC NEUROPATHY, the disease is thought to be caused by abnormal development of PHOTORECEPTOR CELLS in the RETINA, or by the extremely premature degeneration of retinal cells.
'Eye proteins' are structural or functional proteins, such as crystallins, opsins, and collagens, located in various parts of the eye, including the cornea, lens, retina, and aqueous humor, that contribute to maintaining transparency, refractive power, phototransduction, and overall integrity of the visual system.
A naturally occurring lipid pigment with histochemical characteristics similar to ceroid. It accumulates in various normal tissues and apparently increases in quantity with age.
The layer of pigment-containing epithelial cells in the RETINA; the CILIARY BODY; and the IRIS in the eye.
A cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase subfamily that is highly specific for CYCLIC GMP. It is found predominantly in the outer segment PHOTORECEPTOR CELLS of the RETINA. It is comprised of two catalytic subunits, referred to as alpha and beta, that form a dimer. In addition two regulatory subunits, referred to as gamma and delta, modulate the activity and localization of the enzyme.
Failure or imperfection of vision at night or in dim light, with good vision only on bright days. (Dorland, 27th ed)
Type III intermediate filament proteins expressed mainly in neurons of the peripheral and CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEMS. Peripherins are implicated in neurite elongation during development and axonal regeneration after injury.
Photosensitive afferent neurons located in the peripheral retina, with their density increases radially away from the FOVEA CENTRALIS. Being much more sensitive to light than the RETINAL CONE CELLS, the rod cells are responsible for twilight vision (at scotopic intensities) as well as peripheral vision, but provide no color discrimination.
The concave interior of the eye, consisting of the retina, the choroid, the sclera, the optic disk, and blood vessels, seen by means of the ophthalmoscope. (Cline et al., Dictionary of Visual Science, 4th ed)
Transmission of gene defects or chromosomal aberrations/abnormalities which are expressed in extreme variation in the structure or function of the eye. These may be evident at birth, but may be manifested later with progression of the disorder.
The blood vessels which supply and drain the RETINA.
Enzymes that catalyze the rearrangement of geometry about double bonds. EC 5.2.
Devices for examining the interior of the eye, permitting the clear visualization of the structures of the eye at any depth. (UMDNS, 1999)
Photosensitive afferent neurons located primarily within the FOVEA CENTRALIS of the MACULA LUTEA. There are three major types of cone cells (red, blue, and green) whose photopigments have different spectral sensitivity curves. Retinal cone cells operate in daylight vision (at photopic intensities) providing color recognition and central visual acuity.
A group of disorders involving predominantly the posterior portion of the ocular fundus, due to degeneration in the sensory layer of the RETINA; RETINAL PIGMENT EPITHELIUM; BRUCH MEMBRANE; CHOROID; or a combination of these tissues.
Degenerative changes in the RETINA usually of older adults which results in a loss of vision in the center of the visual field (the MACULA LUTEA) because of damage to the retina. It occurs in dry and wet forms.
Autosomal recessive hereditary disorders characterized by congenital SENSORINEURAL HEARING LOSS and RETINITIS PIGMENTOSA. Genetically and symptomatically heterogeneous, clinical classes include type I, type II, and type III. Their severity, age of onset of retinitis pigmentosa and the degree of vestibular dysfunction are variable.
The process in which light signals are transformed by the PHOTORECEPTOR CELLS into electrical signals which can then be transmitted to the brain.
An imaging method using LASERS that is used for mapping subsurface structure. When a reflective site in the sample is at the same optical path length (coherence) as the reference mirror, the detector observes interference fringes.
Examination of the interior of the eye with an ophthalmoscope.
Formation of new blood vessels originating from the retinal veins and extending along the inner (vitreal) surface of the retina.
Vitreoretinal membrane shrinkage or contraction secondary to the proliferation of primarily retinal pigment epithelial cells and glial cells, particularly fibrous astrocytes, followed by membrane formation. The formation of fibrillar collagen and cellular proliferation appear to be the basis for the contractile properties of the epiretinal and vitreous membranes.
A purplish-red, light-sensitive pigment found in RETINAL ROD CELLS of most vertebrates. It is a complex consisting of a molecule of ROD OPSIN and a molecule of 11-cis retinal (RETINALDEHYDE). Rhodopsin exhibits peak absorption wavelength at about 500 nm.
The macroglial cells of EPENDYMA. They are characterized by bipolar cell body shape and processes that contact BASAL LAMINA around blood vessels and/or the PIA MATER and the CEREBRAL VENTRICLES.
The inability to see or the loss or absence of perception of visual stimuli. This condition may be the result of EYE DISEASES; OPTIC NERVE DISEASES; OPTIC CHIASM diseases; or BRAIN DISEASES affecting the VISUAL PATHWAYS or OCCIPITAL LOBE.
Specialized cells that detect and transduce light. They are classified into two types based on their light reception structure, the ciliary photoreceptors and the rhabdomeric photoreceptors with MICROVILLI. Ciliary photoreceptor cells use OPSINS that activate a PHOSPHODIESTERASE phosphodiesterase cascade. Rhabdomeric photoreceptor cells use opsins that activate a PHOSPHOLIPASE C cascade.
Visualization of a vascular system after intravenous injection of a fluorescein solution. The images may be photographed or televised. It is used especially in studying the retinal and uveal vasculature.
Adjustment of the eyes under conditions of low light. The sensitivity of the eye to light is increased during dark adaptation.
Disease of the RETINA as a complication of DIABETES MELLITUS. It is characterized by the progressive microvascular complications, such as ANEURYSM, interretinal EDEMA, and intraocular PATHOLOGIC NEOVASCULARIZATION.
A membrane on the vitreal surface of the retina resulting from the proliferation of one or more of three retinal elements: (1) fibrous astrocytes; (2) fibrocytes; and (3) retinal pigment epithelial cells. Localized epiretinal membranes may occur at the posterior pole of the eye without clinical signs or may cause marked loss of vision as a result of covering, distorting, or detaching the fovea centralis. Epiretinal membranes may cause vascular leakage and secondary retinal edema. In younger individuals some membranes appear to be developmental in origin and occur in otherwise normal eyes. The majority occur in association with retinal holes, ocular concussions, retinal inflammation, or after ocular surgery. (Newell, Ophthalmology: Principles and Concepts, 7th ed, p291)
Inflammation of the RETINA. It is rarely limited to the retina, but is commonly associated with diseases of the choroid (CHORIORETINITIS) and of the OPTIC DISK (neuroretinitis).
Clarity or sharpness of OCULAR VISION or the ability of the eye to see fine details. Visual acuity depends on the functions of RETINA, neuronal transmission, and the interpretative ability of the brain. Normal visual acuity is expressed as 20/20 indicating that one can see at 20 feet what should normally be seen at that distance. Visual acuity can also be influenced by brightness, color, and contrast.
Nerve cells of the RETINA in the pathway of transmitting light signals to the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. They include the outer layer of PHOTORECEPTOR CELLS, the intermediate layer of RETINAL BIPOLAR CELLS and AMACRINE CELLS, and the internal layer of RETINAL GANGLION CELLS.
Infections of the eye caused by minute intracellular agents. These infections may lead to severe inflammation in various parts of the eye - conjunctiva, iris, eyelids, etc. Several viruses have been identified as the causative agents. Among these are Herpesvirus, Adenovirus, Poxvirus, and Myxovirus.
A group of rare, idiopathic, congenital retinal vascular anomalies affecting the retinal capillaries. It is characterized by dilation and tortuosity of retinal vessels and formation of multiple aneurysms, with different degrees of leakage and exudates emanating from the blood vessels.
The transparent, semigelatinous substance that fills the cavity behind the CRYSTALLINE LENS of the EYE and in front of the RETINA. It is contained in a thin hyaloid membrane and forms about four fifths of the optic globe.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
Artificial device such as an externally-worn camera attached to a stimulator on the RETINA, OPTIC NERVE, or VISUAL CORTEX, intended to restore or amplify vision.
An area approximately 1.5 millimeters in diameter within the macula lutea where the retina thins out greatly because of the oblique shifting of all layers except the pigment epithelium layer. It includes the sloping walls of the fovea (clivus) and contains a few rods in its periphery. In its center (foveola) are the cones most adapted to yield high visual acuity, each cone being connected to only one ganglion cell. (Cline et al., Dictionary of Visual Science, 4th ed)
A group of tetraterpenes, with four terpene units joined head-to-tail. Biologically active members of this class are used clinically in the treatment of severe cystic ACNE; PSORIASIS; and other disorders of keratinization.
Defects of color vision are mainly hereditary traits but can be secondary to acquired or developmental abnormalities in the CONES (RETINA). Severity of hereditary defects of color vision depends on the degree of mutation of the ROD OPSINS genes (on X CHROMOSOME and CHROMOSOME 3) that code the photopigments for red, green and blue.
Photosensitive proteins expressed in the ROD PHOTORECEPTOR CELLS. They are the protein components of rod photoreceptor pigments such as RHODOPSIN.
Neurons of the innermost layer of the retina, the internal plexiform layer. They are of variable sizes and shapes, and their axons project via the OPTIC NERVE to the brain. A small subset of these cells act as photoreceptors with projections to the SUPRACHIASMATIC NUCLEUS, the center for regulating CIRCADIAN RHYTHM.
Method of measuring and mapping the scope of vision, from central to peripheral of each eye.
Diseases of the domestic dog (Canis familiaris). This term does not include diseases of wild dogs, WOLVES; FOXES; and other Canidae for which the heading CARNIVORA is used.
A form of fluorescent antibody technique commonly used to detect serum antibodies and immune complexes in tissues and microorganisms in specimens from patients with infectious diseases. The technique involves formation of an antigen-antibody complex which is labeled with fluorescein-conjugated anti-immunoglobulin antibody. (From Bennington, Saunders Dictionary & Encyclopedia of Laboratory Medicine and Technology, 1984)
Filaments 7-11 nm in diameter found in the cytoplasm of all cells. Many specific proteins belong to this group, e.g., desmin, vimentin, prekeratin, decamin, skeletin, neurofilin, neurofilament protein, and glial fibrillary acid protein.
The thin, highly vascular membrane covering most of the posterior of the eye between the RETINA and SCLERA.
The administration of substances into the VITREOUS BODY of the eye with a hypodermic syringe.
The administration of substances into the eye with a hypodermic syringe.
The record of descent or ancestry, particularly of a particular condition or trait, indicating individual family members, their relationships, and their status with respect to the trait or condition.
Visual impairments limiting one or more of the basic functions of the eye: visual acuity, dark adaptation, color vision, or peripheral vision. These may result from EYE DISEASES; OPTIC NERVE DISEASES; VISUAL PATHWAY diseases; OCCIPITAL LOBE diseases; OCULAR MOTILITY DISORDERS; and other conditions (From Newell, Ophthalmology: Principles and Concepts, 7th ed, p132).
Genes that influence the PHENOTYPE only in the homozygous state.
Biochemical identification of mutational changes in a nucleotide sequence.
The total area or space visible in a person's peripheral vision with the eye looking straightforward.
Inbred C57BL mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been produced by many generations of brother-sister matings, resulting in a high degree of genetic uniformity and homozygosity, making them widely used for biomedical research, including studies on genetics, immunology, cancer, and neuroscience.
A genus of the family PARVOVIRIDAE, subfamily PARVOVIRINAE, which are dependent on a coinfection with helper adenoviruses or herpesviruses for their efficient replication. The type species is Adeno-associated virus 2.
A specialized transport barrier, in the EYE, formed by the retinal pigment EPITHELIUM, and the ENDOTHELIUM of the BLOOD VESSELS of the RETINA. TIGHT JUNCTIONS joining adjacent cells keep the barrier between cells continuous.
Methods and procedures for the diagnosis of diseases of the eye or of vision disorders.
Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.
Diseases affecting the eye.
A carotenoid constituent of visual pigments. It is the oxidized form of retinol which functions as the active component of the visual cycle. It is bound to the protein opsin forming the complex rhodopsin. When stimulated by visible light, the retinal component of the rhodopsin complex undergoes isomerization at the 11-position of the double bond to the cis-form; this is reversed in "dark" reactions to return to the native trans-configuration.
Separation of the inner layers of the retina (neural retina) from the pigment epithelium. Retinal detachment occurs more commonly in men than in women, in eyes with degenerative myopia, in aging and in aphakia. It may occur after an uncomplicated cataract extraction, but it is seen more often if vitreous humor has been lost during surgery. (Dorland, 27th ed; Newell, Ophthalmology: Principles and Concepts, 7th ed, p310-12).
Vision considered to be inferior to normal vision as represented by accepted standards of acuity, field of vision, or motility. Low vision generally refers to visual disorders that are caused by diseases that cannot be corrected by refraction (e.g., MACULAR DEGENERATION; RETINITIS PIGMENTOSA; DIABETIC RETINOPATHY, etc.).
Genetic diseases that are linked to gene mutations on the X CHROMOSOME in humans (X CHROMOSOME, HUMAN) or the X CHROMOSOME in other species. Included here are animal models of human X-linked diseases.
Techniques and strategies which include the use of coding sequences and other conventional or radical means to transform or modify cells for the purpose of treating or reversing disease conditions.
Method of making images on a sensitized surface by exposure to light or other radiant energy.
An oval area in the retina, 3 to 5 mm in diameter, usually located temporal to the posterior pole of the eye and slightly below the level of the optic disk. It is characterized by the presence of a yellow pigment diffusely permeating the inner layers, contains the fovea centralis in its center, and provides the best phototropic visual acuity. It is devoid of retinal blood vessels, except in its periphery, and receives nourishment from the choriocapillaris of the choroid. (From Cline et al., Dictionary of Visual Science, 4th ed)
The non-neuronal cells of the nervous system. They not only provide physical support, but also respond to injury, regulate the ionic and chemical composition of the extracellular milieu, participate in the BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER and BLOOD-RETINAL BARRIER, form the myelin insulation of nervous pathways, guide neuronal migration during development, and exchange metabolites with neurons. Neuroglia have high-affinity transmitter uptake systems, voltage-dependent and transmitter-gated ion channels, and can release transmitters, but their role in signaling (as in many other functions) is unclear.
That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum in the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared range.
A family of MEMBRANE TRANSPORT PROTEINS that require ATP hydrolysis for the transport of substrates across membranes. The protein family derives its name from the ATP-binding domain found on the protein.
DNA molecules capable of autonomous replication within a host cell and into which other DNA sequences can be inserted and thus amplified. Many are derived from PLASMIDS; BACTERIOPHAGES; or VIRUSES. They are used for transporting foreign genes into recipient cells. Genetic vectors possess a functional replicator site and contain GENETIC MARKERS to facilitate their selective recognition.
A variation of the PCR technique in which cDNA is made from RNA via reverse transcription. The resultant cDNA is then amplified using standard PCR protocols.
The portion of a retinal rod cell situated between the ROD INNER SEGMENT and the RETINAL PIGMENT EPITHELIUM. It contains a stack of photosensitive disk membranes laden with RHODOPSIN.
An ocular disease, occurring in many forms, having as its primary characteristics an unstable or a sustained increase in the intraocular pressure which the eye cannot withstand without damage to its structure or impairment of its function. The consequences of the increased pressure may be manifested in a variety of symptoms, depending upon type and severity, such as excavation of the optic disk, hardness of the eyeball, corneal anesthesia, reduced visual acuity, seeing of colored halos around lights, disturbed dark adaptation, visual field defects, and headaches. (Dictionary of Visual Science, 4th ed)
Variation in a population's DNA sequence that is detected by determining alterations in the conformation of denatured DNA fragments. Denatured DNA fragments are allowed to renature under conditions that prevent the formation of double-stranded DNA and allow secondary structure to form in single stranded fragments. These fragments are then run through polyacrylamide gels to detect variations in the secondary structure that is manifested as an alteration in migration through the gels.
Inflammation of part or all of the uvea, the middle (vascular) tunic of the eye, and commonly involving the other tunics (sclera and cornea, and the retina). (Dorland, 27th ed)
The transfer of STEM CELLS from one individual to another within the same species (TRANSPLANTATION, HOMOLOGOUS) or between species (XENOTRANSPLANTATION), or transfer within the same individual (TRANSPLANTATION, AUTOLOGOUS). The source and location of the stem cells determines their potency or pluripotency to differentiate into various cell types.
The domestic dog, Canis familiaris, comprising about 400 breeds, of the carnivore family CANIDAE. They are worldwide in distribution and live in association with people. (Walker's Mammals of the World, 5th ed, p1065)
'Nerve tissue proteins' are specialized proteins found within the nervous system's biological tissue, including neurofilaments, neuronal cytoskeletal proteins, and neural cell adhesion molecules, which facilitate structural support, intracellular communication, and synaptic connectivity essential for proper neurological function.
The use of green light-producing LASERS to stop bleeding. The green light is selectively absorbed by HEMOGLOBIN, thus triggering BLOOD COAGULATION.
Genes that are introduced into an organism using GENE TRANSFER TECHNIQUES.
The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION and GENETIC TRANSLATION.
Identification of proteins or peptides that have been electrophoretically separated by blot transferring from the electrophoresis gel to strips of nitrocellulose paper, followed by labeling with antibody probes.
The organ of sight constituting a pair of globular organs made up of a three-layered roughly spherical structure specialized for receiving and responding to light.
Removal of the whole or part of the vitreous body in treating endophthalmitis, diabetic retinopathy, retinal detachment, intraocular foreign bodies, and some types of glaucoma.
The outward appearance of the individual. It is the product of interactions between genes, and between the GENOTYPE and the environment.
Strains of mice in which certain GENES of their GENOMES have been disrupted, or "knocked-out". To produce knockouts, using RECOMBINANT DNA technology, the normal DNA sequence of the gene being studied is altered to prevent synthesis of a normal gene product. Cloned cells in which this DNA alteration is successful are then injected into mouse EMBRYOS to produce chimeric mice. The chimeric mice are then bred to yield a strain in which all the cells of the mouse contain the disrupted gene. Knockout mice are used as EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL MODELS for diseases (DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL) and to clarify the functions of the genes.
The original member of the family of endothelial cell growth factors referred to as VASCULAR ENDOTHELIAL GROWTH FACTORS. Vascular endothelial growth factor-A was originally isolated from tumor cells and referred to as "tumor angiogenesis factor" and "vascular permeability factor". Although expressed at high levels in certain tumor-derived cells it is produced by a wide variety of cell types. In addition to stimulating vascular growth and vascular permeability it may play a role in stimulating VASODILATION via NITRIC OXIDE-dependent pathways. Alternative splicing of the mRNA for vascular endothelial growth factor A results in several isoforms of the protein being produced.
A light microscopic technique in which only a small spot is illuminated and observed at a time. An image is constructed through point-by-point scanning of the field in this manner. Light sources may be conventional or laser, and fluorescence or transmitted observations are possible.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
The property of emitting radiation while being irradiated. The radiation emitted is usually of longer wavelength than that incident or absorbed, e.g., a substance can be irradiated with invisible radiation and emit visible light. X-ray fluorescence is used in diagnosis.
The introduction of functional (usually cloned) GENES into cells. A variety of techniques and naturally occurring processes are used for the gene transfer such as cell hybridization, LIPOSOMES or microcell-mediated gene transfer, ELECTROPORATION, chromosome-mediated gene transfer, TRANSFECTION, and GENETIC TRANSDUCTION. Gene transfer may result in genetically transformed cells and individual organisms.
Transport proteins that carry specific substances in the blood or across cell membranes.
An intermediate filament protein found only in glial cells or cells of glial origin. MW 51,000.
Introduction of substances into the body using a needle and syringe.
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
Drugs intended to prevent damage to the brain or spinal cord from ischemia, stroke, convulsions, or trauma. Some must be administered before the event, but others may be effective for some time after. They act by a variety of mechanisms, but often directly or indirectly minimize the damage produced by endogenous excitatory amino acids.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
Genes that influence the PHENOTYPE both in the homozygous and the heterozygous state.
Microscopy of specimens stained with fluorescent dye (usually fluorescein isothiocyanate) or of naturally fluorescent materials, which emit light when exposed to ultraviolet or blue light. Immunofluorescence microscopy utilizes antibodies that are labeled with fluorescent dye.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control (induction or repression) of gene action at the level of transcription or translation.
Protein analogs and derivatives of the Aequorea victoria green fluorescent protein that emit light (FLUORESCENCE) when excited with ULTRAVIOLET RAYS. They are used in REPORTER GENES in doing GENETIC TECHNIQUES. Numerous mutants have been made to emit other colors or be sensitive to pH.
Laboratory mice that have been produced from a genetically manipulated EGG or EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN.
Non-human animals, selected because of specific characteristics, for use in experimental research, teaching, or testing.
An in situ method for detecting areas of DNA which are nicked during APOPTOSIS. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase is used to add labeled dUTP, in a template-independent manner, to the 3 prime OH ends of either single- or double-stranded DNA. The terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase nick end labeling, or TUNEL, assay labels apoptosis on a single-cell level, making it more sensitive than agarose gel electrophoresis for analysis of DNA FRAGMENTATION.
The gradual irreversible changes in structure and function of an organism that occur as a result of the passage of time.
Any method used for determining the location of and relative distances between genes on a chromosome.
Hybridization of a nucleic acid sample to a very large set of OLIGONUCLEOTIDE PROBES, which have been attached individually in columns and rows to a solid support, to determine a BASE SEQUENCE, or to detect variations in a gene sequence, GENE EXPRESSION, or for GENE MAPPING.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
The termination of the cell's ability to carry out vital functions such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, responsiveness, and adaptability.
The span of viability of a cell characterized by the capacity to perform certain functions such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, some form of responsiveness, and adaptability.
Domesticated bovine animals of the genus Bos, usually kept on a farm or ranch and used for the production of meat or dairy products or for heavy labor.
The determination of the pattern of genes expressed at the level of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION, under specific circumstances or in a specific cell.
A mutation in which a codon is mutated to one directing the incorporation of a different amino acid. This substitution may result in an inactive or unstable product. (From A Dictionary of Genetics, King & Stansfield, 5th ed)
Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.
The co-inheritance of two or more non-allelic GENES due to their being located more or less closely on the same CHROMOSOME.
The statistical reproducibility of measurements (often in a clinical context), including the testing of instrumentation or techniques to obtain reproducible results. The concept includes reproducibility of physiological measurements, which may be used to develop rules to assess probability or prognosis, or response to a stimulus; reproducibility of occurrence of a condition; and reproducibility of experimental results.
The parts of a transcript of a split GENE remaining after the INTRONS are removed. They are spliced together to become a MESSENGER RNA or other functional RNA.
Investigative technique commonly used during ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY in which a series of bright light flashes or visual patterns are used to elicit brain activity.
The number of CELLS of a specific kind, usually measured per unit volume or area of sample.
One of the mechanisms by which CELL DEATH occurs (compare with NECROSIS and AUTOPHAGOCYTOSIS). Apoptosis is the mechanism responsible for the physiological deletion of cells and appears to be intrinsically programmed. It is characterized by distinctive morphologic changes in the nucleus and cytoplasm, chromatin cleavage at regularly spaced sites, and the endonucleolytic cleavage of genomic DNA; (DNA FRAGMENTATION); at internucleosomal sites. This mode of cell death serves as a balance to mitosis in regulating the size of animal tissues and in mediating pathologic processes associated with tumor growth.
The genetic constitution of the individual, comprising the ALLELES present at each GENETIC LOCUS.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
A disturbance in the prooxidant-antioxidant balance in favor of the former, leading to potential damage. Indicators of oxidative stress include damaged DNA bases, protein oxidation products, and lipid peroxidation products (Sies, Oxidative Stress, 1991, pxv-xvi).
In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.
An immunoassay utilizing an antibody labeled with an enzyme marker such as horseradish peroxidase. While either the enzyme or the antibody is bound to an immunosorbent substrate, they both retain their biologic activity; the change in enzyme activity as a result of the enzyme-antibody-antigen reaction is proportional to the concentration of the antigen and can be measured spectrophotometrically or with the naked eye. Many variations of the method have been developed.
Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of biological processes or diseases. For disease models in living animals, DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL is available. Biological models include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.

Histologic analysis of photochemical lesions produced in rhesus retina by short-wave-length light. (1/1813)

The photopathology of retinal lesions produced by extended exposure (1000 sec) to low corneal power levels (62 microW) of blue light (441 nm) was investigated by light microscopy in 20 rhesus eyes over an interval ranging from 1 hr to 90 days after exposure. Results indicate a nonthermal type of photochemical lesion originating in the retinal pigment epithelium and leading to a histological response with hypopigmentation which requires 48 hr to appear. This type of lesion helps to explain solar retinitis and eclipse blindness and has significance for aging and degenerative changes in the retina.  (+info)

Pigment epithelial windows and drusen: an animal model. (2/1813)

Aging rhesus monkeys, both controls and those undergoing long-term administration of investigational oral contraceptive steroids, developed widespread hyperfluorescent dots at the posterior pole. The dots were considered to represent drusen. Histologic (including electron microscopic) study showed the "drusen" in some of the animals to be almost exclusively pigment epithelial windows produced by a lipoidal degeneration of the pigment epithelial cells. The experiment provided a fortuitous model for direct correlation of clinical and histologic observations of myriad uniform, tiny, depigmented, hyperfluorescent, nonleaking spots at the level of the retinal pigment epithelium.  (+info)

Necrosis and apoptosis after retinal ischemia: involvement of NMDA-mediated excitotoxicity and p53. (3/1813)

PURPOSE: Accumulated evidence has shown that apoptosis and necrosis contribute to neuronal death after ischemia. The present study was performed to study the temporal and spatial patterns of neuronal necrosis and apoptosis after ischemia in retina and to outline mechanisms underlying necrosis and apoptosis. METHODS: Retinal ischemia was induced by increasing intraocular pressure to a range of 160 mm Hg to 180 mm Hg for 90 minutes in adult rats. The patterns of neuronal cell death were determined using light and electron microscopy and were visualized by TdT-dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL). The mRNA expression profile of p53 was examined using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and in situ hybridization histochemistry. Immunohistochemistry was performed using anti-p53, anti-microtubule associated protein-2, and anti-glial fibrillary acidic protein antibodies. RESULTS: Within 4 hours after ischemia, neurons in the inner nuclear cell layer (INL) and ganglion cell layer (GCL) underwent marked necrosis, made apparent by swelling of the cell body and mitochondria, early fenestration of the plasma membrane, and irregularly scattered condensation of nuclear chromatin. After 3 days, the INL and GCL neurons showed further degeneration through apoptosis marked by cell body shrinkage, aggregation, and condensation of nuclear chromatin. Apoptotic neurons were also observed sparsely in the outer nuclear cell layer. Intravitreal injections of MK-801 prevented early neuronal degeneration after ischemia. Of note, mRNA and protein levels of p53, the tumor suppressor gene known to induce apoptosis, were increased in the retinal areas undergoing apoptosis 1 to 3 days after ischemic injury. CONCLUSIONS: Ischemia produces the N-methyl-D-aspartate-mediated necrosis and slowly evolving apoptosis of neurons in the retina. The latter may depend on the expression of the p53 proapoptosis gene.  (+info)

Idiopathic central serous chorioretinopathy. (4/1813)

Idiopathic central serous chorioretinopathy (ICSC) is usually seen in young males with Type A personality. Clinical evaluation of the macula with fundoscopy and biomicroscopy, coupled with fluorescein angiography establishes the diagnosis. Indocyanine green angiographic studies have reinformed that the basic pathology lies in choriocapillaries and retinal pigment epithelium. Most of the ICSC resolve completely in four months, and some of them could resolve early with direct photocoagulation of the leaking site. Oral steroids have no role, and could even cause an adverse reaction.  (+info)

Rapid pneumatic and Mackey-Marg applanation tonometry to evaluate the postural effect on intraocular pressure. (5/1813)

A postural study was conducted in three separate groups of subjects. The first group comprised 20 women volunteers with an average age of 20-75 years. In this group, the study was conducted by the pneumatonograph only. Mean pressure recorded was 15-65 +/- 0-25 mmHg and there was an average rise of 1-4 mmHg in supine posture. Groups 2 and 3 comprised 151 non-glaucomatous and 108 glaucomatous eyes respectively in the age range of 30 to 85 years. In these two groups, the study was conducted using the PTG and the Mackay-Marg tonometer. Clinical evaluation of the Mackay-Marg with the PTG gave significant correlation, with mean Mackay-Marg readings being 1-13 mmHg higher. The intraocular pressure when changing from seated to the supine position increased on average by 2-71 and 4-04 mmHg, respectively in Groups 2 and 3 and by 2-51 and 3-72 mmHg by Vackay-Marg, suggesting a higher change in glaucomatous subjects. Pressure on resumption of sitting was found to be lower than the initial pressure. Postural change also showed some direct relationship with age in non-glaucomatous subjects.  (+info)

Chronic retinal vein occlusion in glaucoma. (6/1813)

Asymptomatic chronic retinal vein occlusion that occurs in chronic simple glaucoma is described. The condition is characterized by marked elevation of retinal vein pressure with collateral vessels and vein loops at the optic disc in cases of central vein occlusion, or retinal veno-venous anastomoses along a horizontal line temporal and nasal to the disc in hemisphere vein occlusion. No patient had visible arterial changes, capillary closure, fluorescein leakage, or haemorrhages. The vein occlusion was not limited to "end stage" glaucoma. The role of increased intraocular pressure and glaucomatous enlargement of the optic cup with retinal vein distortion in the pathogenesis of the condition was stressed. Follow-up of these patients revealed persistence of the retinal vein occlusion shown by elevated retinal vein pressures. This would reduce effective perfusion of the inner retina and optic disc and may affect the long-term visual prognosis.  (+info)

Apoptosis and caspases after ischemia-reperfusion injury in rat retina. (7/1813)

PURPOSE: Extensive cell loss in the retinal ganglion cell layer (RGCL) and the inner nuclear layer (INL) was noted in a rat model of retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury by transient elevated intraocular pressure (IOP). The possible involvement of apoptosis and caspases was examined in this model of neuronal loss. METHODS: Transient elevated IOP was induced in albino Lewis rats through the insertion of a needle into the anterior chamber connected to a saline column. Elevated IOP at 110 mm Hg was maintained for 60 minutes. Groups of animals were euthanatized at various times after reperfusion, and their retinas were evaluated by morphology, agarose gel electrophoresis of DNA, in situ terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated biotin-deoxyuridine triphosphate nick-end labeling (TUNEL), immunohistochemistry of caspases II (ICH1) and III (CPP32), and morphometry. YVAD.CMK, a tetrapeptide inhibitor of caspases, was used to examine the involvement of caspases. RESULTS: A marked ladder pattern in retinal DNA gel analysis, typical of internucleosomal DNA fragmentation and characteristic of apoptosis, was present 12 and 18 hours after reperfusion. Labeling of nuclei in the RGCL and the inner nuclear layer (INL) by TUNEL was noted between 8 and 18 hours after reperfusion. Histologic and ultrastructural features typical of apoptosis were also observed in the inner retina after ischemia. YVAD.CMK administered during the ischemic period inhibited apoptotic fragmentation of retinal DNA and ameliorated the tissue damage. When administered intravitreally 0, 2, or 4 hours after reperfusion, YVAD.CMK was also effective in preserving the inner retina but had no significant effect when administered 6 or 8 hours after reperfusion. The inner retina showed transient elevated immunoreactivity of caspases II and III 4 and 8 hours after reperfusion. CONCLUSIONS: Retinal ischemia-reperfusion after transient elevated IOP induced apoptosis of cells in the retinal ganglion cell layer and the INL. Caspases may have a pivotal role in the early events of the apoptotic pathway(s). Rescue by using anti-apoptotic agents after ischemia-reperfusion is feasible.  (+info)

Retinopathy of prematurity-mimicking retinopathy in full-term babies. (8/1813)

The purpose of this study was to analyze the fundus findings and associated abnormalities in full-term babies with retinopathy of prematurity (ROP)-mimicking retinopathy. In twenty-seven such babies suffering from this condition, retinal findings were retrospectively analyzed. These babies were not premature and had not required supplementary oxygen; there was no family history of the disease, and no known causes. Bilaterality and severity of retinopathy were compared between groups with associated systemic abnormalities and those without. Forty eyes in twenty-seven full-term babies had abnormal retinal findings; dragged retina accounted for 42.5%, and falciform retinal fold for 47.5%, and retrolental membrane for 10%. Nine babies had associated brain abnormalities, and in these, severe bilateral retinopathy was more likely to occur than in those without abnormalities. These results suggest that if full-term babies have associated abnormalities of the brain, the presence of retinopathy should be ascertained postnatally by cautious examination of the retina.  (+info)

Retinal diseases refer to a group of conditions that affect the retina, which is the light-sensitive tissue located at the back of the eye. The retina is responsible for converting light into electrical signals that are sent to the brain and interpreted as visual images. Retinal diseases can cause vision loss or even blindness, depending on their severity and location in the retina.

Some common retinal diseases include:

1. Age-related macular degeneration (AMD): A progressive disease that affects the central part of the retina called the macula, causing blurred or distorted vision.
2. Diabetic retinopathy: A complication of diabetes that can damage the blood vessels in the retina, leading to vision loss.
3. Retinal detachment: A serious condition where the retina becomes separated from its underlying tissue, requiring immediate medical attention.
4. Macular edema: Swelling or thickening of the macula due to fluid accumulation, which can cause blurred vision.
5. Retinitis pigmentosa: A group of inherited eye disorders that affect the retina's ability to respond to light, causing progressive vision loss.
6. Macular hole: A small break in the macula that can cause distorted or blurry vision.
7. Retinal vein occlusion: Blockage of the retinal veins that can lead to bleeding, swelling, and potential vision loss.

Treatment for retinal diseases varies depending on the specific condition and its severity. Some treatments include medication, laser therapy, surgery, or a combination of these options. Regular eye exams are essential for early detection and treatment of retinal diseases.

Retinal degeneration is a broad term that refers to the progressive loss of photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) in the retina, which are responsible for converting light into electrical signals that are sent to the brain. This process can lead to vision loss or blindness. There are many different types of retinal degeneration, including age-related macular degeneration, retinitis pigmentosa, and Stargardt's disease, among others. These conditions can have varying causes, such as genetic mutations, environmental factors, or a combination of both. Treatment options vary depending on the specific type and progression of the condition.

The retina is the innermost, light-sensitive layer of tissue in the eye of many vertebrates and some cephalopods. It receives light that has been focused by the cornea and lens, converts it into neural signals, and sends these to the brain via the optic nerve. The retina contains several types of photoreceptor cells including rods (which handle vision in low light) and cones (which are active in bright light and are capable of color vision).

In medical terms, any pathological changes or diseases affecting the retinal structure and function can lead to visual impairment or blindness. Examples include age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, retinal detachment, and retinitis pigmentosa among others.

Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is a group of rare, genetic disorders that involve a breakdown and loss of cells in the retina - a light-sensitive tissue located at the back of the eye. The retina converts light into electrical signals which are then sent to the brain and interpreted as visual images.

In RP, the cells that detect light (rods and cones) degenerate more slowly than other cells in the retina, leading to a progressive loss of vision. Symptoms typically begin in childhood with night blindness (difficulty seeing in low light), followed by a gradual narrowing of the visual field (tunnel vision). Over time, this can lead to significant vision loss and even blindness.

The condition is usually inherited and there are several different genes that have been associated with RP. The diagnosis is typically made based on a combination of genetic testing, family history, and clinical examination. Currently, there is no cure for RP, but researchers are actively working to develop new treatments that may help slow or stop the progression of the disease.

Photoreceptor cells in vertebrates are specialized types of neurons located in the retina of the eye that are responsible for converting light stimuli into electrical signals. These cells are primarily responsible for the initial process of vision and have two main types: rods and cones.

Rods are more numerous and are responsible for low-light vision or scotopic vision, enabling us to see in dimly lit conditions. They do not contribute to color vision but provide information about the shape and movement of objects.

Cones, on the other hand, are less numerous and are responsible for color vision and high-acuity vision or photopic vision. There are three types of cones, each sensitive to different wavelengths of light: short (S), medium (M), and long (L) wavelengths, which correspond to blue, green, and red, respectively. The combination of signals from these three types of cones allows us to perceive a wide range of colors.

Both rods and cones contain photopigments that consist of a protein called opsin and a light-sensitive chromophore called retinal. When light hits the photopigment, it triggers a series of chemical reactions that ultimately lead to the generation of an electrical signal that is transmitted to the brain via the optic nerve. This process enables us to see and perceive our visual world.

Electroretinography (ERG) is a medical test used to evaluate the functioning of the retina, which is the light-sensitive tissue located at the back of the eye. The test measures the electrical responses of the retina to light stimulation.

During the procedure, a special contact lens or electrode is placed on the surface of the eye to record the electrical activity generated by the retina's light-sensitive cells (rods and cones) and other cells in the retina. The test typically involves presenting different levels of flashes of light to the eye while the electrical responses are recorded.

The resulting ERG waveform provides information about the overall health and function of the retina, including the condition of the photoreceptors, the integrity of the inner retinal layers, and the health of the retinal ganglion cells. This test is often used to diagnose and monitor various retinal disorders, such as retinitis pigmentosa, macular degeneration, and diabetic retinopathy.

The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is a single layer of cells located between the photoreceptor cells of the retina and the choroid, which is a part of the eye containing blood vessels. The RPE plays a crucial role in maintaining the health and function of the photoreceptors by providing them with nutrients, removing waste products, and helping to regulate the light-sensitive visual pigments within the photoreceptors.

The RPE cells contain pigment granules that absorb excess light to prevent scattering within the eye and improve visual acuity. They also help to form the blood-retina barrier, which restricts the movement of certain molecules between the retina and the choroid, providing an important protective function for the retina.

Damage to the RPE can lead to a variety of eye conditions, including age-related macular degeneration (AMD), which is a leading cause of vision loss in older adults.

Leber Congenital Amaurosis (LCA) is a group of inherited retinal degenerative disorders that affect the development and function of the retina, a light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye. It is characterized by severe visual impairment or blindness from birth or early infancy.

The condition is caused by mutations in various genes involved in the normal functioning of photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) in the retina, which are responsible for capturing light and transmitting visual signals to the brain. As a result, the photoreceptors fail to develop properly or degenerate over time, leading to vision loss.

Symptoms of LCA may include roving eye movements (nystagmus), lack of fixation, decreased or absent response to light, and abnormal pupillary reflexes. Some individuals with LCA may also have other ocular abnormalities such as keratoconus, cataracts, or glaucoma.

LCA is typically inherited in an autosomal recessive manner, meaning that an individual must inherit two copies of the mutated gene (one from each parent) to develop the condition. Currently, there is no cure for LCA, but various treatments such as gene therapy and assistive devices may help improve visual function and quality of life for affected individuals.

Eye proteins, also known as ocular proteins, are specific proteins that are found within the eye and play crucial roles in maintaining proper eye function and health. These proteins can be found in various parts of the eye, including the cornea, iris, lens, retina, and other structures. They perform a wide range of functions, such as:

1. Structural support: Proteins like collagen and elastin provide strength and flexibility to the eye's tissues, enabling them to maintain their shape and withstand mechanical stress.
2. Light absorption and transmission: Proteins like opsins and crystallins are involved in capturing and transmitting light signals within the eye, which is essential for vision.
3. Protection against damage: Some eye proteins, such as antioxidant enzymes and heat shock proteins, help protect the eye from oxidative stress, UV radiation, and other environmental factors that can cause damage.
4. Regulation of eye growth and development: Various growth factors and signaling molecules, which are protein-based, contribute to the proper growth, differentiation, and maintenance of eye tissues during embryonic development and throughout adulthood.
5. Immune defense: Proteins involved in the immune response, such as complement components and immunoglobulins, help protect the eye from infection and inflammation.
6. Maintenance of transparency: Crystallin proteins in the lens maintain its transparency, allowing light to pass through unobstructed for clear vision.
7. Neuroprotection: Certain eye proteins, like brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), support the survival and function of neurons within the retina, helping to preserve vision.

Dysfunction or damage to these eye proteins can contribute to various eye disorders and diseases, such as cataracts, age-related macular degeneration, glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, and others.

Lipofuscin is a type of pigment that accumulates in the lysosomes (membrane-bound organelles found inside cells) of various tissues, particularly in nerve cells and heart muscle cells. It consists of cross-linked proteins and lipids that are resistant to degradation by enzymes. The accumulation of lipofuscin is a normal part of aging but can also be associated with certain diseases such as neurodegenerative disorders.

It's often referred to as "age pigment" because it tends to increase in amount with age, and its presence in tissues has been linked to oxidative stress and cellular damage caused by free radicals. Lipofuscin is autofluorescent, meaning that it emits light when excited by certain wavelengths of light, which can be useful for its detection and quantification in research and diagnostic settings.

The pigment epithelium of the eye, also known as the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), is a layer of cells located between the photoreceptor cells of the retina and the choroid, which is the vascular layer of the eye. The RPE plays a crucial role in maintaining the health and function of the photoreceptors by providing them with nutrients, removing waste products, and helping to regulate the light that enters the eye.

The RPE cells contain pigment granules that absorb excess light, preventing it from scattering within the eye and improving visual acuity. They also help to create a barrier between the retina and the choroid, which is important for maintaining the proper functioning of the photoreceptors. Additionally, the RPE plays a role in the regeneration of visual pigments in the photoreceptor cells, allowing us to see in different light conditions.

Damage to the RPE can lead to various eye diseases and conditions, including age-related macular degeneration (AMD), which is a leading cause of vision loss in older adults.

Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs) are a family of enzymes that play a crucial role in regulating intracellular levels of cyclic nucleotides, which are important second messengers in various cellular signaling pathways. Among the different types of PDEs, type 6 (PDE6) is specifically expressed in the photoreceptor cells of the retina and is involved in the visual signal transduction cascade.

PDE6 is composed of two catalytic subunits, PDE6α and PDE6β, which are arranged in a heterodimeric complex. These subunits have distinct roles in the enzyme's activity: PDE6α contains the catalytic site that hydrolyzes cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) to GMP, while PDE6β regulates the activity of PDE6α through its inhibitory γ subunit.

In the visual signal transduction pathway, light stimulation leads to the activation of rhodopsin, which triggers a cascade of events that ultimately results in the hydrolysis of cGMP by PDE6. This reduction in cGMP levels causes the closure of cyclic nucleotide-gated channels in the plasma membrane, leading to hyperpolarization of the photoreceptor cells and the transmission of visual signals to the brain.

Defects in PDE6 have been implicated in various retinal disorders, including congenital stationary night blindness, retinitis pigmentosa, and age-related macular degeneration. Therefore, understanding the structure and function of PDE6 is essential for developing novel therapeutic strategies to treat these vision-threatening diseases.

Night blindness, also known as nyctalopia, is a visual impairment characterized by the inability to see well in low light or darkness. It's not an eye condition itself but rather a symptom of various underlying eye disorders, most commonly vitamin A deficiency and retinal diseases like retinitis pigmentosa.

In a healthy eye, a molecule called rhodopsin is present in the rods (special light-sensitive cells in our eyes responsible for vision in low light conditions). This rhodopsin requires sufficient amounts of vitamin A to function properly. When there's a deficiency of vitamin A or damage to the rods, the ability to see in dim light gets affected, leading to night blindness.

People with night blindness often have difficulty adjusting to changes in light levels, such as when entering a dark room from bright sunlight. They may also experience trouble seeing stars at night, driving at dusk or dawn, and navigating in poorly lit areas. If you suspect night blindness, it's essential to consult an eye care professional for proper diagnosis and treatment of the underlying cause.

Peripherins are a family of neuron-specific type III intermediate filament proteins that are expressed in the peripheral nervous system. They play crucial roles in maintaining the structural integrity and stability of nerve cells, particularly during development and regeneration. Peripherins have also been implicated in various neurodegenerative disorders, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT). There are several isoforms of peripherins, with peripherin 2 being the most widely studied. Mutations in the gene encoding peripherin 2 have been linked to certain forms of CMT.

Retinal rod photoreceptor cells are specialized neurons in the retina of the eye that are primarily responsible for vision in low light conditions. They contain a light-sensitive pigment called rhodopsin, which undergoes a chemical change when struck by a single photon of light. This triggers a cascade of biochemical reactions that ultimately leads to the generation of electrical signals, which are then transmitted to the brain via the optic nerve.

Rod cells do not provide color vision or fine detail, but they allow us to detect motion and see in dim light. They are more sensitive to light than cone cells, which are responsible for color vision and detailed sight in bright light conditions. Rod cells are concentrated at the outer edges of the retina, forming a crescent-shaped region called the peripheral retina, with fewer rod cells located in the central region of the retina known as the fovea.

"Fundus Oculi" is a medical term that refers to the back part of the interior of the eye, including the optic disc, macula, fovea, retinal vasculature, and peripheral retina. It is the area where light is focused and then transmitted to the brain via the optic nerve, forming visual images. Examinations of the fundus oculi are crucial for detecting various eye conditions such as diabetic retinopathy, macular degeneration, glaucoma, and other retinal diseases. The examination is typically performed using an ophthalmoscope or a specialized camera called a retinal camera.

Hereditary eye diseases refer to conditions that affect the eyes and are passed down from parents to their offspring through genetics. These diseases are caused by mutations or changes in an individual's DNA that are inherited from their parents. The mutations can occur in any of the genes associated with eye development, function, or health.

There are many different types of hereditary eye diseases, some of which include:

1. Retinitis Pigmentosa - a group of rare, genetic disorders that involve a breakdown and loss of cells in the retina.
2. Macular Degeneration - a progressive disease that damages the central portion of the retina, impairing vision.
3. Glaucoma - a group of eye conditions that damage the optic nerve, often caused by an increase in pressure inside the eye.
4. Cataracts - clouding of the lens inside the eye, which can lead to blurry vision and blindness.
5. Keratoconus - a progressive eye disease that causes the cornea to thin and bulge outward into a cone shape.
6. Color Blindness - a condition where an individual has difficulty distinguishing between certain colors.
7. Optic Neuropathy - damage to the optic nerve, which can result in vision loss.

The symptoms and severity of hereditary eye diseases can vary widely depending on the specific condition and the individual's genetic makeup. Some conditions may be present at birth or develop in early childhood, while others may not appear until later in life. Treatment options for these conditions may include medication, surgery, or lifestyle changes, and are often most effective when started early.

Retinal vessels refer to the blood vessels that are located in the retina, which is the light-sensitive tissue that lines the inner surface of the eye. The retina contains two types of blood vessels: arteries and veins.

The central retinal artery supplies oxygenated blood to the inner layers of the retina, while the central retinal vein drains deoxygenated blood from the retina. These vessels can be visualized during a routine eye examination using an ophthalmoscope, which allows healthcare professionals to assess their health and any potential abnormalities.

Retinal vessels are essential for maintaining the health and function of the retina, and any damage or changes to these vessels can affect vision and lead to various eye conditions such as diabetic retinopathy, retinal vein occlusion, and hypertensive retinopathy.

Cis-trans isomeres are molecules that have the same molecular formula and skeletal structure, but differ in the arrangement of their atoms around a double bond. In a cis isomer, the two larger groups or atoms are on the same side of the double bond, while in a trans isomer, they are on opposite sides.

Cis-trans isomerases are enzymes that catalyze the interconversion between cis and trans isomers of various molecules, such as fatty acids, steroids, and retinals. These enzymes play important roles in various biological processes, including membrane fluidity, vision, and the biosynthesis of hormones and other signaling molecules.

Examples of cis-trans isomerases include:

* Fatty acid desaturases, which introduce double bonds into fatty acids and can convert trans isomers to cis isomers
* Retinal isomerases, which interconvert the cis and trans isomers of retinal, a molecule involved in vision
* Steroid isomerases, which catalyze the interconversion of various steroids, including cholesterol and its derivatives.

An ophthalmoscope is a medical device used by healthcare professionals to examine the interior structures of the eye, including the retina, optic disc, and vitreous humor. It consists of a handle with a battery-powered light source and a head that contains lenses for focusing. When placed in contact with the patient's dilated pupil, the ophthalmoscope allows the examiner to visualize the internal structures of the eye and assess their health. Ophthalmoscopes are commonly used in routine eye examinations, as well as in the diagnosis and management of various eye conditions and diseases.

Retinal cone photoreceptor cells are specialized neurons located in the retina of the eye, responsible for visual phototransduction and color vision. They are one of the two types of photoreceptors, with the other being rods, which are more sensitive to low light levels. Cones are primarily responsible for high-acuity, color vision during daylight or bright-light conditions.

There are three types of cone cells, each containing different photopigments that absorb light at distinct wavelengths: short (S), medium (M), and long (L) wavelengths, which correspond to blue, green, and red light, respectively. The combination of signals from these three types of cones allows the human visual system to perceive a wide range of colors and discriminate between them. Cones are densely packed in the central region of the retina, known as the fovea, which provides the highest visual acuity.

Retinal dystrophies are a group of genetic eye disorders that primarily affect the retina, a light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye. These conditions are characterized by progressive degeneration and death of photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) in the retina, leading to vision loss.

The term "dystrophy" refers to a condition that results from the abnormal or defective development and function of tissues or organs. In the case of retinal dystrophies, the photoreceptor cells do not develop or function properly, resulting in visual impairment.

Retinal dystrophies can present at any age, from infancy to adulthood, and can have varying degrees of severity. Some common symptoms include night blindness, decreased visual acuity, loss of peripheral vision, light sensitivity, and color vision abnormalities.

Examples of retinal dystrophies include retinitis pigmentosa, Stargardt disease, Usher syndrome, and Leber congenital amaurosis, among others. These conditions are typically inherited and can be caused by mutations in various genes that play a role in the development and function of the retina.

There is currently no cure for retinal dystrophies, but research is ongoing to develop treatments that may slow or halt the progression of these conditions, such as gene therapy and stem cell transplantation.

Macular degeneration, also known as age-related macular degeneration (AMD), is a medical condition that affects the central part of the retina, called the macula. The macula is responsible for sharp, detailed vision, which is necessary for activities such as reading, driving, and recognizing faces.

In AMD, there is a breakdown or deterioration of the macula, leading to gradual loss of central vision. There are two main types of AMD: dry (atrophic) and wet (exudative). Dry AMD is more common and progresses more slowly, while wet AMD is less common but can cause rapid and severe vision loss if left untreated.

The exact causes of AMD are not fully understood, but risk factors include age, smoking, family history, high blood pressure, obesity, and exposure to sunlight. While there is no cure for AMD, treatments such as vitamin supplements, laser therapy, and medication injections can help slow its progression and reduce the risk of vision loss.

Usher Syndromes are a group of genetic disorders that are characterized by hearing loss and visual impairment due to retinitis pigmentosa. They are the most common cause of deafblindness in developed countries. There are three types of Usher Syndromes (Type 1, Type 2, and Type 3) which differ in the age of onset, severity, and progression of hearing loss and vision loss.

Type 1 Usher Syndrome is the most severe form, with profound deafness present at birth or within the first year of life, and retinitis pigmentosa leading to significant vision loss by the teenage years. Type 2 Usher Syndrome is characterized by moderate to severe hearing loss beginning in childhood and vision loss due to retinitis pigmentosa starting in adolescence or early adulthood. Type 3 Usher Syndrome has progressive hearing loss that begins in adolescence and vision loss due to retinitis pigmentosa starting in the third decade of life.

The diagnosis of Usher Syndromes is based on a combination of clinical examination, audiological evaluation, and genetic testing. There is currently no cure for Usher Syndromes, but various assistive devices and therapies can help manage the symptoms and improve quality of life.

Ocular vision refers to the ability to process and interpret visual information that is received by the eyes. This includes the ability to see clearly and make sense of the shapes, colors, and movements of objects in the environment. The ocular system, which includes the eye and related structures such as the optic nerve and visual cortex of the brain, works together to enable vision.

There are several components of ocular vision, including:

* Visual acuity: the clarity or sharpness of vision
* Field of vision: the extent of the visual world that is visible at any given moment
* Color vision: the ability to distinguish different colors
* Depth perception: the ability to judge the distance of objects in three-dimensional space
* Contrast sensitivity: the ability to distinguish an object from its background based on differences in contrast

Disorders of ocular vision can include refractive errors such as nearsightedness or farsightedness, as well as more serious conditions such as cataracts, glaucoma, and macular degeneration. These conditions can affect one or more aspects of ocular vision and may require medical treatment to prevent further vision loss.

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a non-invasive imaging technique that uses low-coherence light to capture high-resolution cross-sectional images of biological tissues, particularly the retina and other ocular structures. OCT works by measuring the echo time delay of light scattered back from different depths within the tissue, creating a detailed map of the tissue's structure. This technique is widely used in ophthalmology to diagnose and monitor various eye conditions such as macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, and glaucoma.

Ophthalmoscopy is a medical examination technique used by healthcare professionals to observe the interior structures of the eye, including the retina, optic disc, and vitreous humor. This procedure typically involves using an ophthalmoscope, a handheld device that consists of a light and magnifying lenses. The healthcare provider looks through the ophthalmoscope and directly observes the internal structures of the eye by illuminating them.

There are several types of ophthalmoscopy, including direct ophthalmoscopy, indirect ophthalmoscopy, and slit-lamp biomicroscopy. Each type has its own advantages and disadvantages, and they may be used in different situations depending on the specific clinical situation and the information needed.

Ophthalmoscopy is an important diagnostic tool for detecting and monitoring a wide range of eye conditions, including diabetic retinopathy, glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration, and other retinal disorders. It can also provide valuable information about the overall health of the individual, as changes in the appearance of the retina or optic nerve may indicate the presence of systemic diseases such as hypertension or diabetes.

Retinal neovascularization is a medical condition characterized by the growth of new, abnormal blood vessels on the surface of the retina, which is the light-sensitive tissue located at the back of the eye. This condition typically occurs in response to an insufficient supply of oxygen and nutrients to the retina, often due to damage or disease, such as diabetic retinopathy or retinal vein occlusion.

The new blood vessels that form during neovascularization are fragile and prone to leakage, which can cause fluid and protein to accumulate in the retina, leading to distorted vision, hemorrhages, and potentially blindness if left untreated. Retinal neovascularization is a serious eye condition that requires prompt medical attention and management to prevent further vision loss.

Proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR) is a sight-threatening complication that can occur after open-globe eye injuries or retinal reattachment surgery. It is characterized by the abnormal growth and contraction of fibrous tissue on the surface of the retina and/or inside the vitreous cavity, which can cause distortion or detachment of the retina. This process can lead to visual impairment or even blindness if left untreated.

The term "proliferative" refers to the abnormal growth of cells (specifically, fibrous and inflammatory cells) on the retinal surface and within the vitreous cavity. These cells form membranes that can contract and cause traction on the retina, leading to distortion or detachment.

PVR is classified into three stages (A, B, and C) based on the extent of fibrous tissue formation and retinal changes. Stage A is characterized by the presence of cellular proliferation without any visible membranes or retinal changes. In stage B, fibrous membranes are present, but there is no retinal detachment. Finally, stage C involves the development of tractional retinal detachment due to the contraction of fibrous membranes.

Treatment for PVR typically involves additional surgical intervention to remove or release the fibrous tissue and reattach the retina. The prognosis for visual recovery depends on the severity and extent of the PVR, as well as the timing and success of treatment.

Rhodopsin, also known as visual purple, is a light-sensitive pigment found in the rods of the vertebrate retina. It is a complex protein molecule made up of two major components: an opsin protein and retinal, a form of vitamin A. When light hits the retinal in rhodopsin, it changes shape, which initiates a series of chemical reactions leading to the activation of the visual pathway and ultimately results in vision. This process is known as phototransduction. Rhodopsin plays a crucial role in low-light vision or scotopic vision.

Ependymoglial cells are a type of neuroglial cell that lines the ventricular system of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord. They are called ependymal cells and have hair-like projections called cilia that help to circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) through the ventricles.

Ependymoglial cells also include a subpopulation known as tanycytes, which are specialized ependymal cells found in specific areas of the brain such as the third ventricle and the hypothalamus. Tanycytes have long processes that extend into the CSF and the adjacent brain tissue, allowing them to act as sensors for various chemical signals present in the CSF.

In addition to their role in maintaining CSF flow, ependymoglial cells also provide structural support to the central nervous system (CNS) and contribute to the formation of the blood-brain barrier. They have been shown to play important roles in CNS development, injury response, and disease processes such as tumor formation and neurodegeneration.

Blindness is a condition of complete or near-complete vision loss. It can be caused by various factors such as eye diseases, injuries, or birth defects. Total blindness means that a person cannot see anything at all, while near-complete blindness refers to having only light perception or the ability to perceive the direction of light, but not able to discern shapes or forms. Legal blindness is a term used to define a certain level of visual impairment that qualifies an individual for government assistance and benefits; it usually means best corrected visual acuity of 20/200 or worse in the better eye, or a visual field no greater than 20 degrees in diameter.

Photoreceptor cells are specialized neurons in the retina of the eye that convert light into electrical signals. These cells consist of two types: rods and cones. Rods are responsible for vision at low light levels and provide black-and-white, peripheral, and motion sensitivity. Cones are active at higher light levels and are capable of color discrimination and fine detail vision. Both types of photoreceptor cells contain light-sensitive pigments that undergo chemical changes when exposed to light, triggering a series of electrical signals that ultimately reach the brain and contribute to visual perception.

Fluorescein angiography is a medical diagnostic procedure used in ophthalmology to examine the blood flow in the retina and choroid, which are the inner layers of the eye. This test involves injecting a fluorescent dye, Fluorescein, into a patient's arm vein. As the dye reaches the blood vessels in the eye, a specialized camera takes rapid sequences of photographs to capture the dye's circulation through the retina and choroid.

The images produced by fluorescein angiography can help doctors identify any damage to the blood vessels, leakage, or abnormal growth of new blood vessels. This information is crucial in diagnosing and managing various eye conditions such as age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, retinal vein occlusions, and inflammatory eye diseases.

It's important to note that while fluorescein angiography is a valuable diagnostic tool, it does carry some risks, including temporary side effects like nausea, vomiting, or allergic reactions to the dye. In rare cases, severe adverse reactions can occur, so patients should discuss these potential risks with their healthcare provider before undergoing the procedure.

Dark adaptation is the process by which the eyes adjust to low levels of light. This process allows the eyes to become more sensitive to light and see better in the dark. It involves the dilation of the pupils, as well as chemical changes in the rods and cones (photoreceptor cells) of the retina. These changes allow the eye to detect even small amounts of light and improve visual acuity in low-light conditions. Dark adaptation typically takes several minutes to occur fully, but can be faster or slower depending on various factors such as age, prior exposure to light, and certain medical conditions. It is an important process for maintaining good vision in a variety of lighting conditions.

Diabetic retinopathy is a diabetes complication that affects the eyes. It's caused by damage to the blood vessels of the light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye (retina).

At first, diabetic retinopathy may cause no symptoms or only mild vision problems. Eventually, it can cause blindness. The condition usually affects both eyes.

There are two main stages of diabetic retinopathy:

1. Early diabetic retinopathy. This is when the blood vessels in the eye start to leak fluid or bleed. You might not notice any changes in your vision at this stage, but it's still important to get treatment because it can prevent the condition from getting worse.
2. Advanced diabetic retinopathy. This is when new, abnormal blood vessels grow on the surface of the retina. These vessels can leak fluid and cause severe vision problems, including blindness.

Diabetic retinopathy can be treated with laser surgery, injections of medication into the eye, or a vitrectomy (a surgical procedure to remove the gel-like substance that fills the center of the eye). It's important to get regular eye exams to detect diabetic retinopathy early and get treatment before it causes serious vision problems.

An epiretinal membrane, also known as a macular pucker or cellophane maculopathy, is a thin and transparent layer of tissue that forms over the macula (the central part of the retina responsible for sharp, detailed vision) in the eye. This membrane can contract and wrinkle the macula, distorting central vision.

Epiretinal membranes are typically caused by the migration and proliferation of glial cells or other cell types onto the surface of the retina following retinal injury, inflammation, or aging. In some cases, they may be associated with other eye conditions such as diabetic retinopathy, retinal vein occlusion, or age-related macular degeneration.

Mild epiretinal membranes may not require treatment, but if the distortion of vision is significant, a vitrectomy surgery may be recommended to remove the membrane and improve visual acuity.

Retinitis is a medical term that refers to the inflammation of the retina, which is the light-sensitive tissue located at the back of the eye. The retina is responsible for converting light into electrical signals that are then sent to the brain and interpreted as visual images. Retinitis can be caused by various factors, including infections, autoimmune diseases, or genetic conditions.

The inflammation associated with retinitis can affect any part of the retina, but it typically involves the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and the photoreceptor cells (rods and cones). Depending on the severity and location of the inflammation, retinitis can cause a range of visual symptoms, such as blurry vision, floaters, loss of peripheral vision, or night blindness.

Retinitis is often distinguished from another condition called retinopathy, which refers to damage to the retina caused by diabetes or other systemic diseases. While both conditions can affect the retina and cause visual symptoms, retinitis is characterized by inflammation, while retinopathy is characterized by damage due to circulatory problems.

It's important to note that retinitis is a serious condition that requires prompt medical attention. If left untreated, it can lead to permanent vision loss or blindness. Treatment options for retinitis depend on the underlying cause and may include antibiotics, corticosteroids, or other immunosuppressive medications.

Visual acuity is a measure of the sharpness or clarity of vision. It is usually tested by reading an eye chart from a specific distance, such as 20 feet (6 meters). The standard eye chart used for this purpose is called the Snellen chart, which contains rows of letters that decrease in size as you read down the chart.

Visual acuity is typically expressed as a fraction, with the numerator representing the testing distance and the denominator indicating the smallest line of type that can be read clearly. For example, if a person can read the line on the eye chart that corresponds to a visual acuity of 20/20, it means they have normal vision at 20 feet. If their visual acuity is 20/40, it means they must be as close as 20 feet to see what someone with normal vision can see at 40 feet.

It's important to note that visual acuity is just one aspect of overall vision and does not necessarily reflect other important factors such as peripheral vision, depth perception, color vision, or contrast sensitivity.

Retinal neurons are the specialized nerve cells located in the retina, which is the light-sensitive tissue that lines the inner surface of the eye. The retina converts incoming light into electrical signals, which are then transmitted to the brain and interpreted as visual images. There are several types of retinal neurons, including:

1. Photoreceptors (rods and cones): These are the primary sensory cells that convert light into electrical signals. Rods are responsible for low-light vision, while cones are responsible for color vision and fine detail.
2. Bipolar cells: These neurons receive input from photoreceptors and transmit signals to ganglion cells. They can be either ON or OFF bipolar cells, depending on whether they respond to an increase or decrease in light intensity.
3. Ganglion cells: These are the output neurons of the retina that send visual information to the brain via the optic nerve. There are several types of ganglion cells, including parasol, midget, and small bistratified cells, which have different functions in processing visual information.
4. Horizontal cells: These interneurons connect photoreceptors to each other and help regulate the sensitivity of the retina to light.
5. Amacrine cells: These interneurons connect bipolar cells to ganglion cells and play a role in modulating the signals that are transmitted to the brain.

Overall, retinal neurons work together to process visual information and transmit it to the brain for further analysis and interpretation.

Viral eye infections are caused by viruses that invade different parts of the eye, leading to inflammation and irritation. Some common types of viral eye infections include conjunctivitis (pink eye), keratitis, and dendritic ulcers. These infections can cause symptoms such as redness, watering, soreness, sensitivity to light, and discharge. In some cases, viral eye infections can also lead to complications like corneal scarring and vision loss if left untreated. They are often highly contagious and can spread through contact with contaminated surfaces or respiratory droplets. Antiviral medications may be used to treat certain types of viral eye infections, but in many cases, the infection will resolve on its own over time. Preventive measures such as good hygiene and avoiding touching the eyes can help reduce the risk of viral eye infections.

Retinal telangiectasia is a medical condition characterized by the dilation and tortuosity (abnormal twisting or turning) of small retinal blood vessels, specifically the capillaries in the back part of the eye called the retina. This condition can be idiopathic (without a known cause), or it can be associated with various systemic diseases or genetic syndromes.

Retinal telangiectasia is often accompanied by other retinal abnormalities, such as microaneurysms, exudates, and hemorrhages. In some cases, it may lead to vision loss due to macular edema (fluid accumulation in the central part of the retina) or retinal detachment.

There are two main types of retinal telangiectasia:

1. Eales' disease: This is a rare idiopathic condition that primarily affects young adults, particularly males from Asian and Middle Eastern countries. It typically presents with retinal telangiectasia in the peripheral retina, along with inflammation, vitreous hemorrhage, and neovascularization (the growth of new blood vessels).
2. Coats' disease: This is a congenital or infantile disorder that affects the retinal vasculature. It primarily affects males and is characterized by unilateral retinal telangiectasia, exudates, and sometimes retinal detachment. Coats' disease can lead to severe vision loss if not treated promptly.

It is essential to monitor and manage retinal telangiectasia to prevent or treat associated complications and preserve vision. Treatment options may include laser photocoagulation, cryotherapy, intravitreal injections of anti-VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) drugs, or vitrectomy surgery, depending on the severity and progression of the condition.

The vitreous body, also known simply as the vitreous, is the clear, gel-like substance that fills the space between the lens and the retina in the eye. It is composed mainly of water, but also contains collagen fibers, hyaluronic acid, and other proteins. The vitreous helps to maintain the shape of the eye and provides a transparent medium for light to pass through to reach the retina. With age, the vitreous can become more liquefied and may eventually separate from the retina, leading to symptoms such as floaters or flashes of light.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

A visual prosthesis, also known as a retinal implant or bionic eye, is a medical device that aims to restore some functional vision in individuals who have severe visual impairment or blindness due to certain eye conditions such as retinitis pigmentosa or age-related macular degeneration.

The prosthesis works by electrically stimulating the remaining viable nerve cells in the retina, which then transmit the signals to the brain via the optic nerve. The device typically consists of a camera that captures visual information, a processor that converts the images into electrical signals, and an electrode array that is implanted onto the surface of the retina.

The electrical stimulation of the retinal cells creates patterns of light in the individual's visual field, allowing them to perceive shapes, edges, and movements. While the level of visual acuity achieved with current visual prostheses is still limited, they can significantly improve the quality of life for some individuals by enabling them to perform tasks such as recognizing objects, navigating their environment, and identifying facial expressions.

The fovea centralis, also known as the macula lutea, is a small pit or depression located in the center of the retina, an light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye. It is responsible for sharp, detailed vision (central vision) and color perception. The fovea contains only cones, the photoreceptor cells that are responsible for color vision and high visual acuity. It has a higher concentration of cones than any other area in the retina, allowing it to provide the greatest detail and color discrimination. The center of the fovea is called the foveola, which contains the highest density of cones and is avascular, meaning it lacks blood vessels to avoid interfering with the light passing through to the photoreceptor cells.

Retinoids are a class of chemical compounds that are derivatives of vitamin A. They are widely used in dermatology for the treatment of various skin conditions, including acne, psoriasis, and photoaging. Retinoids can help to reduce inflammation, improve skin texture and tone, and stimulate collagen production.

Retinoids work by binding to specific receptors in the skin cells, which triggers a series of biochemical reactions that regulate gene expression and promote cell differentiation and turnover. This can help to unclog pores, reduce the appearance of fine lines and wrinkles, and improve the overall health and appearance of the skin.

There are several different types of retinoids used in skincare products, including retinoic acid, retinaldehyde, and retinol. Retinoic acid is the most potent form of retinoid and is available by prescription only. Retinaldehyde and retinol are weaker forms of retinoid that can be found in over-the-counter skincare products.

While retinoids can be highly effective for treating various skin conditions, they can also cause side effects such as dryness, irritation, and sensitivity to the sun. It is important to use retinoids as directed by a healthcare professional and to follow proper sun protection measures when using these products.

Color vision defects, also known as color blindness, are conditions in which a person has difficulty distinguishing between certain colors. The most common types of color vision defects involve the inability to distinguish between red and green or blue and yellow. These deficiencies result from an alteration or absence of one or more of the three types of cone cells in the retina that are responsible for normal color vision.

In red-green color vision defects, there is a problem with either the red or green cones, or both. This results in difficulty distinguishing between these two colors and their shades. Protanopia is a type of red-green color vision defect where there is an absence of red cone cells, making it difficult to distinguish between red and green as well as between red and black or green and black. Deuteranopia is another type of red-green color vision defect where there is an absence of green cone cells, resulting in similar difficulties distinguishing between red and green, as well as between blue and yellow.

Blue-yellow color vision defects are less common than red-green color vision defects. Tritanopia is a type of blue-yellow color vision defect where there is an absence of blue cone cells, making it difficult to distinguish between blue and yellow, as well as between blue and purple or yellow and pink.

Color vision defects are usually inherited and present from birth, but they can also result from eye diseases, chemical exposure, aging, or medication side effects. They affect both men and women, although red-green color vision defects are more common in men than in women. People with color vision defects may have difficulty with tasks that require color discrimination, such as matching clothes, selecting ripe fruit, reading colored maps, or identifying warning signals. However, most people with mild to moderate color vision defects can adapt and function well in daily life.

Rhodopsin, also known as visual purple, is a light-sensitive protein found in the rods of the eye's retina. It is a type of opsin, a class of proteins that are activated by light and play a crucial role in vision. Rhodopsin is composed of two parts: an apoprotein called opsin and a chromophore called 11-cis-retinal. When light hits the retina, it changes the shape of the 11-cis-retinal, which in turn activates the rhodopsin protein. This activation triggers a series of chemical reactions that ultimately lead to the transmission of a visual signal to the brain. Rhodopsin is highly sensitive to light and allows for vision in low-light conditions.

Retinal Ganglion Cells (RGCs) are a type of neuron located in the innermost layer of the retina, the light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye. These cells receive visual information from photoreceptors (rods and cones) via intermediate cells called bipolar cells. RGCs then send this visual information through their long axons to form the optic nerve, which transmits the signals to the brain for processing and interpretation as vision.

There are several types of RGCs, each with distinct morphological and functional characteristics. Some RGCs are specialized in detecting specific features of the visual scene, such as motion, contrast, color, or brightness. The diversity of RGCs allows for a rich and complex representation of the visual world in the brain.

Damage to RGCs can lead to various visual impairments, including loss of vision, reduced visual acuity, and altered visual fields. Conditions associated with RGC damage or degeneration include glaucoma, optic neuritis, ischemic optic neuropathy, and some inherited retinal diseases.

A visual field test is a method used to measure an individual's entire scope of vision, which includes what can be seen straight ahead and in peripheral (or side) vision. During the test, the person being tested is asked to focus on a central point while gradually identifying the appearance of objects moving into their peripheral vision. The visual field test helps detect blind spots (scotomas) or gaps in the visual field, which can be caused by various conditions such as glaucoma, brain injury, optic nerve damage, or retinal disorders. It's an essential tool for diagnosing and monitoring eye-related diseases and conditions.

There is no medical definition for "dog diseases" as it is too broad a term. However, dogs can suffer from various health conditions and illnesses that are specific to their species or similar to those found in humans. Some common categories of dog diseases include:

1. Infectious Diseases: These are caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites. Examples include distemper, parvovirus, kennel cough, Lyme disease, and heartworms.
2. Hereditary/Genetic Disorders: Some dogs may inherit certain genetic disorders from their parents. Examples include hip dysplasia, elbow dysplasia, progressive retinal atrophy (PRA), and degenerative myelopathy.
3. Age-Related Diseases: As dogs age, they become more susceptible to various health issues. Common age-related diseases in dogs include arthritis, dental disease, cancer, and cognitive dysfunction syndrome (CDS).
4. Nutritional Disorders: Malnutrition or improper feeding can lead to various health problems in dogs. Examples include obesity, malnutrition, and vitamin deficiencies.
5. Environmental Diseases: These are caused by exposure to environmental factors such as toxins, allergens, or extreme temperatures. Examples include heatstroke, frostbite, and toxicities from ingesting harmful substances.
6. Neurological Disorders: Dogs can suffer from various neurological conditions that affect their nervous system. Examples include epilepsy, intervertebral disc disease (IVDD), and vestibular disease.
7. Behavioral Disorders: Some dogs may develop behavioral issues due to various factors such as anxiety, fear, or aggression. Examples include separation anxiety, noise phobias, and resource guarding.

It's important to note that regular veterinary care, proper nutrition, exercise, and preventative measures can help reduce the risk of many dog diseases.

The Fluorescent Antibody Technique (FAT), Indirect is a type of immunofluorescence assay used to detect the presence of specific antigens in a sample. In this method, the sample is first incubated with a primary antibody that binds to the target antigen. After washing to remove unbound primary antibodies, a secondary fluorescently labeled antibody is added, which recognizes and binds to the primary antibody. This indirect labeling approach allows for amplification of the signal, making it more sensitive than direct methods. The sample is then examined under a fluorescence microscope to visualize the location and amount of antigen based on the emitted light from the fluorescent secondary antibody. It's commonly used in diagnostic laboratories for detection of various bacteria, viruses, and other antigens in clinical specimens.

Intermediate filament proteins (IFPs) are a type of cytoskeletal protein that form the intermediate filaments (IFs), which are one of the three major components of the cytoskeleton in eukaryotic cells, along with microtubules and microfilaments. These proteins have a unique structure, characterized by an alpha-helical rod domain flanked by non-helical head and tail domains.

Intermediate filament proteins are classified into six major types based on their amino acid sequence: Type I (acidic) and Type II (basic) keratins, Type III (desmin, vimentin, glial fibrillary acidic protein, and peripherin), Type IV (neurofilaments), Type V (lamins), and Type VI (nestin). Each type of IFP has a distinct pattern of expression in different tissues and cell types.

Intermediate filament proteins play important roles in maintaining the structural integrity and mechanical strength of cells, providing resilience to mechanical stress, and regulating various cellular processes such as cell division, migration, and signal transduction. Mutations in IFP genes have been associated with several human diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and genetic skin fragility disorders.

The choroid is a layer of the eye that contains blood vessels that supply oxygen and nutrients to the outer layers of the retina. It lies between the sclera (the white, protective coat of the eye) and the retina (the light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye). The choroid is essential for maintaining the health and function of the retina, particularly the photoreceptor cells that detect light and transmit visual signals to the brain. Damage to the choroid can lead to vision loss or impairment.

An intravitreal injection is a medical procedure in which medication is delivered directly into the vitreous cavity of the eye, which is the clear, gel-like substance that fills the space between the lens and the retina. This type of injection is typically used to treat various eye conditions such as age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, retinal vein occlusion, and uveitis. The medication administered in intravitreal injections can help to reduce inflammation, inhibit the growth of new blood vessels, or prevent the formation of abnormal blood vessels in the eye.

Intravitreal injections are usually performed in an outpatient setting, and the procedure typically takes only a few minutes. Before the injection, the eye is numbed with anesthetic drops to minimize discomfort. The medication is then injected into the vitreous cavity using a small needle. After the injection, patients may experience some mild discomfort or a scratchy sensation in the eye, but this usually resolves within a few hours.

While intravitreal injections are generally safe, there are some potential risks and complications associated with the procedure, including infection, bleeding, retinal detachment, and increased intraocular pressure. Patients who undergo intravitreal injections should be closely monitored by their eye care provider to ensure that any complications are promptly identified and treated.

Intraocular injections are a type of medical procedure where medication is administered directly into the eye. This technique is often used to deliver drugs that treat various eye conditions, such as age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, and endophthalmitis. The most common type of intraocular injection is an intravitreal injection, which involves injecting medication into the vitreous cavity, the space inside the eye filled with a clear gel-like substance called the vitreous humor. This procedure is typically performed by an ophthalmologist in a clinical setting and may be repeated at regular intervals depending on the condition being treated.

I must clarify that the term "pedigree" is not typically used in medical definitions. Instead, it is often employed in genetics and breeding, where it refers to the recorded ancestry of an individual or a family, tracing the inheritance of specific traits or diseases. In human genetics, a pedigree can help illustrate the pattern of genetic inheritance in families over multiple generations. However, it is not a medical term with a specific clinical definition.

Vision disorders refer to a wide range of conditions that affect the visual system and result in various symptoms, such as blurry vision, double vision, distorted vision, impaired depth perception, and difficulty with visual tracking or focusing. These disorders can be categorized into several types, including:

1. Refractive errors: These occur when the shape of the eye prevents light from focusing directly on the retina, resulting in blurry vision. Examples include myopia (nearsightedness), hyperopia (farsightedness), astigmatism, and presbyopia (age-related loss of near vision).
2. Strabismus: Also known as crossed eyes or walleye, strabismus is a misalignment of the eyes where they point in different directions, which can lead to double vision or loss of depth perception.
3. Amblyopia: Often called lazy eye, amblyopia is a condition where one eye has reduced vision due to lack of proper visual development during childhood. It may be caused by strabismus, refractive errors, or other factors that interfere with normal visual development.
4. Accommodative disorders: These involve problems with the focusing ability of the eyes, such as convergence insufficiency (difficulty focusing on close objects) and accommodative dysfunction (inability to maintain clear vision at different distances).
5. Binocular vision disorders: These affect how the eyes work together as a team, leading to issues like poor depth perception, eye strain, and headaches. Examples include convergence insufficiency, divergence excess, and suppression.
6. Ocular motility disorders: These involve problems with eye movement, such as nystagmus (involuntary eye movements), strabismus, or restricted extraocular muscle function.
7. Visual processing disorders: These affect the brain's ability to interpret and make sense of visual information, even when the eyes themselves are healthy. Symptoms may include difficulty with reading, recognizing shapes and objects, and understanding spatial relationships.
8. Low vision: This term refers to significant visual impairment that cannot be fully corrected with glasses, contact lenses, medication, or surgery. It includes conditions like macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, glaucoma, and cataracts.
9. Blindness: Complete loss of sight in both eyes, which can be caused by various factors such as injury, disease, or genetic conditions.

Recessive genes refer to the alleles (versions of a gene) that will only be expressed when an individual has two copies of that particular allele, one inherited from each parent. If an individual inherits one recessive allele and one dominant allele for a particular gene, the dominant allele will be expressed and the recessive allele will have no effect on the individual's phenotype (observable traits).

Recessive genes can still play a role in determining an individual's genetic makeup and can be passed down through generations even if they are not expressed. If two carriers of a recessive gene have children, there is a 25% chance that their offspring will inherit two copies of the recessive allele and exhibit the associated recessive trait.

Examples of genetic disorders caused by recessive genes include cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and albinism.

DNA Mutational Analysis is a laboratory test used to identify genetic variations or changes (mutations) in the DNA sequence of a gene. This type of analysis can be used to diagnose genetic disorders, predict the risk of developing certain diseases, determine the most effective treatment for cancer, or assess the likelihood of passing on an inherited condition to offspring.

The test involves extracting DNA from a patient's sample (such as blood, saliva, or tissue), amplifying specific regions of interest using polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and then sequencing those regions to determine the precise order of nucleotide bases in the DNA molecule. The resulting sequence is then compared to reference sequences to identify any variations or mutations that may be present.

DNA Mutational Analysis can detect a wide range of genetic changes, including single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), insertions, deletions, duplications, and rearrangements. The test is often used in conjunction with other diagnostic tests and clinical evaluations to provide a comprehensive assessment of a patient's genetic profile.

It is important to note that not all mutations are pathogenic or associated with disease, and the interpretation of DNA Mutational Analysis results requires careful consideration of the patient's medical history, family history, and other relevant factors.

Visual fields refer to the total area in which objects can be seen while keeping the eyes focused on a central point. It is the entire area that can be observed using peripheral (side) vision while the eye gazes at a fixed point. A visual field test is used to detect blind spots or gaps (scotomas) in a person's vision, which could indicate various medical conditions such as glaucoma, retinal damage, optic nerve disease, brain tumors, or strokes. The test measures both the central and peripheral vision and maps the entire area that can be seen when focusing on a single point.

C57BL/6 (C57 Black 6) is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The term "inbred" refers to a strain of animals where matings have been carried out between siblings or other closely related individuals for many generations, resulting in a population that is highly homozygous at most genetic loci.

The C57BL/6 strain was established in 1920 by crossing a female mouse from the dilute brown (DBA) strain with a male mouse from the black strain. The resulting offspring were then interbred for many generations to create the inbred C57BL/6 strain.

C57BL/6 mice are known for their robust health, longevity, and ease of handling, making them a popular choice for researchers. They have been used in a wide range of biomedical research areas, including studies of cancer, immunology, neuroscience, cardiovascular disease, and metabolism.

One of the most notable features of the C57BL/6 strain is its sensitivity to certain genetic modifications, such as the introduction of mutations that lead to obesity or impaired glucose tolerance. This has made it a valuable tool for studying the genetic basis of complex diseases and traits.

Overall, the C57BL/6 inbred mouse strain is an important model organism in biomedical research, providing a valuable resource for understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying human health and disease.

A dependovirus, also known as a dependent adenovirus or satellite adenovirus, is a type of virus that requires the presence of another virus, specifically an adenovirus, to replicate. Dependoviruses are small, non-enveloped viruses with a double-stranded DNA genome. They cannot complete their replication cycle without the help of an adenovirus, which provides necessary functions for the dependovirus to replicate.

Dependoviruses are clinically significant because they can cause disease in humans, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems. In some cases, dependoviruses may also affect the severity and outcome of adenovirus infections. However, it is important to note that not all adenovirus infections are associated with dependovirus co-infections.

The blood-retinal barrier (BRB) is a specialized physiological barrier in the eye that helps regulate the movement of molecules between the retina and the bloodstream. It is made up of tight junctions between the endothelial cells of retinal blood vessels and between the pigment epithelium cells of the retina, which restrict the paracellular diffusion of solutes.

The BRB plays a crucial role in maintaining the health and function of the retina by preventing harmful substances from entering the retina while allowing essential nutrients and oxygen to reach the retinal tissues. Disruption of the BRB has been implicated in various retinal diseases, including diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, and retinal vein occlusion.

Diagnostic techniques in ophthalmology refer to the various methods and tests used by eye specialists (ophthalmologists) to examine, evaluate, and diagnose conditions related to the eyes and visual system. Here are some commonly used diagnostic techniques:

1. Visual Acuity Testing: This is a basic test to measure the sharpness of a person's vision. It typically involves reading letters or numbers from an eye chart at a specific distance.
2. Refraction Test: This test helps determine the correct lens prescription for glasses or contact lenses by measuring how light is bent as it passes through the cornea and lens.
3. Slit Lamp Examination: A slit lamp is a microscope that allows an ophthalmologist to examine the structures of the eye, including the cornea, iris, lens, and retina, in great detail.
4. Tonometry: This test measures the pressure inside the eye (intraocular pressure) to detect conditions like glaucoma. Common methods include applanation tonometry and non-contact tonometry.
5. Retinal Imaging: Several techniques are used to capture images of the retina, including fundus photography, fluorescein angiography, and optical coherence tomography (OCT). These tests help diagnose conditions like macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, and retinal detachments.
6. Color Vision Testing: This test evaluates a person's ability to distinguish between different colors, which can help detect color vision deficiencies or neurological disorders affecting the visual pathway.
7. Visual Field Testing: This test measures a person's peripheral (or side) vision and can help diagnose conditions like glaucoma, optic nerve damage, or brain injuries.
8. Pupillary Reactions Tests: These tests evaluate how the pupils respond to light and near objects, which can provide information about the condition of the eye's internal structures and the nervous system.
9. Ocular Motility Testing: This test assesses eye movements and alignment, helping diagnose conditions like strabismus (crossed eyes) or nystagmus (involuntary eye movement).
10. Corneal Topography: This non-invasive imaging technique maps the curvature of the cornea, which can help detect irregularities, assess the fit of contact lenses, and plan refractive surgery procedures.

Animal disease models are specialized animals, typically rodents such as mice or rats, that have been genetically engineered or exposed to certain conditions to develop symptoms and physiological changes similar to those seen in human diseases. These models are used in medical research to study the pathophysiology of diseases, identify potential therapeutic targets, test drug efficacy and safety, and understand disease mechanisms.

The genetic modifications can include knockout or knock-in mutations, transgenic expression of specific genes, or RNA interference techniques. The animals may also be exposed to environmental factors such as chemicals, radiation, or infectious agents to induce the disease state.

Examples of animal disease models include:

1. Mouse models of cancer: Genetically engineered mice that develop various types of tumors, allowing researchers to study cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis.
2. Alzheimer's disease models: Transgenic mice expressing mutant human genes associated with Alzheimer's disease, which exhibit amyloid plaque formation and cognitive decline.
3. Diabetes models: Obese and diabetic mouse strains like the NOD (non-obese diabetic) or db/db mice, used to study the development of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, respectively.
4. Cardiovascular disease models: Atherosclerosis-prone mice, such as ApoE-deficient or LDLR-deficient mice, that develop plaque buildup in their arteries when fed a high-fat diet.
5. Inflammatory bowel disease models: Mice with genetic mutations affecting intestinal barrier function and immune response, such as IL-10 knockout or SAMP1/YitFc mice, which develop colitis.

Animal disease models are essential tools in preclinical research, but it is important to recognize their limitations. Differences between species can affect the translatability of results from animal studies to human patients. Therefore, researchers must carefully consider the choice of model and interpret findings cautiously when applying them to human diseases.

Eye diseases are a range of conditions that affect the eye or visual system, causing damage to vision and, in some cases, leading to blindness. These diseases can be categorized into various types, including:

1. Refractive errors: These include myopia (nearsightedness), hyperopia (farsightedness), astigmatism, and presbyopia, which affect the way light is focused on the retina and can usually be corrected with glasses or contact lenses.
2. Cataracts: A clouding of the lens inside the eye that leads to blurry vision, glare, and decreased contrast sensitivity. Cataract surgery is the most common treatment for this condition.
3. Glaucoma: A group of diseases characterized by increased pressure in the eye, leading to damage to the optic nerve and potential blindness if left untreated. Treatment includes medications, laser therapy, or surgery.
4. Age-related macular degeneration (AMD): A progressive condition that affects the central part of the retina called the macula, causing blurry vision and, in advanced stages, loss of central vision. Treatment may include anti-VEGF injections, laser therapy, or nutritional supplements.
5. Diabetic retinopathy: A complication of diabetes that affects the blood vessels in the retina, leading to bleeding, leakage, and potential blindness if left untreated. Treatment includes laser therapy, anti-VEGF injections, or surgery.
6. Retinal detachment: A separation of the retina from its underlying tissue, which can lead to vision loss if not treated promptly with surgery.
7. Amblyopia (lazy eye): A condition where one eye does not develop normal vision, often due to a misalignment or refractive error in childhood. Treatment includes correcting the underlying problem and encouraging the use of the weaker eye through patching or other methods.
8. Strabismus (crossed eyes): A misalignment of the eyes that can lead to amblyopia if not treated promptly with surgery, glasses, or other methods.
9. Corneal diseases: Conditions that affect the transparent outer layer of the eye, such as keratoconus, Fuchs' dystrophy, and infectious keratitis, which can lead to vision loss if not treated promptly.
10. Uveitis: Inflammation of the middle layer of the eye, which can cause vision loss if not treated promptly with anti-inflammatory medications or surgery.

Retinaldehyde, also known as retinal, is a form of vitamin A that is essential for vision. It is the aldehyde form of retinol (vitamin A alcohol) and is involved in the visual cycle, where it plays a crucial role in the process of converting light into electrical signals that are sent to the brain.

When light hits the retina, it activates a protein called rhodopsin, which contains retinaldehyde as one of its components. This activation causes a chemical change in retinaldehyde, leading to the generation of an electrical signal that is transmitted to the brain via the optic nerve.

Retinaldehyde is also involved in other physiological processes, including the regulation of gene expression and cell growth and differentiation. It can be synthesized in the body from beta-carotene, a pigment found in fruits and vegetables, or obtained directly from animal sources such as liver, fish liver oil, and dairy products.

Retinal detachment is a serious eye condition that occurs when the retina, a thin layer of tissue at the back of the eye responsible for processing light and sending visual signals to the brain, pulls away from its normal position. This can lead to significant vision loss or even blindness if not promptly treated. Retinal detachment can be caused by various factors such as aging, trauma, eye disease, or an inflammatory condition. Symptoms of retinal detachment may include sudden flashes of light, floaters, a shadow in the peripheral vision, or a curtain-like covering over part of the visual field. Immediate medical attention is necessary to prevent further damage and preserve vision.

Low vision is a term used to describe significant visual impairment that cannot be corrected with standard glasses, contact lenses, medication or surgery. It is typically defined as visual acuity of less than 20/70 in the better-seeing eye after best correction, or a visual field of less than 20 degrees in the better-seeing eye.

People with low vision may have difficulty performing everyday tasks such as reading, recognizing faces, watching television, driving, or simply navigating their environment. They may also experience symptoms such as sensitivity to light, glare, or contrast, and may benefit from the use of visual aids, assistive devices, and rehabilitation services to help them maximize their remaining vision and maintain their independence.

Low vision can result from a variety of causes, including eye diseases such as macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, glaucoma, or cataracts, as well as congenital or inherited conditions, brain injuries, or aging. It is important for individuals with low vision to receive regular eye examinations and consult with a low vision specialist to determine the best course of treatment and management.

X-linked genetic diseases refer to a group of disorders caused by mutations in genes located on the X chromosome. These conditions primarily affect males since they have only one X chromosome and therefore don't have a second normal copy of the gene to compensate for the mutated one. Females, who have two X chromosomes, are typically less affected because they usually have one normal copy of the gene on their other X chromosome.

Examples of X-linked genetic diseases include Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophy, hemophilia A and B, color blindness, and fragile X syndrome. Symptoms and severity can vary widely depending on the specific condition and the nature of the genetic mutation involved. Treatment options depend on the particular disease but may include physical therapy, medication, or in some cases, gene therapy.

Genetic therapy, also known as gene therapy, is a medical intervention that involves the use of genetic material, such as DNA or RNA, to treat or prevent diseases. It works by introducing functional genes into cells to replace missing or faulty ones caused by genetic disorders or mutations. The introduced gene is incorporated into the recipient's genome, allowing for the production of a therapeutic protein that can help manage the disease symptoms or even cure the condition.

There are several approaches to genetic therapy, including:

1. Replacing a faulty gene with a healthy one
2. Inactivating or "silencing" a dysfunctional gene causing a disease
3. Introducing a new gene into the body to help fight off a disease, such as cancer

Genetic therapy holds great promise for treating various genetic disorders, including cystic fibrosis, muscular dystrophy, hemophilia, and certain types of cancer. However, it is still an evolving field with many challenges, such as efficient gene delivery, potential immune responses, and ensuring the safety and long-term effectiveness of the therapy.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "photography" is not a term typically used in medical definitions. Photography refers to the art, application, or process of creating images by recording light or other electromagnetic radiation, either electronically by means of an image sensor, or chemically by means of a light-sensitive material such as photographic film.

If you're looking for a medical term related to imaging, there are several terms that might be relevant, such as:

1. Radiography: This is a technique using X-rays to visualize the internal structures of the body.
2. Ultrasonography: Also known as ultrasound, this is a diagnostic imaging technique using high-frequency sound waves to create images of the inside of the body.
3. Computed Tomography (CT): A type of imaging that uses X-rays to create detailed cross-sectional images of the body.
4. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): A type of imaging that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of the organs and tissues within the body.
5. Nuclear Medicine: This is a branch of medical imaging that uses small amounts of radioactive material to diagnose and treat diseases.

If you have any questions related to medical definitions or topics, feel free to ask!

The macula lutea, often simply referred to as the macula or fovea centralis, is a part of the eye that is responsible for central vision and color perception. It's located in the center of the retina, the light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye. The macula contains a high concentration of pigments called xanthophylls, which give it a yellowish color and protect the photoreceptor cells in this area from damage by blue light.

The central part of the macula is called the fovea, which is a small depression that contains only cones, the photoreceptor cells responsible for color vision and high visual acuity. The fovea is surrounded by the parafovea and the perifovea, which contain both cones and rods, the photoreceptor cells responsible for low-light vision and peripheral vision.

Damage to the macula can result in a loss of central vision and color perception, a condition known as age-related macular degeneration (AMD), which is a leading cause of blindness in older adults. Other conditions that can affect the macula include macular edema, macular holes, and macular pucker.

Neuroglia, also known as glial cells or simply glia, are non-neuronal cells that provide support and protection for neurons in the nervous system. They maintain homeostasis, form myelin sheaths around nerve fibers, and provide structural support. They also play a role in the immune response of the central nervous system. Some types of neuroglia include astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal cells.

In the context of medical terminology, "light" doesn't have a specific or standardized definition on its own. However, it can be used in various medical terms and phrases. For example, it could refer to:

1. Visible light: The range of electromagnetic radiation that can be detected by the human eye, typically between wavelengths of 400-700 nanometers. This is relevant in fields such as ophthalmology and optometry.
2. Therapeutic use of light: In some therapies, light is used to treat certain conditions. An example is phototherapy, which uses various wavelengths of ultraviolet (UV) or visible light for conditions like newborn jaundice, skin disorders, or seasonal affective disorder.
3. Light anesthesia: A state of reduced consciousness in which the patient remains responsive to verbal commands and physical stimulation. This is different from general anesthesia where the patient is completely unconscious.
4. Pain relief using light: Certain devices like transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) units have a 'light' setting, indicating lower intensity or frequency of electrical impulses used for pain management.

Without more context, it's hard to provide a precise medical definition of 'light'.

ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters are a family of membrane proteins that utilize the energy from ATP hydrolysis to transport various substrates across extra- and intracellular membranes. These transporters play crucial roles in several biological processes, including detoxification, drug resistance, nutrient uptake, and regulation of cellular cholesterol homeostasis.

The structure of ABC transporters consists of two nucleotide-binding domains (NBDs) that bind and hydrolyze ATP, and two transmembrane domains (TMDs) that form the substrate-translocation pathway. The NBDs are typically located adjacent to each other in the cytoplasm, while the TMDs can be either integral membrane domains or separate structures associated with the membrane.

The human genome encodes 48 distinct ABC transporters, which are classified into seven subfamilies (ABCA-ABCG) based on their sequence similarity and domain organization. Some well-known examples of ABC transporters include P-glycoprotein (ABCB1), multidrug resistance protein 1 (ABCC1), and breast cancer resistance protein (ABCG2).

Dysregulation or mutations in ABC transporters have been implicated in various diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, neurological disorders, and cancer. In cancer, overexpression of certain ABC transporters can contribute to drug resistance by actively effluxing chemotherapeutic agents from cancer cells, making them less susceptible to treatment.

A genetic vector is a vehicle, often a plasmid or a virus, that is used to introduce foreign DNA into a host cell as part of genetic engineering or gene therapy techniques. The vector contains the desired gene or genes, along with regulatory elements such as promoters and enhancers, which are needed for the expression of the gene in the target cells.

The choice of vector depends on several factors, including the size of the DNA to be inserted, the type of cell to be targeted, and the efficiency of uptake and expression required. Commonly used vectors include plasmids, adenoviruses, retroviruses, and lentiviruses.

Plasmids are small circular DNA molecules that can replicate independently in bacteria. They are often used as cloning vectors to amplify and manipulate DNA fragments. Adenoviruses are double-stranded DNA viruses that infect a wide range of host cells, including human cells. They are commonly used as gene therapy vectors because they can efficiently transfer genes into both dividing and non-dividing cells.

Retroviruses and lentiviruses are RNA viruses that integrate their genetic material into the host cell's genome. This allows for stable expression of the transgene over time. Lentiviruses, a subclass of retroviruses, have the advantage of being able to infect non-dividing cells, making them useful for gene therapy applications in post-mitotic tissues such as neurons and muscle cells.

Overall, genetic vectors play a crucial role in modern molecular biology and medicine, enabling researchers to study gene function, develop new therapies, and modify organisms for various purposes.

Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to amplify and detect specific DNA sequences. This technique is particularly useful for the detection and quantification of RNA viruses, as well as for the analysis of gene expression.

The process involves two main steps: reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In the first step, reverse transcriptase enzyme is used to convert RNA into complementary DNA (cDNA) by reading the template provided by the RNA molecule. This cDNA then serves as a template for the PCR amplification step.

In the second step, the PCR reaction uses two primers that flank the target DNA sequence and a thermostable polymerase enzyme to repeatedly copy the targeted cDNA sequence. The reaction mixture is heated and cooled in cycles, allowing the primers to anneal to the template, and the polymerase to extend the new strand. This results in exponential amplification of the target DNA sequence, making it possible to detect even small amounts of RNA or cDNA.

RT-PCR is a sensitive and specific technique that has many applications in medical research and diagnostics, including the detection of viruses such as HIV, hepatitis C virus, and SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19). It can also be used to study gene expression, identify genetic mutations, and diagnose genetic disorders.

A rod cell outer segment is a specialized structure in the retina of the eye that is responsible for photoreception, or the conversion of light into electrical signals. Rod cells are one of the two types of photoreceptor cells in the retina, with the other type being cone cells. Rod cells are more sensitive to light than cone cells and are responsible for low-light vision and peripheral vision.

The outer segment of a rod cell is a long, thin structure that contains stacks of discs filled with the visual pigment rhodopsin. When light hits the rhodopsin molecules in the discs, it causes a chemical reaction that leads to the activation of a signaling pathway within the rod cell. This ultimately results in the generation of an electrical signal that is transmitted to the brain via the optic nerve.

The outer segment of a rod cell is constantly being regenerated and broken down through a process called shedding and renewal. The tips of the outer segments are shed and phagocytosed by cells called retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells, which help to maintain the health and function of the rod cells.

Glaucoma is a group of eye conditions that damage the optic nerve, often caused by an abnormally high pressure in the eye (intraocular pressure). This damage can lead to permanent vision loss or even blindness if left untreated. The most common type is open-angle glaucoma, which has no warning signs and progresses slowly. Angle-closure glaucoma, on the other hand, can cause sudden eye pain, redness, nausea, and vomiting, as well as rapid vision loss. Other less common types of glaucoma also exist. While there is no cure for glaucoma, early detection and treatment can help slow or prevent further vision loss.

Single-Stranded Conformational Polymorphism (SSCP) is not a medical condition but rather a laboratory technique used in molecular biology and genetics. It refers to the phenomenon where a single-stranded DNA or RNA molecule can adopt different conformations or shapes based on its nucleotide sequence, even if the difference in the sequence is as small as a single base pair change. This property is used in SSCP analysis to detect mutations or variations in DNA or RNA sequences.

In SSCP analysis, the denatured single-stranded DNA or RNA sample is subjected to electrophoresis on a non-denaturing polyacrylamide gel. The different conformations of the single-stranded molecules migrate at different rates in the gel, creating multiple bands that can be visualized by staining or other detection methods. The presence of additional bands or shifts in band patterns can indicate the presence of a sequence variant or mutation.

SSCP analysis is often used as a screening tool for genetic diseases, cancer, and infectious diseases to identify genetic variations associated with these conditions. However, it has largely been replaced by more sensitive and accurate methods such as next-generation sequencing.

Uveitis is the inflammation of the uvea, the middle layer of the eye between the retina and the white of the eye (sclera). The uvea consists of the iris, ciliary body, and choroid. Uveitis can cause redness, pain, and vision loss. It can be caused by various systemic diseases, infections, or trauma. Depending on the part of the uvea that's affected, uveitis can be classified as anterior (iritis), intermediate (cyclitis), posterior (choroiditis), or pan-uveitis (affecting all layers). Treatment typically includes corticosteroids and other immunosuppressive drugs to control inflammation.

Stem cell transplantation is a medical procedure where stem cells, which are immature and unspecialized cells with the ability to differentiate into various specialized cell types, are introduced into a patient. The main purpose of this procedure is to restore the function of damaged or destroyed tissues or organs, particularly in conditions that affect the blood and immune systems, such as leukemia, lymphoma, aplastic anemia, and inherited metabolic disorders.

There are two primary types of stem cell transplantation: autologous and allogeneic. In autologous transplantation, the patient's own stem cells are collected, stored, and then reinfused back into their body after high-dose chemotherapy or radiation therapy to destroy the diseased cells. In allogeneic transplantation, stem cells are obtained from a donor (related or unrelated) whose human leukocyte antigen (HLA) type closely matches that of the recipient.

The process involves several steps: first, the patient undergoes conditioning therapy to suppress their immune system and make space for the new stem cells. Then, the harvested stem cells are infused into the patient's bloodstream, where they migrate to the bone marrow and begin to differentiate and produce new blood cells. This procedure requires close monitoring and supportive care to manage potential complications such as infections, graft-versus-host disease, and organ damage.

I believe there might be a misunderstanding in your question. "Dogs" is not a medical term or condition. It is the common name for a domesticated carnivore of the family Canidae, specifically the genus Canis, which includes wolves, foxes, and other extant and extinct species of mammals. Dogs are often kept as pets and companions, and they have been bred in a wide variety of forms and sizes for different purposes, such as hunting, herding, guarding, assisting police and military forces, and providing companionship and emotional support.

If you meant to ask about a specific medical condition or term related to dogs, please provide more context so I can give you an accurate answer.

Nerve tissue proteins are specialized proteins found in the nervous system that provide structural and functional support to nerve cells, also known as neurons. These proteins include:

1. Neurofilaments: These are type IV intermediate filaments that provide structural support to neurons and help maintain their shape and size. They are composed of three subunits - NFL (light), NFM (medium), and NFH (heavy).

2. Neuronal Cytoskeletal Proteins: These include tubulins, actins, and spectrins that provide structural support to the neuronal cytoskeleton and help maintain its integrity.

3. Neurotransmitter Receptors: These are specialized proteins located on the postsynaptic membrane of neurons that bind neurotransmitters released by presynaptic neurons, triggering a response in the target cell.

4. Ion Channels: These are transmembrane proteins that regulate the flow of ions across the neuronal membrane and play a crucial role in generating and transmitting electrical signals in neurons.

5. Signaling Proteins: These include enzymes, receptors, and adaptor proteins that mediate intracellular signaling pathways involved in neuronal development, differentiation, survival, and death.

6. Adhesion Proteins: These are cell surface proteins that mediate cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions, playing a crucial role in the formation and maintenance of neural circuits.

7. Extracellular Matrix Proteins: These include proteoglycans, laminins, and collagens that provide structural support to nerve tissue and regulate neuronal migration, differentiation, and survival.

Laser coagulation, also known as laser photocoagulation, is a medical procedure that uses a laser to seal or destroy abnormal blood vessels or tissue. The laser produces a concentrated beam of light that can be precisely focused on the target area. When the laser energy is absorbed by the tissue, it causes the temperature to rise, which leads to coagulation (the formation of a clot) or destruction of the tissue.

In ophthalmology, laser coagulation is commonly used to treat conditions such as diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, and retinal tears or holes. The procedure can help to seal leaking blood vessels, reduce fluid leakage, and prevent further vision loss. It is usually performed as an outpatient procedure and may be repeated if necessary.

In other medical specialties, laser coagulation may be used to control bleeding, destroy tumors, or remove unwanted tissue. The specific technique and parameters of the laser treatment will depend on the individual patient's needs and the condition being treated.

A transgene is a segment of DNA that has been artificially transferred from one organism to another, typically between different species, to introduce a new trait or characteristic. The term "transgene" specifically refers to the genetic material that has been transferred and has become integrated into the host organism's genome. This technology is often used in genetic engineering and biomedical research, including the development of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for agricultural purposes or the creation of animal models for studying human diseases.

Transgenes can be created using various techniques, such as molecular cloning, where a desired gene is isolated, manipulated, and then inserted into a vector (a small DNA molecule, such as a plasmid) that can efficiently enter the host organism's cells. Once inside the cell, the transgene can integrate into the host genome, allowing for the expression of the new trait in the resulting transgenic organism.

It is important to note that while transgenes can provide valuable insights and benefits in research and agriculture, their use and release into the environment are subjects of ongoing debate due to concerns about potential ecological impacts and human health risks.

Gene expression is the process by which the information encoded in a gene is used to synthesize a functional gene product, such as a protein or RNA molecule. This process involves several steps: transcription, RNA processing, and translation. During transcription, the genetic information in DNA is copied into a complementary RNA molecule, known as messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA then undergoes RNA processing, which includes adding a cap and tail to the mRNA and splicing out non-coding regions called introns. The resulting mature mRNA is then translated into a protein on ribosomes in the cytoplasm through the process of translation.

The regulation of gene expression is a complex and highly controlled process that allows cells to respond to changes in their environment, such as growth factors, hormones, and stress signals. This regulation can occur at various stages of gene expression, including transcriptional activation or repression, RNA processing, mRNA stability, and translation. Dysregulation of gene expression has been implicated in many diseases, including cancer, genetic disorders, and neurological conditions.

Western blotting is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to detect and quantify specific proteins in a mixture of many different proteins. This technique is commonly used to confirm the expression of a protein of interest, determine its size, and investigate its post-translational modifications. The name "Western" blotting distinguishes this technique from Southern blotting (for DNA) and Northern blotting (for RNA).

The Western blotting procedure involves several steps:

1. Protein extraction: The sample containing the proteins of interest is first extracted, often by breaking open cells or tissues and using a buffer to extract the proteins.
2. Separation of proteins by electrophoresis: The extracted proteins are then separated based on their size by loading them onto a polyacrylamide gel and running an electric current through the gel (a process called sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis or SDS-PAGE). This separates the proteins according to their molecular weight, with smaller proteins migrating faster than larger ones.
3. Transfer of proteins to a membrane: After separation, the proteins are transferred from the gel onto a nitrocellulose or polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane using an electric current in a process called blotting. This creates a replica of the protein pattern on the gel but now immobilized on the membrane for further analysis.
4. Blocking: The membrane is then blocked with a blocking agent, such as non-fat dry milk or bovine serum albumin (BSA), to prevent non-specific binding of antibodies in subsequent steps.
5. Primary antibody incubation: A primary antibody that specifically recognizes the protein of interest is added and allowed to bind to its target protein on the membrane. This step may be performed at room temperature or 4°C overnight, depending on the antibody's properties.
6. Washing: The membrane is washed with a buffer to remove unbound primary antibodies.
7. Secondary antibody incubation: A secondary antibody that recognizes the primary antibody (often coupled to an enzyme or fluorophore) is added and allowed to bind to the primary antibody. This step may involve using a horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-conjugated or alkaline phosphatase (AP)-conjugated secondary antibody, depending on the detection method used later.
8. Washing: The membrane is washed again to remove unbound secondary antibodies.
9. Detection: A detection reagent is added to visualize the protein of interest by detecting the signal generated from the enzyme-conjugated or fluorophore-conjugated secondary antibody. This can be done using chemiluminescent, colorimetric, or fluorescent methods.
10. Analysis: The resulting image is analyzed to determine the presence and quantity of the protein of interest in the sample.

Western blotting is a powerful technique for identifying and quantifying specific proteins within complex mixtures. It can be used to study protein expression, post-translational modifications, protein-protein interactions, and more. However, it requires careful optimization and validation to ensure accurate and reproducible results.

The eye is the organ of sight, primarily responsible for detecting and focusing on visual stimuli. It is a complex structure composed of various parts that work together to enable vision. Here are some of the main components of the eye:

1. Cornea: The clear front part of the eye that refracts light entering the eye and protects the eye from harmful particles and microorganisms.
2. Iris: The colored part of the eye that controls the amount of light reaching the retina by adjusting the size of the pupil.
3. Pupil: The opening in the center of the iris that allows light to enter the eye.
4. Lens: A biconvex structure located behind the iris that further refracts light and focuses it onto the retina.
5. Retina: A layer of light-sensitive cells (rods and cones) at the back of the eye that convert light into electrical signals, which are then transmitted to the brain via the optic nerve.
6. Optic Nerve: The nerve that carries visual information from the retina to the brain.
7. Vitreous: A clear, gel-like substance that fills the space between the lens and the retina, providing structural support to the eye.
8. Conjunctiva: A thin, transparent membrane that covers the front of the eye and the inner surface of the eyelids.
9. Extraocular Muscles: Six muscles that control the movement of the eye, allowing for proper alignment and focus.

The eye is a remarkable organ that allows us to perceive and interact with our surroundings. Various medical specialties, such as ophthalmology and optometry, are dedicated to the diagnosis, treatment, and management of various eye conditions and diseases.

A vitrectomy is a surgical procedure that involves the removal of some or all of the vitreous humor, which is the clear gel-like substance filling the center of the eye. This surgery is often performed to treat various retinal disorders such as diabetic retinopathy, retinal detachment, macular hole, and vitreous hemorrhage.

During a vitrectomy, the ophthalmologist makes small incisions in the sclera (the white part of the eye) to access the vitreous cavity. The surgeon then uses specialized instruments to remove the cloudy or damaged vitreous and may also repair any damage to the retina or surrounding tissues. Afterward, a clear saline solution is injected into the eye to maintain its shape and help facilitate healing.

In some cases, a gas bubble or silicone oil may be placed in the eye after the vitrectomy to help hold the retina in place while it heals. These substances will gradually be absorbed or removed during follow-up appointments. The body naturally produces a new, clear vitreous to replace the removed material over time.

Vitrectomy is typically performed under local anesthesia and may require hospitalization or outpatient care depending on the individual case. Potential risks and complications include infection, bleeding, cataract formation, retinal detachment, and increased eye pressure. However, with proper care and follow-up, most patients experience improved vision after a successful vitrectomy procedure.

A phenotype is the physical or biochemical expression of an organism's genes, or the observable traits and characteristics resulting from the interaction of its genetic constitution (genotype) with environmental factors. These characteristics can include appearance, development, behavior, and resistance to disease, among others. Phenotypes can vary widely, even among individuals with identical genotypes, due to differences in environmental influences, gene expression, and genetic interactions.

A "knockout" mouse is a genetically engineered mouse in which one or more genes have been deleted or "knocked out" using molecular biology techniques. This allows researchers to study the function of specific genes and their role in various biological processes, as well as potential associations with human diseases. The mice are generated by introducing targeted DNA modifications into embryonic stem cells, which are then used to create a live animal. Knockout mice have been widely used in biomedical research to investigate gene function, disease mechanisms, and potential therapeutic targets.

Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A (VEGFA) is a specific isoform of the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) family. It is a well-characterized signaling protein that plays a crucial role in angiogenesis, the process of new blood vessel formation from pre-existing vessels. VEGFA stimulates the proliferation and migration of endothelial cells, which line the interior surface of blood vessels, thereby contributing to the growth and development of new vasculature. This protein is essential for physiological processes such as embryonic development and wound healing, but it has also been implicated in various pathological conditions, including cancer, age-related macular degeneration, and diabetic retinopathy. The regulation of VEGFA expression and activity is critical to maintaining proper vascular function and homeostasis.

Confocal microscopy is a powerful imaging technique used in medical and biological research to obtain high-resolution, contrast-rich images of thick samples. This super-resolution technology provides detailed visualization of cellular structures and processes at various depths within a specimen.

In confocal microscopy, a laser beam focused through a pinhole illuminates a small spot within the sample. The emitted fluorescence or reflected light from this spot is then collected by a detector, passing through a second pinhole that ensures only light from the focal plane reaches the detector. This process eliminates out-of-focus light, resulting in sharp images with improved contrast compared to conventional widefield microscopy.

By scanning the laser beam across the sample in a raster pattern and collecting fluorescence at each point, confocal microscopy generates optical sections of the specimen. These sections can be combined to create three-dimensional reconstructions, allowing researchers to study cellular architecture and interactions within complex tissues.

Confocal microscopy has numerous applications in medical research, including studying protein localization, tracking intracellular dynamics, analyzing cell morphology, and investigating disease mechanisms at the cellular level. Additionally, it is widely used in clinical settings for diagnostic purposes, such as analyzing skin lesions or detecting pathogens in patient samples.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Fluorescence is not a medical term per se, but it is widely used in the medical field, particularly in diagnostic tests, medical devices, and research. Fluorescence is a physical phenomenon where a substance absorbs light at a specific wavelength and then emits light at a longer wavelength. This process, often referred to as fluorescing, results in the emission of visible light that can be detected and measured.

In medical terms, fluorescence is used in various applications such as:

1. In-vivo imaging: Fluorescent dyes or probes are introduced into the body to highlight specific structures, cells, or molecules during imaging procedures. This technique can help doctors detect and diagnose diseases such as cancer, inflammation, or infection.
2. Microscopy: Fluorescence microscopy is a powerful tool for visualizing biological samples at the cellular and molecular level. By labeling specific proteins, nucleic acids, or other molecules with fluorescent dyes, researchers can observe their distribution, interactions, and dynamics within cells and tissues.
3. Surgical guidance: Fluorescence-guided surgery is a technique where surgeons use fluorescent markers to identify critical structures such as blood vessels, nerves, or tumors during surgical procedures. This helps ensure precise and safe surgical interventions.
4. Diagnostic tests: Fluorescence-based assays are used in various diagnostic tests to detect and quantify specific biomarkers or analytes. These assays can be performed using techniques such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), polymerase chain reaction (PCR), or flow cytometry.

In summary, fluorescence is a physical process where a substance absorbs and emits light at different wavelengths. In the medical field, this phenomenon is harnessed for various applications such as in-vivo imaging, microscopy, surgical guidance, and diagnostic tests.

Gene transfer techniques, also known as gene therapy, refer to medical procedures where genetic material is introduced into an individual's cells or tissues to treat or prevent diseases. This can be achieved through various methods:

1. **Viral Vectors**: The most common method uses modified viruses, such as adenoviruses, retroviruses, or lentiviruses, to carry the therapeutic gene into the target cells. The virus infects the cell and inserts the new gene into the cell's DNA.

2. **Non-Viral Vectors**: These include methods like electroporation (using electric fields to create pores in the cell membrane), gene guns (shooting gold particles coated with DNA into cells), or liposomes (tiny fatty bubbles that can enclose DNA).

3. **Direct Injection**: In some cases, the therapeutic gene can be directly injected into a specific tissue or organ.

The goal of gene transfer techniques is to supplement or replace a faulty gene with a healthy one, thereby correcting the genetic disorder. However, these techniques are still largely experimental and have their own set of challenges, including potential immune responses, issues with accurate targeting, and risks of mutations or cancer development.

Carrier proteins, also known as transport proteins, are a type of protein that facilitates the movement of molecules across cell membranes. They are responsible for the selective and active transport of ions, sugars, amino acids, and other molecules from one side of the membrane to the other, against their concentration gradient. This process requires energy, usually in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).

Carrier proteins have a specific binding site for the molecule they transport, and undergo conformational changes upon binding, which allows them to move the molecule across the membrane. Once the molecule has been transported, the carrier protein returns to its original conformation, ready to bind and transport another molecule.

Carrier proteins play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of ions and other molecules inside and outside of cells, and are essential for many physiological processes, including nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, and nutrient uptake.

Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP) is a type of intermediate filament protein that is primarily found in astrocytes, which are a type of star-shaped glial cells in the central nervous system (CNS). These proteins play an essential role in maintaining the structural integrity and stability of astrocytes. They also participate in various cellular processes such as responding to injury, providing support to neurons, and regulating the extracellular environment.

GFAP is often used as a marker for astrocytic activation or reactivity, which can occur in response to CNS injuries, neuroinflammation, or neurodegenerative diseases. Elevated GFAP levels in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) or blood can indicate astrocyte damage or dysfunction and are associated with several neurological conditions, including traumatic brain injury, stroke, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, and Alexander's disease.

An injection is a medical procedure in which a medication, vaccine, or other substance is introduced into the body using a needle and syringe. The substance can be delivered into various parts of the body, including into a vein (intravenous), muscle (intramuscular), under the skin (subcutaneous), or into the spinal canal (intrathecal or spinal).

Injections are commonly used to administer medications that cannot be taken orally, have poor oral bioavailability, need to reach the site of action quickly, or require direct delivery to a specific organ or tissue. They can also be used for diagnostic purposes, such as drawing blood samples (venipuncture) or injecting contrast agents for imaging studies.

Proper technique and sterile conditions are essential when administering injections to prevent infection, pain, and other complications. The choice of injection site depends on the type and volume of the substance being administered, as well as the patient's age, health status, and personal preferences.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. This information is used by the cell's machinery to construct proteins, a process known as translation. After being transcribed from DNA, mRNA travels out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Once the protein has been synthesized, the mRNA may be degraded and recycled. Post-transcriptional modifications can also occur to mRNA, such as alternative splicing and addition of a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail, which can affect its stability, localization, and translation efficiency.

Neuroprotective agents are substances that protect neurons or nerve cells from damage, degeneration, or death caused by various factors such as trauma, inflammation, oxidative stress, or excitotoxicity. These agents work through different mechanisms, including reducing the production of free radicals, inhibiting the release of glutamate (a neurotransmitter that can cause cell damage in high concentrations), promoting the growth and survival of neurons, and preventing apoptosis (programmed cell death). Neuroprotective agents have been studied for their potential to treat various neurological disorders, including stroke, traumatic brain injury, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and multiple sclerosis. However, more research is needed to fully understand their mechanisms of action and to develop effective therapies.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

Dominant genes refer to the alleles (versions of a gene) that are fully expressed in an individual's phenotype, even if only one copy of the gene is present. In dominant inheritance patterns, an individual needs only to receive one dominant allele from either parent to express the associated trait. This is in contrast to recessive genes, where both copies of the gene must be the recessive allele for the trait to be expressed. Dominant genes are represented by uppercase letters (e.g., 'A') and recessive genes by lowercase letters (e.g., 'a'). If an individual inherits one dominant allele (A) from either parent, they will express the dominant trait (A).

Fluorescence microscopy is a type of microscopy that uses fluorescent dyes or proteins to highlight and visualize specific components within a sample. In this technique, the sample is illuminated with high-energy light, typically ultraviolet (UV) or blue light, which excites the fluorescent molecules causing them to emit lower-energy, longer-wavelength light, usually visible light in the form of various colors. This emitted light is then collected by the microscope and detected to produce an image.

Fluorescence microscopy has several advantages over traditional brightfield microscopy, including the ability to visualize specific structures or molecules within a complex sample, increased sensitivity, and the potential for quantitative analysis. It is widely used in various fields of biology and medicine, such as cell biology, neuroscience, and pathology, to study the structure, function, and interactions of cells and proteins.

There are several types of fluorescence microscopy techniques, including widefield fluorescence microscopy, confocal microscopy, two-photon microscopy, and total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy, each with its own strengths and limitations. These techniques can provide valuable insights into the behavior of cells and proteins in health and disease.

'Gene expression regulation' refers to the processes that control whether, when, and where a particular gene is expressed, meaning the production of a specific protein or functional RNA encoded by that gene. This complex mechanism can be influenced by various factors such as transcription factors, chromatin remodeling, DNA methylation, non-coding RNAs, and post-transcriptional modifications, among others. Proper regulation of gene expression is crucial for normal cellular function, development, and maintaining homeostasis in living organisms. Dysregulation of gene expression can lead to various diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders.

Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) is not a medical term per se, but a scientific term used in the field of molecular biology. GFP is a protein that exhibits bright green fluorescence when exposed to light, particularly blue or ultraviolet light. It was originally discovered in the jellyfish Aequorea victoria.

In medical and biological research, scientists often use recombinant DNA technology to introduce the gene for GFP into other organisms, including bacteria, plants, and animals, including humans. This allows them to track the expression and localization of specific genes or proteins of interest in living cells, tissues, or even whole organisms.

The ability to visualize specific cellular structures or processes in real-time has proven invaluable for a wide range of research areas, from studying the development and function of organs and organ systems to understanding the mechanisms of diseases and the effects of therapeutic interventions.

Transgenic mice are genetically modified rodents that have incorporated foreign DNA (exogenous DNA) into their own genome. This is typically done through the use of recombinant DNA technology, where a specific gene or genetic sequence of interest is isolated and then introduced into the mouse embryo. The resulting transgenic mice can then express the protein encoded by the foreign gene, allowing researchers to study its function in a living organism.

The process of creating transgenic mice usually involves microinjecting the exogenous DNA into the pronucleus of a fertilized egg, which is then implanted into a surrogate mother. The offspring that result from this procedure are screened for the presence of the foreign DNA, and those that carry the desired genetic modification are used to establish a transgenic mouse line.

Transgenic mice have been widely used in biomedical research to model human diseases, study gene function, and test new therapies. They provide a valuable tool for understanding complex biological processes and developing new treatments for a variety of medical conditions.

An animal model in medicine refers to the use of non-human animals in experiments to understand, predict, and test responses and effects of various biological and chemical interactions that may also occur in humans. These models are used when studying complex systems or processes that cannot be easily replicated or studied in human subjects, such as genetic manipulation or exposure to harmful substances. The choice of animal model depends on the specific research question being asked and the similarities between the animal's and human's biological and physiological responses. Examples of commonly used animal models include mice, rats, rabbits, guinea pigs, and non-human primates.

In situ nick-end labeling (ISEL, also known as TUNEL) is a technique used in pathology and molecular biology to detect DNA fragmentation, which is a characteristic of apoptotic cells (cells undergoing programmed cell death). The method involves labeling the 3'-hydroxyl termini of double or single stranded DNA breaks in situ (within tissue sections or individual cells) using modified nucleotides that are coupled to a detectable marker, such as a fluorophore or an enzyme. This technique allows for the direct visualization and quantification of apoptotic cells within complex tissues or cell populations.

Aging is a complex, progressive and inevitable process of bodily changes over time, characterized by the accumulation of cellular damage and degenerative changes that eventually lead to increased vulnerability to disease and death. It involves various biological, genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors that contribute to the decline in physical and mental functions. The medical field studies aging through the discipline of gerontology, which aims to understand the underlying mechanisms of aging and develop interventions to promote healthy aging and extend the human healthspan.

Chromosome mapping, also known as physical mapping, is the process of determining the location and order of specific genes or genetic markers on a chromosome. This is typically done by using various laboratory techniques to identify landmarks along the chromosome, such as restriction enzyme cutting sites or patterns of DNA sequence repeats. The resulting map provides important information about the organization and structure of the genome, and can be used for a variety of purposes, including identifying the location of genes associated with genetic diseases, studying evolutionary relationships between organisms, and developing genetic markers for use in breeding or forensic applications.

Oligonucleotide Array Sequence Analysis is a type of microarray analysis that allows for the simultaneous measurement of the expression levels of thousands of genes in a single sample. In this technique, oligonucleotides (short DNA sequences) are attached to a solid support, such as a glass slide, in a specific pattern. These oligonucleotides are designed to be complementary to specific target mRNA sequences from the sample being analyzed.

During the analysis, labeled RNA or cDNA from the sample is hybridized to the oligonucleotide array. The level of hybridization is then measured and used to determine the relative abundance of each target sequence in the sample. This information can be used to identify differences in gene expression between samples, which can help researchers understand the underlying biological processes involved in various diseases or developmental stages.

It's important to note that this technique requires specialized equipment and bioinformatics tools for data analysis, as well as careful experimental design and validation to ensure accurate and reproducible results.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

Cell death is the process by which cells cease to function and eventually die. There are several ways that cells can die, but the two most well-known and well-studied forms of cell death are apoptosis and necrosis.

Apoptosis is a programmed form of cell death that occurs as a normal and necessary process in the development and maintenance of healthy tissues. During apoptosis, the cell's DNA is broken down into small fragments, the cell shrinks, and the membrane around the cell becomes fragmented, allowing the cell to be easily removed by phagocytic cells without causing an inflammatory response.

Necrosis, on the other hand, is a form of cell death that occurs as a result of acute tissue injury or overwhelming stress. During necrosis, the cell's membrane becomes damaged and the contents of the cell are released into the surrounding tissue, causing an inflammatory response.

There are also other forms of cell death, such as autophagy, which is a process by which cells break down their own organelles and proteins to recycle nutrients and maintain energy homeostasis, and pyroptosis, which is a form of programmed cell death that occurs in response to infection and involves the activation of inflammatory caspases.

Cell death is an important process in many physiological and pathological processes, including development, tissue homeostasis, and disease. Dysregulation of cell death can contribute to the development of various diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and autoimmune diseases.

Cell survival refers to the ability of a cell to continue living and functioning normally, despite being exposed to potentially harmful conditions or treatments. This can include exposure to toxins, radiation, chemotherapeutic drugs, or other stressors that can damage cells or interfere with their normal processes.

In scientific research, measures of cell survival are often used to evaluate the effectiveness of various therapies or treatments. For example, researchers may expose cells to a particular drug or treatment and then measure the percentage of cells that survive to assess its potential therapeutic value. Similarly, in toxicology studies, measures of cell survival can help to determine the safety of various chemicals or substances.

It's important to note that cell survival is not the same as cell proliferation, which refers to the ability of cells to divide and multiply. While some treatments may promote cell survival, they may also inhibit cell proliferation, making them useful for treating diseases such as cancer. Conversely, other treatments may be designed to specifically target and kill cancer cells, even if it means sacrificing some healthy cells in the process.

"Cattle" is a term used in the agricultural and veterinary fields to refer to domesticated animals of the genus *Bos*, primarily *Bos taurus* (European cattle) and *Bos indicus* (Zebu). These animals are often raised for meat, milk, leather, and labor. They are also known as bovines or cows (for females), bulls (intact males), and steers/bullocks (castrated males). However, in a strict medical definition, "cattle" does not apply to humans or other animals.

Gene expression profiling is a laboratory technique used to measure the activity (expression) of thousands of genes at once. This technique allows researchers and clinicians to identify which genes are turned on or off in a particular cell, tissue, or organism under specific conditions, such as during health, disease, development, or in response to various treatments.

The process typically involves isolating RNA from the cells or tissues of interest, converting it into complementary DNA (cDNA), and then using microarray or high-throughput sequencing technologies to determine which genes are expressed and at what levels. The resulting data can be used to identify patterns of gene expression that are associated with specific biological states or processes, providing valuable insights into the underlying molecular mechanisms of diseases and potential targets for therapeutic intervention.

In recent years, gene expression profiling has become an essential tool in various fields, including cancer research, drug discovery, and personalized medicine, where it is used to identify biomarkers of disease, predict patient outcomes, and guide treatment decisions.

A missense mutation is a type of point mutation in which a single nucleotide change results in the substitution of a different amino acid in the protein that is encoded by the affected gene. This occurs when the altered codon (a sequence of three nucleotides that corresponds to a specific amino acid) specifies a different amino acid than the original one. The function and/or stability of the resulting protein may be affected, depending on the type and location of the missense mutation. Missense mutations can have various effects, ranging from benign to severe, depending on the importance of the changed amino acid for the protein's structure or function.

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a technique used in pathology and laboratory medicine to identify specific proteins or antigens in tissue sections. It combines the principles of immunology and histology to detect the presence and location of these target molecules within cells and tissues. This technique utilizes antibodies that are specific to the protein or antigen of interest, which are then tagged with a detection system such as a chromogen or fluorophore. The stained tissue sections can be examined under a microscope, allowing for the visualization and analysis of the distribution and expression patterns of the target molecule in the context of the tissue architecture. Immunohistochemistry is widely used in diagnostic pathology to help identify various diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, and immune-mediated disorders.

Genetic linkage is the phenomenon where two or more genetic loci (locations on a chromosome) tend to be inherited together because they are close to each other on the same chromosome. This occurs during the process of sexual reproduction, where homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange genetic material through a process called crossing over.

The closer two loci are to each other on a chromosome, the lower the probability that they will be separated by a crossover event. As a result, they are more likely to be inherited together and are said to be linked. The degree of linkage between two loci can be measured by their recombination frequency, which is the percentage of meiotic events in which a crossover occurs between them.

Linkage analysis is an important tool in genetic research, as it allows researchers to identify and map genes that are associated with specific traits or diseases. By analyzing patterns of linkage between markers (identifiable DNA sequences) and phenotypes (observable traits), researchers can infer the location of genes that contribute to those traits or diseases on chromosomes.

Reproducibility of results in a medical context refers to the ability to obtain consistent and comparable findings when a particular experiment or study is repeated, either by the same researcher or by different researchers, following the same experimental protocol. It is an essential principle in scientific research that helps to ensure the validity and reliability of research findings.

In medical research, reproducibility of results is crucial for establishing the effectiveness and safety of new treatments, interventions, or diagnostic tools. It involves conducting well-designed studies with adequate sample sizes, appropriate statistical analyses, and transparent reporting of methods and findings to allow other researchers to replicate the study and confirm or refute the results.

The lack of reproducibility in medical research has become a significant concern in recent years, as several high-profile studies have failed to produce consistent findings when replicated by other researchers. This has led to increased scrutiny of research practices and a call for greater transparency, rigor, and standardization in the conduct and reporting of medical research.

Exons are the coding regions of DNA that remain in the mature, processed mRNA after the removal of non-coding intronic sequences during RNA splicing. These exons contain the information necessary to encode proteins, as they specify the sequence of amino acids within a polypeptide chain. The arrangement and order of exons can vary between different genes and even between different versions of the same gene (alternative splicing), allowing for the generation of multiple protein isoforms from a single gene. This complexity in exon structure and usage significantly contributes to the diversity and functionality of the proteome.

Photic stimulation is a medical term that refers to the exposure of the eyes to light, specifically repetitive pulses of light, which is used as a method in various research and clinical settings. In neuroscience, it's often used in studies related to vision, circadian rhythms, and brain function.

In a clinical context, photic stimulation is sometimes used in the diagnosis of certain medical conditions such as seizure disorders (like epilepsy). By observing the response of the brain to this light stimulus, doctors can gain valuable insights into the functioning of the brain and the presence of any neurological disorders.

However, it's important to note that photic stimulation should be conducted under the supervision of a trained healthcare professional, as improper use can potentially trigger seizures in individuals who are susceptible to them.

"Cell count" is a medical term that refers to the process of determining the number of cells present in a given volume or sample of fluid or tissue. This can be done through various laboratory methods, such as counting individual cells under a microscope using a specialized grid called a hemocytometer, or using automated cell counters that use light scattering and electrical impedance techniques to count and classify different types of cells.

Cell counts are used in a variety of medical contexts, including hematology (the study of blood and blood-forming tissues), microbiology (the study of microscopic organisms), and pathology (the study of diseases and their causes). For example, a complete blood count (CBC) is a routine laboratory test that includes a white blood cell (WBC) count, red blood cell (RBC) count, hemoglobin level, hematocrit value, and platelet count. Abnormal cell counts can indicate the presence of various medical conditions, such as infections, anemia, or leukemia.

Apoptosis is a programmed and controlled cell death process that occurs in multicellular organisms. It is a natural process that helps maintain tissue homeostasis by eliminating damaged, infected, or unwanted cells. During apoptosis, the cell undergoes a series of morphological changes, including cell shrinkage, chromatin condensation, and fragmentation into membrane-bound vesicles called apoptotic bodies. These bodies are then recognized and engulfed by neighboring cells or phagocytic cells, preventing an inflammatory response. Apoptosis is regulated by a complex network of intracellular signaling pathways that involve proteins such as caspases, Bcl-2 family members, and inhibitors of apoptosis (IAPs).

Genotype, in genetics, refers to the complete heritable genetic makeup of an individual organism, including all of its genes. It is the set of instructions contained in an organism's DNA for the development and function of that organism. The genotype is the basis for an individual's inherited traits, and it can be contrasted with an individual's phenotype, which refers to the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism that result from the expression of its genes in combination with environmental influences.

It is important to note that an individual's genotype is not necessarily identical to their genetic sequence. Some genes have multiple forms called alleles, and an individual may inherit different alleles for a given gene from each parent. The combination of alleles that an individual inherits for a particular gene is known as their genotype for that gene.

Understanding an individual's genotype can provide important information about their susceptibility to certain diseases, their response to drugs and other treatments, and their risk of passing on inherited genetic disorders to their offspring.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

Oxidative stress is defined as an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen species (free radicals) and the body's ability to detoxify them or repair the damage they cause. This imbalance can lead to cellular damage, oxidation of proteins, lipids, and DNA, disruption of cellular functions, and activation of inflammatory responses. Prolonged or excessive oxidative stress has been linked to various health conditions, including cancer, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, and aging-related diseases.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a laboratory technique used to amplify specific regions of DNA. It enables the production of thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence in a rapid and efficient manner, making it an essential tool in various fields such as molecular biology, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and research.

The PCR process involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling to separate the DNA strands, allow primers (short sequences of single-stranded DNA) to attach to the target regions, and extend these primers using an enzyme called Taq polymerase, resulting in the exponential amplification of the desired DNA segment.

In a medical context, PCR is often used for detecting and quantifying specific pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites) in clinical samples, identifying genetic mutations or polymorphisms associated with diseases, monitoring disease progression, and evaluating treatment effectiveness.

An Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) is a type of analytical biochemistry assay used to detect and quantify the presence of a substance, typically a protein or peptide, in a liquid sample. It takes its name from the enzyme-linked antibodies used in the assay.

In an ELISA, the sample is added to a well containing a surface that has been treated to capture the target substance. If the target substance is present in the sample, it will bind to the surface. Next, an enzyme-linked antibody specific to the target substance is added. This antibody will bind to the captured target substance if it is present. After washing away any unbound material, a substrate for the enzyme is added. If the enzyme is present due to its linkage to the antibody, it will catalyze a reaction that produces a detectable signal, such as a color change or fluorescence. The intensity of this signal is proportional to the amount of target substance present in the sample, allowing for quantification.

ELISAs are widely used in research and clinical settings to detect and measure various substances, including hormones, viruses, and bacteria. They offer high sensitivity, specificity, and reproducibility, making them a reliable choice for many applications.

Biological models, also known as physiological models or organismal models, are simplified representations of biological systems, processes, or mechanisms that are used to understand and explain the underlying principles and relationships. These models can be theoretical (conceptual or mathematical) or physical (such as anatomical models, cell cultures, or animal models). They are widely used in biomedical research to study various phenomena, including disease pathophysiology, drug action, and therapeutic interventions.

Examples of biological models include:

1. Mathematical models: These use mathematical equations and formulas to describe complex biological systems or processes, such as population dynamics, metabolic pathways, or gene regulation networks. They can help predict the behavior of these systems under different conditions and test hypotheses about their underlying mechanisms.
2. Cell cultures: These are collections of cells grown in a controlled environment, typically in a laboratory dish or flask. They can be used to study cellular processes, such as signal transduction, gene expression, or metabolism, and to test the effects of drugs or other treatments on these processes.
3. Animal models: These are living organisms, usually vertebrates like mice, rats, or non-human primates, that are used to study various aspects of human biology and disease. They can provide valuable insights into the pathophysiology of diseases, the mechanisms of drug action, and the safety and efficacy of new therapies.
4. Anatomical models: These are physical representations of biological structures or systems, such as plastic models of organs or tissues, that can be used for educational purposes or to plan surgical procedures. They can also serve as a basis for developing more sophisticated models, such as computer simulations or 3D-printed replicas.

Overall, biological models play a crucial role in advancing our understanding of biology and medicine, helping to identify new targets for therapeutic intervention, develop novel drugs and treatments, and improve human health.

Central progressive retinal atrophy (CPRA) is a different disease from PRA involving the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), and ... It can also be found in the poodle varieties There is another retinal disease in Briards known as hereditary retinal dysplasia ... Progressive retinal atrophy (PRA) is a group of genetic diseases seen in certain breeds of dogs and, more rarely, cats. Similar ... As other retinal disorders, PRA can be divided into either dysplastic disease, where the cells develop abnormally, and ...
... and Macular Diseases. Springer. ISBN 0-7923-5144-4. Strauss O (2005) "The retinal pigment epithelium ... Yang, Song; Zhou, Jun; Li, Dengwen (28 July 2021). "Functions and Diseases of the Retinal Pigment Epithelium". Frontiers in ... This comes not directly from the visual cycle but from several retinal pools of retinal binding proteins which are connected to ... For this, functional aspects come into play: the storage of retinal and the adaption of the reaction speed. Basically vision at ...
... (SARDS) is a disease in dogs causing sudden blindness. It can occur in any breed ... Bellhorn, R. W.; Murphy, C. J.; Thirkill, C. E. (February 1988). "Anti-retinal immunoglobulins in canine ocular diseases". ... but the most common hypotheses on the causes of the disease possibly include autoimmune disease, or exposure to toxins. ... The retinal degeneration appears to be related to apoptosis of these cells. SARDS must be distinguished from other causes of ...
Salmon JF (13 December 2019). "Retinal vascular disease". Kanski's clinical ophthalmology : a systematic approach (9th ed.). ... Valsalva retinopathy is a form of retinopathy due to retinal bleeding secondary to rupture of retinal vessels caused by ... Valsalva retinopathy is a form of sub-retinal, sub-hyaloid or sub-internal limiting membrane hemorrhage occur due to rupture of ... retinal vessels caused by a strenuous physical activity. Physical exertion like weight lifting and aerobic exercise, coughing, ...
John F., Salmon (2020). "Retinal vascular disease". Kanski's clinical ophthalmology : a systematic approach (9th ed.). ... Although often brief and harmless, they may be a sign of retinal detachment. Retinal detachment: Symptoms include floaters, ... A retinal migraine is when you have only visual symptoms without a headache. Reduced blinking: Lid closure that occurs too ... "WHO , Priority eye diseases". WHO. Retrieved 2020-09-02. Coursey, Terry G; de Paiva, Cintia S (2014-08-04). "Managing Sjögren's ...
In young males who carry a gene mutation, the disease presents itself as retinal cavities, splitting of inner retinal layers ( ... Vijayasarathy C, Ziccardi L, Sieving PA (2012). "Biology of Retinoschisin". Retinal Degenerative Diseases. Advances in ... Young males who have an RS1 mutation are susceptible to retinoschisis, and X-linked eye disease which causes macular ... Wu WW (October 2005). RS1 structure-function relationships: roles in retinal adhesion and X-linked retinoschisis (Ph.D. thesis ...
Retinal Degenerative Diseases. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 572. pp. 29-33. doi:10.1007/0-387-32442-9_5 ... Rao KN, Zhang W, Li L, Anand M, Khanna H (2016b) Prenylated retinal ciliopathy protein RPGR interacts with PDE6delta and ... Rao KN, Li L, Anand M, Khanna H (2015). "Ablation of retinal ciliopathy protein RPGR results in altered photoreceptor ciliary ... Murga-Zamalloa CA, Desai NJ, Hildebrandt F, Khanna H (July 2010). "Interaction of ciliary disease protein retinitis pigmentosa ...
Kasus-Jacobi A, Birch DG, Anderson RE (2006). "Photoreceptor Retinol Dehydrogenases". Retinal Degenerative Diseases. Advances ... 2002). "Evidence that the human gene for prostate short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase (PSDR1) encodes a novel retinal reductase ...
Retinal Degenerative Diseases. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 572. pp. 3-8. doi:10.1007/0-387-32442-9_1. ... Initially named "ORP1" for its response to in vivo retinal oxygen levels (designated ORP1 for 'oxygen-regulated protein-1'), ... This protein and another retinal-specific protein, RP1L1, play essential and synergistic roles in affecting photosensitivity ... Retinal Degenerations. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 533. pp. 1-11. doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-0067-4_1. ISBN ...
In many inherited retinal diseases the protein affected by the mutation is directly involved in the light sensing function of ... Retinal Degenerative Diseases. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 723. pp. 381-7. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-0631- ... and promising as a future treatment for similar retinal diseases. In 2011, the first gene therapy treatment for choroideremia ... a similar but broader group of retinal degenerative diseases, making a specific diagnosis difficult without genetic testing. ...
2006). "Bietti Crystalline Corneoretinal Dystrophy Associated with CYP4V2 Gene Mutations". Retinal Degenerative Diseases. ...
Retinal Degenerative Diseases. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 801. pp. 765-771. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614- ... a strategy for the treatment of neurological disease". Nature Reviews. Drug Discovery. 12 (7): 507-525. doi:10.1038/nrd4024. ...
"Acucela - Retinal Diseases". acucela.com. Retrieved 2016-03-01. Protein Structure and Function BÃ¥vik CO, Busch C, Eriksson U ( ... The photoisomerization of 11-cis-retinal to all-trans-retinal initiates the phototransduction pathway through which the brain ... multiplex PCR and mutation screening in patients from India with retinal degenerative diseases". Journal of Genetics. 81 (1): ... "Entrez Gene: RPE65 retinal pigment epithelium-specific protein 65kDa". Wolf G (Mar 2005). "Function of the protein RPE65 in the ...
Retinal Degenerative Diseases. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 854. pp. 655-661. doi:10.1007/978-3-319- ...
Retinal Vascular Disease. Springer. pp. 430-. ISBN 978-3-540-29541-9. Retrieved 29 June 2010. Conley, C. Lockard (1952). "A ... and only a small proportion will proceed to develop this disease (which causes joint pains, skin problems and kidney failure, ...
Retinal Degenerative Diseases. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 1074. pp. 609-616. doi:10.1007/978-3-319- ... there is suspicion that AP2 deficiency or dysfunction may be a precursor for the development of familial Alzheimer's Disease. ...
Retinal Degenerative Diseases. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 801. pp. 291-300. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614- ... single-disease hypothesis holds for Mendelian disorders such as Huntington's disease and cystic fibrosis, complex diseases and ... Celiac disease (CD) is a complex immune disorder that has been found to have strong genetic links in disease. In particular, ... In the table below is a performance comparison of diseases selected on disease frequency and known heritability estimates, with ...
"Bestrophin 1 and retinal disease". review. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 58: 45-69. doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2017.01. ... over 100 disease-causing mutations have been related to BVMD as well as a number of other degenerative retinal diseases. Adult- ... Retinal Degenerative Diseases. review. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 723. pp. 603-10. doi:10.1007/978-1- ... Mutations in the BEST1 gene have been identified as the primary cause for at least five different degenerative retinal diseases ...
Landrum, John T; Nolan, John (18 October 2013). Carotenoids and Retinal Disease. CRC Press. ISBN 9781466502055. "Brain and ... Carotenoids and Retinal Disease. Further conferences on Macular Carotenoids at Downing College were held in 2013 and 2015. The ...
Bedford, Peter (2006). "Hereditary Retinal Diseases" (PDF). Proceedings of the 31st World Congress of the World Small Animal ... CEA can also cause retinal or scleral coloboma, coloboma of the optic disc, retinal detachment, or intraocular hemorrhage. It ... It can be a mild disease or cause blindness. CEA is caused by a simple autosomal recessive gene defect. There is no treatment. ... Lowe J, Kukekova A, Kirkness E, Langlois M, Aguirre G, Acland G, Ostrander E (2003). "Linkage mapping of the primary disease ...
Lad EM, Cheshier SH, Kalani MY (2009). "Wnt-signaling in retinal development and disease". Stem Cells Dev. 18 (1): 7-16. doi: ... Ath5 expression in retinal progenitor cells biases their differentiation into a retinal ganglion cell fate. An example of an ... In the vertebrate, these retinal cells differentiate into seven cell types, including retinal ganglion cells, amacrine cells, ... The differentiation of retinal precursor cells into the mature cell types found in the retina is coordinated in time and space ...
"Retinal diseases - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. "Understanding how immune cells cause scarring in wet age-related macular ... Macular scarring is formation of the fibrous tissue in place of the normal retinal tissue on the macular area of the retina ...
Minireview: Fibronectin in retinal disease. Exp Biol Med (Maywood). 2017 ;242(1):1-7 Goyal R, Vega ME, Pastino AK, Singh S, ...
Structural implications for retinal disease". FEBS Letters. 528 (1-3): 17-22. doi:10.1016/S0014-5793(02)03241-6. PMID 12297272 ... A second product of Meta II decay is an all-trans-retinal opsin complex in which the all-trans-retinal has been translocated to ... This means replacing all-trans-retinal with 11-cis-retinal and the decay of Meta II is crucial in this process. During the ... Park PS (2014). "Constitutively active rhodopsin and retinal disease". Pharmacology & Therapeutics of Constitutively Active ...
CRISPR Genome Surgery in Stem Cells and Disease Tissues , Stephen Tsang , Elsevier. Atlas of Inherited Retinal Diseases , ... Professor Tsang studies metabolic signaling in retinal diseases, as well as gene therapy and stem cell therapy to treat such ... He also edited a book on inherited retinal diseases. He has authored over 280 peer reviewed articles, including articles ... diseases. In 2010, Tsang led an international research team that used embryonic stem cells of mice to replace diseased retinal ...
Structural implications for retinal disease". FEBS Letters. 528 (1-3): 17-22. doi:10.1016/s0014-5793(02)03241-6. PMID 12297272 ... Audo I, Robson AG, Holder GE, Moore AT (2008). "The negative ERG: clinical phenotypes and disease mechanisms of inner retinal ... The third mutation is Ala292Glu, and it is located in the seventh transmembrane helix, in proximity to the site of retinal ... Nakamura M, Ito S, Piao CH, Terasaki H, Miyake Y (July 2003). "Retinal and optic disc atrophy associated with a CACNA1F ...
Bhattacharya, Sanjoy (May 2009). "Retinal deimination in aging and disease". IUBMB Life. 61 (5): 504-509. doi:10.1002/iub.184. ... Citrullinated vimentin may be an autoantigen in RA and other autoimmune diseases, and is used to study RA. Moreover, antibodies ... In adults, MBP deimination is found in demyelination diseases such as multiple sclerosis. MBP may affect different cell types ... Citrullinated proteins are also found in the cellular debris accompanying the destruction of cells in alzheimer disease, and ...
"Retinal astrocytic hamartoma and Bourneville's disease". Oman J Ophthalmol. 5 (3): 198-9. doi:10.4103/0974-620X.106108. PMC ... Retinoblastoma protein Coats' disease Trilateral retinoblastoma Pinealoblastoma India portal Medicine portal Long link - please ... PMID 29380786.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Honavar SG (2018). "Retinal vasoproliferative ... "Rosai dorfman disease of the orbit". J Hematol Oncol. 1: 7. doi:10.1186/1756-8722-1-7. PMC 2474646. PMID 18588698.{{cite ...
"FDA approves first retinal implant for rare eye disease". Reuters. 14 February 2013. (Blindness, Vision). ... Retinal regeneration refers to the restoration of vision in vertebrates that have suffered retinal lesions or retinal ... Regenerative processes may have applications in humans for treating degenerative retinal diseases, such as retinitis pigmentosa ... Understanding the underlying mechanisms may provide insight into treatment options for degenerative retinal diseases in mammals ...
"FDA approves first retinal implant for adults with rare genetic eye disease". Food and Drug Administration. 14 February 2013. ... "FDA approves first retinal implant for rare eye disease". Reuters. 14 February 2013. Retrieved 14 February 2013. " ... Argus retinal prosthesis, also known as a bionic eye, is an electronic retinal implant manufactured by the American company ... "Argus II Retinal Prosthesis System Doctors Users Manual" (PDF). FDA. 29 July 2013. Retrieved 11 December 2019. Ronald D. White ...
Retinal disease can have devastating consequences. Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the leading cause of legal ... Early diagnosis and treatment can help prevent or delay disease progression, and research suggests some promising new ...
... such as renal disease and retinopathy, could be improved by bariatric surgery in the morbidly obese. ... Cite this: Bariatric Surgery Benefits Diabetic Renal, Retinal Disease - Medscape - Feb 07, 2013. ... The primary end point for kidney disease was change in urine albumin-creatinine ratio (ACR) from baseline to 1 year after the ... "If you have patients who are at very high risk, morbidly obese with type 2 diabetes and microvascular disease, these are the ...
Variation in retinal thickness likely reflects genetic differences between individuals, but cannot discriminate between healthy ... Retinal layer thickness in preclinical Alzheimers disease Acta Ophthalmol. 2019 Dec;97(8):798-804. doi: 10.1111/aos.14121. ... Several studies suggest that retinal thickness is reduced in AD. Here, we aim to test the diagnostic value of retinal thickness ... Results: No differences were found in retinal layer thickness in the macula or pRNFL between Aβ+ and Aβ- individuals. A ...
Computer eye strain is the number one eye-related complaint in the United States, and its no wonder - the average American adult spends nine ...
Home Topics Cancer Transplanted Amniotic Stem Cells Offer Hope for Retinal Diseases ... were able to suppress retinal neovascularization. Their study ("Retinal angiogenesis effects of TGF-ß1, and paracrine factors ... MSCs have been successfully transplanted in a number of disease models for which they have been shown to offer therapeutic ... The treatment aimed at suppressing abnormal angiogenesis, which is recognized as the cause of many eye diseases, such as ...
Source Reference: Smith RT, et all "Could we save lives with retinal imaging by finding undetected high-risk vascular diseases ... Link Between Neovascular Eye Disease, CVD Tracked to Retinal Lesions. - Subretinal drusenoid deposits found in 85% of patients ... Are they markers for distinct retinal diseases? Retina 2022; DOI: 10.1097/IAE.0000000000003460. ... NEW YORK CITY -- Subretinal drusenoid deposits (SDD) had a significant association with underlying cardiovascular disease (CVD ...
Search on Castle Connolly for top doctors that specialize in Retinal Vascular Diseases near me . Find up-to-date information ... Find doctors that specialize in Retinal Vascular Diseases near me Castle Connolly Top s in and near There are 66 results that ... Shore Medical Center, AtlantiCare Regional Medical Center-Atlantic City Campus, Retinal & Ophthalmic Consultants ... Shore Medical Center, AtlantiCare Regional Medical Center-Atlantic City Campus, Retinal & Ophthalmic Consultants ...
Retinal Artery Occlusion. Pathophysiology. Retinal artery occlusion (RAO) is the ocular equivalent of cerebrovascular disease. ... An unusual disease can be associated with branch RAO called Susac syndrome. This disease is also associated with low-frequency ... Occlusion of a retinal vessel leads to ischemia of retinal tissue supplied by that arterial territory, resulting in acute ... Central retinal artery occlusion with cherry-red spot and surrounding retinal edema. View Media Gallery ...
In the back of the vertebrate eye, the apical membrane of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and the photoreceptor outer ...
It may occur with vascular disease, retinal dystrophy, uveitis, and usage of certai ... Retinal Vascular Diseases: Cystoid Macular Edema and Related Diseases. George J. Ko, MD; Stacy J. Bang, MD, MPH; and William B ... It may occur with vascular disease, retinal dystrophy, uveitis, and usage of certain medications. CME arises from the ... the retina when there is disruption of the normal blood-retinal barrier and abnormal permeability of the perifoveal retinal ...
Based on models from analysis, they were able to make the link to cardiovascular disease and predict 70% of the time which ... 19 in Nature Biomedical Engineering, researchers reported that they used retinal fundus images from 284,335 people to extract ... signs of cardiovascular disease and link that to its known risk factors. ... Study: Google algorithms can predict risks for heart disease by using retinal images. March 3, 2018 ...
UCL and Moorfields launch new retinal disease online CPD course. UCL and Moorfields launch new retinal disease online CPD ... Retinal Disease: Latest Methods in Diagnosis and Treatment for Clinical Practice was created by UCL and Moorfields experts for ... Retinal Disease: Latest Methods in Diagnosis and Treatment for Clinical Practice online course at UCL Life Learning ... the 16-hour course focuses on clinical diagnosis of retinal disease; interpretation of current imaging techniques; and up-to- ...
This was accompanied by retinal swelling and the appearance of cystoid spaces in both inner and ONLs of R91W;Nrl−/− mice ... Recently, we generated R91W;Nrl−/− double-mutant mice, which display a well-ordered all-cone retina with normal retinal ... mice to blue light not only induces cone cell death but also disrupts the inner blood-retinal barrier. Macular edema in humans ... Cell Death and Disease is an open-access journal published by Nature Publishing Group. This work is licensed under a Creative ...
Retinal Hemorrhages in 4 Patients with Dengue Fever. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2005;11(5):770-772. doi:10.3201/ ... on virus cultured from serum taken early in the disease. The diagnosis of retinal hemorrhage was made by an ophthalmologist ... Retinal hemorrhages may reflect the rising incidence of dengue in Singapore or may be caused by changes in the predominant ... Retinal hemorrhage is a rare but potentially serious complication of dengue fever. The onset of symptoms appears to coincide ...
Therefore, the number of RPE cells invading the retina in retinal degenerative disease may be underappreciated by funduscopy. ... Purpose Invasion of pigmented cells into the retina occurs in retinal degenerative diseases, such as macular telangiectasia ... type 2 (MacTel) and retinitis pigmentosa (RP). These intraretinal pigmented cells may be derived from the retinal pigment ...
... corneal and retinal diseases at Apollo Hospitals Hyderabad includes Fundus Fluorescein Angiography, Fundus Photographs and more ... Retinal Diseases & Management. Retinal is the light-sensitive layer of the eye. Any disease affecting this layer results in the ... This helps in the treatment of various retinal diseases including retinal holes and diabetic retinopathy. Both slit-lamp ... Corneal Diseases & Management. The cornea is a clear glass-like structure in front of the eye. Any disease affecting this ...
Key Words: Mesenchymal stem cells, Cell therapy, Optic nerve diseases, Clinical trials, Retinal diseases ... Table 1 Clinical trials for retinal and optic nerve diseases. Clinical trial. Condition. Cells. Route of administration. Dose. ... Mesenchymal stem cells for retinal diseases. Int J Ophthalmol. 2011;4:413-21. [PubMed] [DOI] [Cited in This Article: ] [Cited ... Most retinal and optic nerve diseases are caused by irreversible apoptosis of retinal neural cells or adjacent supporting ...
An 11-month-old girl presented to hospital with a massive subdural haematoma and bilateral retinal haemorrhages following an ... Von Willebrands disease type I as a cause for subvitreal, retinal and subretinal haemorrhages. Graefes Arch Clin Exp ... An infant with subdural hematoma and retinal hemorrhages: does von Willebrand disease explain the findings?. *Case Report ... Retinal haemorrhages in infants with vWD have not been previously reported. This case highlights the importance of considering ...
... ... Discharge patterns of retinal ganglion cells in rodent models of degenerative retinal diseases ... Menzler, Jacob (2012): Discharge patterns of retinal ganglion cells in rodent models of degenerative retinal diseases. ...
... with breakdown of the BRB directly implicated in the development of a range of retinal diseases such as diabetic retinopathy ( ... Alistair Laidlaw talks to Jose Cunha Vaz about the crucial role played by the blood-retinal barrier (BRB) in the regulation of ... EURETINA Educational Webinar: AI-Based Developments in Retinal Imaging (28 June 2023). ...
How familiar are you with the management of inherited retinal diseases? Test your knowledge with this quick quiz. ... 2001/viewarticle/could-retinal-changes-be-harbinger-parkinsons-2023a1000jql. Could Retinal Changes Be a Harbinger of ... Fast Five Quiz: Management of Inherited Retinal Diseases - Medscape - Mar 31, 2023. ... Oral Therapy Shown to Preserve Retina in Stargardt Disease * At 2 Years, Anti-VEGF Treatment, Laser Therapy Equal for ROP, ...
CRF STRENGTHENS COMMITMENT TO FIND A CURE FOR CHOROIDEREMIA A RARE INHERETED RETINAL DISEASE THAT CAUSES BLINDNESS. News ... CRF STRENGTHENS COMMITMENT TO FIND A CURE FOR CHOROIDEREMIA A RARE INHERETED RETINAL DISEASE THAT CAUSES BLINDNESS. News ... CHOROIDEREMIA RESEARCH FOUNDATION EXPANDS SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH OF INHERITED RETINAL DISEASE WITH ITS LATEST GRANT AWARDS ... CHOROIDEREMIA RESEARCH FOUNDATION ACCELERATES SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH OF RARE INHERITED RETINAL DISEASE AWARDING TWO GRANTS ...
Now, the grant you received recently is directed at your research into the role ectosomes play in retinal disease. What can you ... This is HealthLink on Air. Today, Im speaking with a scientist who studies retinal disease at Upstate. William Spencer ... Pancreas transplants; COVID and pain; clues to a retinal disease: Upstate Medical Universitys HealthLink on Air for Sunday, ... Reza Saidi, MD: Patients who have kidney disease, chronic kidney disease, and have diabetes, they have shown that the best ...
Robert Hyde & Inherited Retinal Disease. Home/Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences/Ophthalmology News/Ophthalmology Spotlight: Dr. ... Robert Hyde & Inherited Retinal Disease. The Illinois Eye and Ear Infirmary has a new service specifically designed for ... Inherited retinal diseases are rare genetic eye conditions, affecting 1 out of 3,000 people. Although the presentation of ... Hydes current research involves using electrophysiology to better understand functional deficits of inherited retinal disease ...
Retinal thinning and correlation with functional disability in patients with Parkinsons disease ... Retinal thinning and correlation with functional disability in patients with Parkinsons disease ...
Inherited retinal diseases (IRDs) are a group of diseases whose common landmark is progressive photoreceptor loss. The ... miR-181a/b downregulation: a mutation-independent therapeutic approach for inherited retinal diseases EMBO Molecular Medicine ... miR-181a/b downregulation: a mutation-independent therapeutic approach for inherited retinal diseases. ... miR-181a/b downregulation: a mutation-independent therapeutic approach for inherited retinal diseases ...
... disease for these families. For FAM1, two different genes accounted for retinal disease in a non-overlapping manner in this ... in patients with inherited retinal disease can lead to challenges in correctly identifying the disease-causing mutation in ... Genetic testing in retinal diseases historically began with the proband as proxy for the family and targeted genes analyzed in ... Inherited retinal diseases are exceptionally heterogeneous with more than 3,500 mutations in more than 80 genes known to cause ...
The use of miRNA as potential therapeutic targets in diseases causing retinal degenerations ... Study » Student projects » The use of miRNA as potential therapeutic targets in diseases causing retinal degenerations ... The use of miRNA as potential therapeutic targets in diseases causing retinal degenerations. ... The use of miRNA as potential therapeutic targets in diseases causing retinal degenerations ...
... in the hopes of treating diseases such as Alzheimer s disease, paralysis and diabetes. The appeal of these cells is that they ... The researchers turned human embryonic cells into retinal pigment epithelial cells, which are destroyed by these two diseases, ... Preliminary studies find promising treatments for type 1 diabetes, vision loss from retinal disease, and acute lymphoblastic ... in the hopes of treating diseases such as Alzheimer s disease, paralysis and diabetes. The appeal of these cells is that they ...
Retinal disease can impair vision or even cause blindness. Schedule an evaluation with a Florida Medical Clinic Ophthalmologist ... Heres a look at three of the most common types of retinal disease:. Retinal Tear. This retinal condition and a less-serious ... Retinal Disease Symptoms. The retina can be affected by a variety of diseases that can impair vision or even cause blindness. ... Retinal Disease Risk Factors. Anyone can develop a retinal disorder, but people older than 50 and those who have diabetes face ...
  • The treatment aimed at suppressing abnormal angiogenesis, which is recognized as the cause of many eye diseases, such as diabetic retinopathy and age-related macular degeneration. (genengnews.com)
  • Other common conditions affecting the retina include Diabetic Retinopathy, occlusion of retinal blood vessels, bleeding inside the eye and age-related muscular degeneration. (apollohospitals.com)
  • This helps in the treatment of various retinal diseases including retinal holes and diabetic retinopathy. (apollohospitals.com)
  • Tractional retinal detachment - This retinal disorder is typically caused by diabetic retinopathy, a diabetes-related complication that damages blood vessels and causes retinal scarring. (floridamedicalclinic.com)
  • Diabetic retinopathy, the most prevalent retinal vascular disease, is a leading cause of blindness in patients between 20 to 74 years of age in the U.S. (optometrytimes.com)
  • Diabetic retinopathy is a condition in which blood vessels in the retina become damaged or irregular, leading to injury of retinal cells. (lakeeye.com)
  • It can occur at any stage of diabetic retinopathy, although it is more likely to occur the longer the disease goes on. (novartis.be)
  • Retinal vein occlusion (RVO) is the most common retinal vascular disorder after diabetic retinopathy. (novartis.be)
  • These problems increase the risk of retinal detachment and hence often require laser treatment or cryotherapy to seal them. (apollohospitals.com)
  • A torn retina can allow fluid to seep in and cause retinal detachment, which can lead to permanent blindness. (floridamedicalclinic.com)
  • Rhegmatogenous retinal detachment - The most common way for a retina to become detached, this retinal condition results from a retinal tear or hole that allows fluid to build up behind the retina. (floridamedicalclinic.com)
  • Exudative retinal detachment - This eye disorder results from fluid buildup behind the retina that's unrelated to any kind of retinal tear or break. (floridamedicalclinic.com)
  • The second volume of this set covers several choroid and retinal disorders including, commotio retinae, choroidal rupture and macular trauma, retinal breaks and detachment, and a variety of congenital / genetic eye diseases such as Best's disease and Stargardt disease. (benthambooks.com)
  • This can create scar tissue that pulls the retina loose, a serious condition called retinal detachment, which can lead to permanent vision loss, even blindness. (lakeeye.com)
  • Left untreated, the retina may be yanked free from the underlying supportive tissue, a severe condition called retinal detachment. (lakeeye.com)
  • People with severe nearsightedness (myopia) are many times more vulnerable to retinal tears and detachment than those without it. (lakeeye.com)
  • Retinal tears that are considered low risk require monitoring to ensure they heal correctly and aren't progressing into detachment. (lakeeye.com)
  • Further complications can include neovascular glaucoma, vitreous haemorrhage and tractional retinal detachment. (novartis.be)
  • Retinal detachment is a condition that causes the retina to lift off of the wall of the eye. (alohavisionconsultants.com)
  • For this reason, retinal detachment is considered a medical emergency and must be treated immediately to conserve vision. (alohavisionconsultants.com)
  • Surgery is required to fix a retinal detachment. (alohavisionconsultants.com)
  • Anytime subretinal fluid accumulates in the space between the neurosensory retina and the underlying retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), a retinal detachment occurs. (medscape.com)
  • When there is an increase in the inflow of fluid or a decrease in the outflow of fluid from the vitreous cavity that overwhelms the normal compensatory mechanisms, fluid accumulates in the subretinal space leading to an exudative retinal detachment. (medscape.com)
  • The composition of the choroidal interstitial fluid plays a fundamental role in the pathogenesis of an exudative retinal detachment. (medscape.com)
  • Any pathological process that affects choroidal vascular permeability can potentially cause an exudative retinal detachment. (medscape.com)
  • For instance, a patient with an exudative retinal detachment from scleritis secondary to rheumatoid arthritis has a severe condition. (medscape.com)
  • Compare this to a healthy patient who underwent scleral buckling surgery with an exudative retinal detachment. (medscape.com)
  • Exudative retinal detachment secondary to preeclampsia usually resolves without long-term complications. (medscape.com)
  • However, patients with severe eclampsia may experience permanent visual loss secondary to extensive RPE necrosis even when the retinal detachment resolves. (medscape.com)
  • Systemic diseases manifesting as exudative retinal detachment. (medscape.com)
  • NEW YORK CITY -- Subretinal drusenoid deposits (SDD) had a significant association with underlying cardiovascular disease (CVD), adding a missing link between age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and CVD, a prospective study showed. (medpagetoday.com)
  • As the incidence of cone degenerative diseases such as age-related macular degeneration is expected to rise in the future, the understanding of cone physiology and pathophysiology is urgently needed to develop therapeutic approaches for the preservation of cone-mediated vision in patients. (nature.com)
  • Deterioration of the RPE plays a central role in the progression of diseases such as age-related macular degeneration and sub-types of retinitis pigmentosa. (cellebrationlifesciences.com)
  • From age-related macular degeneration that's akin to a slowly encroaching fog, to retinal diseases like retinitis pigmentosa, which can feel like slowly being encased in darkness as peripheral vision fades. (nationalstemcelltherapy.com)
  • Funduscopic examination OD was remarkable for peripapillary subretinal hemorrhage-view of the optic nerve head was obscured by retinal hemorrhage, retinal whitening superior to macula indicative of a branch arterial occlusion and scattered intraretinal and blot hemorrhages associated with the deeper retinal capillary plexus. (optometrytimes.com)
  • Occlusion of a retinal vein causes haemorrhage and macular oedema, which can lead to a painless reduction in vision. (novartis.be)
  • Retinal vein occlusion (RVO) can be divided into two primary categories - branch and central RVO - depending on the site of blockage (occlusion), with branch occlusions occurring more commonly than central ones. (vision-relief.com)
  • Laouri M, Chen E, Looman M, Gallagher M. The Burden of disease of retinal vein occlusion: review of the literature. (vision-relief.com)
  • 2020. https://www.asrs.org/patients/retinal-diseases/22/central-retinal-vein-occlusion . (vision-relief.com)
  • 2019. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/14206-retinal-vein-occlusion-rvo . (vision-relief.com)
  • Lowth M. Retinal vein occlusion. (vision-relief.com)
  • 2017. https://patient.info/eye-care/visual-problems/retinal-vein-occlusion . (vision-relief.com)
  • Morris R, Retinal Vein Occlusion, Kerala J Ophthalmol . (vision-relief.com)
  • Stuart A, Untangling retinal vein occlusion. (vision-relief.com)
  • 2013. https://www.aao.org/eyenet/article/untangling-retinal-vein-occlusion . (vision-relief.com)
  • Rehak J, Rehak M. Branch retinal vein occlusion: Pathogenesis, visual prognosis, and treatment modalities. (vision-relief.com)
  • The CRF has funded more than $4 million in scientific research for a treatment and/or cure for choroideremia (CHM), a rare and inherited retinal disease that causes visual impairment and potentially complete blindness. (einnews.com)
  • Then we'll learn about a disease that causes blindness in dogs and humans. (upstate.edu)
  • The retina can be affected by a variety of diseases that can impair vision or even cause blindness. (floridamedicalclinic.com)
  • Retinal vaso-occlusive disorders are common causes of vision loss and blindness in the world. (optometrytimes.com)
  • Cellebration is advancing the technology to treat blindness related to retinal degeneration. (cellebrationlifesciences.com)
  • Diabetic eye disease is a leading cause for blindness registration among working age adults. (novartis.be)
  • Glen of Imaal Terrier - CRD3 results in gradual blindness with onset around 4 years of age (often detectable as retinal thinning as early as 3 years of age). (wikipedia.org)
  • Inherited retinal diseases-or IRDs-are a group of diseases that can cause severe vision loss or even blindness. (ophthalmologybreakingnews.com)
  • The typical phenotype of this condition is an early onset retinal dystrophy with some preservation of cone function but early loss of rod function, resulting in severe night blindness. (ophthalmologybreakingnews.com)
  • However, the people continue to suffer from high levels of preventable morbidity and mortality from communicable diseases, poor maternal and child health, and a rising burden of non-communicable diseases (NCDs), injuries, blindness and mental illness. (who.int)
  • However, this national plan includes other commonly prevalent non-communicable diseases or conditions like mental il nesses, injuries and blindness because of the country's requirements to be addressed through synchronized public health measures within a common strategic framework. (who.int)
  • For early-stage treatment of these degenerative retinal diseases, the rationale is to stop or delay the death of the retinal cells, which is challenging, with many patients ultimately progressing to severe visual impairment and eventually complete blindness. (lu.se)
  • The acute model of light-induced retinal degeneration uses short exposure to bright white light to study photoreceptor cell death leading to loss of vision. (nature.com)
  • Vitreous degeneration is a natural result of the aging process, and it doesn't always lead to a retinal disorder. (floridamedicalclinic.com)
  • This is a disease with normal rod and cone cell development but late onset degeneration of the rod cells that progresses to the cone cells. (wikipedia.org)
  • Abnormalities of retinal blood flow, degeneration of the layers of the retina and retinal swelling can be easily detected with this test. (nadermoinfarmd.com)
  • Although the causes may vary, many retinal disorders have certain signs and symptoms in common. (floridamedicalclinic.com)
  • Although some retinal disorders are more serious than others, any threat to the retina must be taken seriously. (floridamedicalclinic.com)
  • Retinal disorders affect this vital tissue. (medlineplus.gov)
  • One such consideration is to avoid overlooking choroidal circulations-while these disorders are usually lumped under "retinal vascular diseases," the choroidal circulations also play an imperative role in both normal retinal function and its vascular disease state. (optometrytimes.com)
  • Written by a group of retina specialists, this book is an excellent resource for knowledge about retinal disorders. (benthambooks.com)
  • Fundus Fluorescein Angiography is one of the most important investigation in the Diagnosis & Management of Retinal and Choroidal Disorders. (aios.org)
  • As other retinal disorders, PRA can be divided into either dysplastic disease, where the cells develop abnormally, and degenerative, where the cells develop normally but then degenerate during the dog's lifetime. (wikipedia.org)
  • It may occur with vascular disease, retinal dystrophy, uveitis, and usage of certain medications. (aao.org)
  • These include diseases such as retinitis pigmentosa, Stargardt disease, and cone-rod dystrophy, among others. (uic.edu)
  • In this report, we describe using NGS to identify multiple disease-causing mutations that contribute concurrently or independently to retinal dystrophy in three relatively small families. (molvis.org)
  • 1 n.p.) identified three retinal dystrophy genes ( PRPH2 , PRPF8 , and USH2A ) with disease-causing mutations in varying combinations among the affected family members. (molvis.org)
  • Multiple genes contributing to the retinal dystrophy genotypes within a family were discovered using retinal gene-targeted NGS. (molvis.org)
  • Muscular Dystrophy can be classified as a congenital disease consisting of missing or incorrect code for. (cellebrationlifesciences.com)
  • Central progressive retinal atrophy (CPRA) is a different disease from PRA involving the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), and is also known as retinal pigment epithelial dystrophy (RPED). (wikipedia.org)
  • Autosomal recessively inherited mutations in RPE65 cause Leber's congenital amaurosis / early onset severe rod-cone dystrophy, severe early childhood-onset retinal dystrophy and juvenile retinitis pigmentosa. (ophthalmologybreakingnews.com)
  • The researchers turned human embryonic cells into retinal pigment epithelial cells, which are destroyed by these two diseases, and transplanted these cells into the retinas of the 18 study subjects. (acsh.org)
  • Similarly, these cells have the potential to develop into different types of retinal cells, including photoreceptor cells and retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells. (nationalstemcelltherapy.com)
  • Preliminary data from ongoing clinical trials have shown the safety and efficacy of stem cell-based regenerative therapies for retinal dystrophies. (medscape.com)
  • Retinal dystrophies are a genetically and phenotypically heterogeneous collection of eye diseases disturbing the function of photoreceptor cells and subsequently leading to loss of vision. (molvis.org)
  • To date, 256 genes listed in RetNet have been associated with syndromic and non-syndromic retinal dystrophies, which can be inherited as an autosomal-recessive, autosomal-dominant, or X-linked trait ( RetNet ). (molvis.org)
  • Inherited retinal dystrophies (IRDs) are the second commonest cause of severe visual impairment in childhood and the most frequent in the working age population, and there are several hundred known responsible genes. (ophthalmologybreakingnews.com)
  • For those aged 18-50 years, retinal dystrophies (37%), congenital eye anomalies (14%) and myopic degenerations (13%) were the most common causes. (who.int)
  • Purpose Invasion of pigmented cells into the retina occurs in retinal degenerative diseases, such as macular telangiectasia type 2 (MacTel) and retinitis pigmentosa (RP). (bmj.com)
  • In particular, the injection in the subretinal space of an adeno-associated viral vector (AAV) that harbors a miR-181a/b inhibitor (sponge) sequence (AAV2/8-GFP-Sponge-miR-181a/b) improves retinal morphology and visual function both in models of autosomal dominant ( RHO-P347S ) and of autosomal recessive ( rd10 ) retinitis pigmentosa. (tigem.it)
  • The most common IRD, retinitis pigmentosa, is estimated to affect 1 in 4,000 individuals, while less common IRDs, such as Leber congenital amaurosis and Stargardt disease, affect about 1 in 50,000 and 1 in 10,000 individuals, respectively. (eyesoneyecare.com)
  • Severe focal disease, including retinitis, can develop in HIV-infected patients and in organ transplant recipients and other immunocompromised patients. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Ganciclovir and other antiviral drugs are used to treat severe disease, particularly retinitis. (msdmanuals.com)
  • If you have a retinal disorder, your ophthalmologist might recommend periodic monitoring and ask you to be on the lookout for retinal disease symptoms. (floridamedicalclinic.com)
  • Thus with our standardized, broad based and holistic approach, it is now possible to obtain noticeable improvements in patients with Retinal Diseases for symptoms as well as their functional abilities. (cellebrationlifesciences.com)
  • Oftentimes, this stage produces no symptoms, so it's important to have routine comprehensive eye exams to suspend or slow disease progression, and protect vision from possible permanent damage. (lakeeye.com)
  • However, many are degenerative, which means that the symptoms of the disease will get worse over time. (ophthalmologybreakingnews.com)
  • Microvascular diseases of the retina are assessed by visual inspection of retinal images, but this can be challenging when diseases exhibit silent symptoms or patients cannot attend in- person meetings. (bvsalud.org)
  • How do you deal with complex clinical manifestations of conditions, such as signs (visually observable patient abnormalities), symptoms (abnormal perceptions of illness that only the patients can report, such as pain, itching, fatigue, depressive feelings), and syndromes (clusters of signs, symptoms, and other clinical phenomena that may or may not be indicative of a specific underlying disease)? (cdc.gov)
  • currence of this disease in the spring and R . rickettsii ( 10 ) without details is common and has been reported in 9 of clinical symptoms. (cdc.gov)
  • Her research uses electrophysiological techniques to evaluate normal retinal function, dysfunction caused by blinding retinal diseases and the restoration of function using a variety of therapeutic strategies. (einnews.com)
  • The diagnosis of retinal hemorrhage was made by an ophthalmologist after dilated fundoscopic examination. (cdc.gov)
  • Fast Five Quiz: Management of Inherited Retinal Diseases - Medscape - Mar 31, 2023. (medscape.com)
  • in up to 40% of patients and causes funduscopically visible retinal abnormalities. (msdmanuals.com)
  • This retinal condition and a less-serious one known as a retinal hole can occur when the vitreous fluid-a clear, gel-like substance that fills much of the eye cavity-shrinks and pulls away from the retina. (floridamedicalclinic.com)
  • In some cases, however, the vitreous gel pulls on the retinal tissue hard enough to tear it. (floridamedicalclinic.com)
  • This 3 volume set offers a comprehensive compilation which presents detailed information about ophthalmic (retinal, vitreous and macular) diseases. (benthambooks.com)
  • Over time, the clear gel at the center of the eye (the vitreous) begins to adhere to the retina, contracting and pulling on the fragile tissues, creating tiny retinal tears. (lakeeye.com)
  • 12 PDR is characterised by the growth of new blood vessels from the retinal surface towards the vitreous cavity in response to chronic retinal hypoxia. (novartis.be)
  • AD patients exhibit a myriad of retinal pathologies, including hallmark amyloid β-protein (Aβ) deposits. (jci.org)
  • Lasers for retinal pathologies has been an important tool since time immemorial. (aios.org)
  • The specific causes of visual impairment vary greatly with age, however, unavoidable retinal pathologies were the predominant causes at all ages. (who.int)
  • Other conditions such as retinal vein and artery occlusions and hypertensive retinopathy are also commonly encountered conditions with their share of visual morbidity. (optometrytimes.com)
  • therefore, we investigated the prevalence among 33 patients with retinal vein and artery occlu- sions and 80 controls. (who.int)
  • ISTANBUL - Physicians from the United Kingdom have reported the first data showing that bariatric surgery in morbidly obese patients with type 2 diabetes may be of benefit for the renal and retinal complications of diabetes. (medscape.com)
  • Dr. Le Roux stressed, however, that such weight-loss surgery "must be used as an add-on therapy to medicine because these patients have decades of disease that can't be reversed in 2 days. (medscape.com)
  • Of the patients undergoing surgery, 67 had complete retinal data, and they were compared with 66 controls who got best medical care. (medscape.com)
  • In clinical practice, once all this has been formulated and codified, it is possible that we could have these fairly inexpensive retinal cameras available through[out] the medical world so that patients can be screened by them as part of their routine medical care," Smith told MedPage Today . (medpagetoday.com)
  • Doctors of optometry have long been able to detect markers for systemic diseases, such as diabetes and heart disease, in patients' eyes. (aoa.org)
  • However, new algorithms developed by Google researchers may someday help doctors identify risk factors associated with heart disease, and counsel patients on the best steps to take for their health. (aoa.org)
  • Based on models from analysis, they were able to make the link to cardiovascular disease and predict 70% of the time which patients were likely to have a heart attack within five years. (aoa.org)
  • We report 4 patients with retinal hemorrhages that developed during hospitalization for de ngue fever. (cdc.gov)
  • Rarely, retinal hemorrhages affecting patients with dengue fever are reported. (cdc.gov)
  • We report 4 patients with dengue fever complicated by retinal hemorrhages who were hospitalized in our institution in June and July 2004. (cdc.gov)
  • In the same period, retinal hemorrhages were diagnosed in 4 dengue fever patients in our hospital. (cdc.gov)
  • As you pointed out, the majority of them are done for the patients who already have kidney disease and have diabetes, and they receive combined kidney, or pancreas after kidney, transplantation. (upstate.edu)
  • The Illinois Eye and Ear Infirmary has a new service specifically designed for evaluation and consultation of patients with inherited retinal diseases (IRDs). (uic.edu)
  • Although the presentation of disease varies between patients, the onset of visual impairment often is at an early age - Dr. Hyde has patients as young as just 2 years old. (uic.edu)
  • Finally, another preliminary study conducted by researchers at the Children s Hospital of Philadelphia and the Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania of 30 patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) revealed some success in treating this disease using T-cell therapy. (acsh.org)
  • The wide range of manifestations observed in patients with mitochondrial disease results from varying fractions of abnormal mtDNA molecules in different cells and tissues, a phenomenon termed heteroplasmy. (jci.org)
  • Burden, distribution, cellular layer, and structure of retinal Aβ plaques were analyzed in flat mounts and cross sections of definite AD patients and controls (n = 37). (jci.org)
  • In a proof-of-concept retinal imaging trial (n = 16), amyloid probe curcumin formulation was determined and protocol was established for retinal amyloid imaging in live patients. (jci.org)
  • Moreover, the ability to image retinal amyloid deposits with solid-lipid curcumin and a modified scanning laser ophthalmoscope was demonstrated in live patients. (jci.org)
  • The geometric distribution and increased burden of retinal amyloid pathology in AD, together with the feasibility to noninvasively detect discrete retinal amyloid deposits in living patients, may lead to a practical approach for large-scale AD diagnosis and monitoring. (jci.org)
  • A and B ) Paraffin-embedded retinal cross sections from superior quadrants of AD patients ( n = 12) and matched CTRLs ( n = 8) stained with anti-Aβ42 mAbs (12F4) and peroxidase-based labeling (brown). (jci.org)
  • Monitoring microcirculatory flow offers the potential to enhance monitoring in the care of critically ill patients, and imaging retinal blood flow during critical illness offers a potential biomarker for cerebral microcirculatory perfusion. (springeropen.com)
  • Retinal changes may, therefore, associate with CBF in critically ill patients, offering a novel biomarker to monitor in real-time and reduce cerebral hypoperfusion. (springeropen.com)
  • At Cellebration, we have mastered the technology for isolating the maximum number of viable stem cells from either the autologous sources of your own body or allogeneic with a matched donor to treat various patients with Retinal Diseases. (cellebrationlifesciences.com)
  • Wet AMD accounts for 10-15% of cases of AMD, with patients often having progressed from the dry form of the disease. (novartis.be)
  • Discover how ophthalmologists can use genetic testing to evaluate patients for inherited retinal diseases. (eyesoneyecare.com)
  • Vitreoretinal surgeons aspire to improve the quality of life of their patients by providing the highest quality of medical & surgical care in a compassionate, convenient, ecient environment and also by updating the knowledge of retinal diseases through clinical research and education. (aios.org)
  • Antinuclear antithrombin, protein C, protein S or pres- antibodies were investigated with standard- ence of antiphospholipid antibodies, are ized enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay common in patients with retinal vein occlu- sions and may contribute to the etiology of (ELISA). (who.int)
  • In particular, retinal vascular occlusions says for anticardiolipin antibodies and lupus in patients with primary APS, i.e. with an- anticoagulant. (who.int)
  • Retinal implants available today already provide patients with some level of vision. (lu.se)
  • Severe systemic disease can develop in neonates and immunocompromised patients. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Inherited retinal diseases (IRDs) are a group of diseases whose common landmark is progressive photoreceptor loss. (tigem.it)
  • Overall, these data support the potential use of miR-181a/b downregulation as an innovative mutation-independent therapeutic strategy for IRDs, which can be effective both to delay disease progression and to aid gene-specific therapeutic approaches. (tigem.it)
  • No differences were found in retinal layer thickness in the macula or pRNFL between Aβ+ and Aβ- individuals. (nih.gov)
  • Distortion in the vision is usually caused by a disease of the macula. (nadermoinfarmd.com)
  • Any disease that causes swelling of the macula or physically changes the macula can cause distortion. (nadermoinfarmd.com)
  • I would say all of them are diabetic, but most of them have kidney disease, and on top of that they have diabetes, and they receive combined kidney and pancreas transplant. (upstate.edu)
  • Scientists have been conducting studies using human embryonic stem cells (ESCs) in the hopes of treating diseases such as Alzheimer s disease, paralysis and diabetes. (acsh.org)
  • Anyone can develop a retinal disorder, but people older than 50 and those who have diabetes face a higher risk, as does anyone with a family history of retinal diseases. (floridamedicalclinic.com)
  • This type of retinal disease is caused by complications related to diabetes and uncontrolled blood sugar levels, which can lead to blood vessel damage in the retinal area. (floridamedicalclinic.com)
  • Diabetes is the disease affecting the metabolism of glucose that comes from the food we. (cellebrationlifesciences.com)
  • People with diabetes should have routine comprehensive eye exams, particularly if they have been diagnosed with stage one or stage two DR. Halting or slowing disease progression is the key to preventing vision damage and loss. (lakeeye.com)
  • Diabetic macular oedema (DME) is a complication of diabetes that occurs when there is damage to the blood-retinal barrier, leading to the accumulation of fluid within the intraretinal layers of the macular. (novartis.be)
  • Goodman et al (3) note the chronic nature of HIV infection, but other important chronic infections exist, such as tuberculosis and hepatitis B and C. In our view these conditions, and their co-occurring illnesses, encumber all of the management challenges of important noninfectious diseases such as coronary heart disease, cancer, diabetes, or stroke-related disability (11,12). (cdc.gov)
  • Conventionally NCDs used to refer to major chronic diseases inclusive of heart disease, stroke, diabetes, cancer and chronic respiratory diseases. (who.int)
  • This systematic review provides a high-quality, comprehensive summary of recommendations on hypertension (HT) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), accentuating patient blood pressure, HbA1c levels, patterns of drug treatment, management, and screening of these diseases. (bvsalud.org)
  • Depending on the mechanism of subretinal fluid accumulation, retinal detachments traditionally have been classified into rhegmatogenous, tractional, and exudative. (medscape.com)
  • Treatment options vary according to the type and severity of the retinal condition, but regular checkups by an ophthalmologist are always advised. (floridamedicalclinic.com)
  • Retinal microcirculation can be directly imaged by optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) during perfusion-deficit states such as sepsis, and other systemic haemodynamic disturbances such as acute coronary syndrome, and systemic inflammatory conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease. (springeropen.com)
  • Optical coherence tomography scanning may also demonstrate some preservation of central macular thickness and structure surrounded by areas of retinal thinning. (ophthalmologybreakingnews.com)
  • Disease complications can alter vascular network morphology and disrupt tissue functioning. (bvsalud.org)
  • Retinal Vascular Occlusions - these include retinal vein occlusions and retinal artery occlusions. (nadermoinfarmd.com)
  • There is urgent need for non-invasive diagnostic biomarkers in the preclinical phase of Alzheimer's Disease (AD). (nih.gov)
  • One hundred and sixty five cognitively healthy monozygotic twins aged ≥ 60 were included from the Netherlands Twin Register taking part in the European Medical Information Framework for Alzheimer's Disease PreclinAD study. (nih.gov)
  • The EU Joint Programme - Neurodegenerative Disease Research (JPND) is the largest global research initiative aimed at tackling the challenge of neurodegenerative diseases, in particular, Alzheimer's. (neurodegenerationresearch.eu)
  • Noninvasive detection of Alzheimer's disease (AD) with high specificity and sensitivity can greatly facilitate identification of at-risk populations for earlier, more effective intervention. (jci.org)
  • What is Alzheimer's Disease? (cellebrationlifesciences.com)
  • Alzheimer's disease is the most commonly observed neurodegenerative disorder associated with memory loss and difficulty with. (cellebrationlifesciences.com)
  • Perceiving collision impacts in Alzheimer's disease: the effect of retinal eccentricity on optic flow deficits. (bvsalud.org)
  • Here, we aim to test the diagnostic value of retinal thickness in preclinical AD, as defined by cognitively normal individuals with amyloid pathology on PET. (nih.gov)
  • This review discusses the relationship between cerebral and retinal blood flow, and the relevance of that relationship to systemic pathology and monitoring microcirculatory perfusion in critical illness, focussing more on sepsis. (springeropen.com)
  • Pathology of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. (medscape.com)
  • As the ophthalmic artery traverses the optic nerve, it gives off the central retinal artery and, more distally, the posterior ciliary arteries. (medscape.com)
  • A watershed area is delineated near the head of the optic nerve between the posterior ciliary artery and the central retinal artery. (medscape.com)
  • The scientists believe that their technique may advance stem cell therapy toward clinical practice and offer novel therapies for eye diseases in people. (genengnews.com)
  • Medications, implants and laser therapies can successfully stop or delay disease progression and preserve, even help restore, vision. (lakeeye.com)
  • These therapies are designed to slow disease progression and hopefully restore visual function. (ophthalmologybreakingnews.com)
  • Gene therapies are typically delivered to target retinal cells by subretinal (SR) or intravitreal (IVT) injection. (ophthalmologybreakingnews.com)
  • Welcome to our exploration of the fascinating world of stem cell therapies , particularly focusing on their potential in treating eye diseases . (nationalstemcelltherapy.com)
  • Given the diverse nature of the underlying causes of exudative retinal detachments, no reports are available on the frequency of this condition. (medscape.com)
  • Variation in retinal thickness likely reflects genetic differences between individuals, but cannot discriminate between healthy and preclinical AD cases, making its use as biomarker in these early stages limited. (nih.gov)
  • Inherited retinal diseases are rare genetic eye conditions, affecting 1 out of 3,000 people. (uic.edu)
  • Initial genetic analysis was performed on one family member with traditional Sanger single gene sequencing and/or panel-based testing, and ultimately, retinal gene-targeted NGS was required to identify the underlying cause of disease for individuals within the three families. (molvis.org)
  • Genetic testing of FAM3 (n = 7 affected) identified a mutation in PRPH2 (p.Pro216Leu) tracking with disease in six of the seven affected individuals. (molvis.org)
  • An inherited retinal disease is an umbrella term that can be defined as a diverse range of genetic diseases that lead to photoreceptor and visual loss. (eyesoneyecare.com)
  • Progressive retinal atrophy (PRA) is a group of genetic diseases seen in certain breeds of dogs and, more rarely, cats. (wikipedia.org)
  • An IRD is a genetic disorder- a change, or variant, in one or more genes that contribute to proper retinal function. (ophthalmologybreakingnews.com)
  • A fully automated calculation of the retinal amyloid index (RAI), a quantitative measure of increased curcumin fluorescence, was constructed. (jci.org)
  • Retinal Disease: Latest Methods in Diagnosis and Treatment for Clinical Practice' was created by UCL and Moorfields experts for ophthalmologists, doctors and other professionals with an interest in eye care. (ucl.ac.uk)
  • Newer modalities enhance our clinical findings with anatomical, physiological and functional information to enable better understanding and management of diseases. (aios.org)
  • This system replaces the classification system published in 1986, which included only clinical disease criteria and which was developed before the widespread use of CD4+ T-cell testing (1). (cdc.gov)
  • Each of these articles explores different data sources, and despite the variation in disease and condition combinations selected, these articles show the ability of many US federal datasets to address and better characterize the scope of MCC as well as incorporate important MCC-related issues such as the effect of MCC on the cost of clinical care and the extent of clinical care use. (cdc.gov)
  • The database PubMed and the web search engines Google and Google Scholar were searched from October to December 2019 for evidence-based guidelines covering the overall disease management in Europe, the United States of America, and low and middle-income countries (Indonesia, Vietnam, and Myanmar--IVM later on). (bvsalud.org)
  • Parallel mechanisms autoregulate retinal and cerebral microcirculation to maintain blood flow to meet metabolic demands across a range of perfusion pressures. (springeropen.com)
  • These intraretinal pigmented cells may be derived from the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), but differences and similarities between intraretinal pigmented cells and RPE have so far not been well characterised. (bmj.com)
  • The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is a layer of pigmented cells between the visual retinal cells, called photoreceptors, and the blood vessels at the back of the eye. (cellebrationlifesciences.com)
  • The RPE provides essential support to the retinal photoreceptors and is critical for normal vision. (cellebrationlifesciences.com)
  • Hyde's current research involves using electrophysiology to better understand functional deficits of inherited retinal disease. (uic.edu)
  • In gene replacement therapy, a disease-causing gene is replaced with a functional copy of the gene. (ophthalmologybreakingnews.com)
  • Retinal functional alterations in mice lacking intermediate filament proteins glial fibrillary acidic protein and vimentin. (lu.se)
  • Table 1 outlines various inherited retinal diseases and the number of non-syndromic genes associated with them. (eyesoneyecare.com)
  • In total, 39 of the above genes display some redundancy between diseases. (eyesoneyecare.com)
  • Table 2 lists the number of identified genes and loci per inherited retinal disease category. (eyesoneyecare.com)
  • Several studies suggest that retinal thickness is reduced in AD. (nih.gov)
  • Spectral Domain OCT was used to asses total and individual inner retinal layer thickness in the macular region (ETDRS circles) as well as peripapillary retinal nerve fibre layer (pRNFL) thickness. (nih.gov)
  • Differences between Aβ+ and Aβ- individuals and associations between BP ND and retinal thickness were analyzed. (nih.gov)
  • A positive associations between BP ND and macular total retinal thickness was observed in the inner ring (p = 0.018), but this was not statistically significant after correction for multiple testing (p = 0.144). (nih.gov)
  • 4,5 Your eye care provider may repeat OCT testing to monitor for any change in retinal thickness to help guide your treatment. (vision-relief.com)
  • Generalized PRA is the most common type and causes atrophy of all the neural retinal structures. (wikipedia.org)
  • tion and retinal flourescein angiography. (who.int)
  • 5 CRVOs are responsible for about 20% to 30% of all retinal vein occlusions and are more likely to cause permanent vision loss than branch retinal vein occlusions. (vision-relief.com)
  • What surgery can achieve is a large reduction in the number of medications people have to take and "stabilization of the disease," he says. (medscape.com)
  • One-year results show that bariatric surgery improves markers of kidney disease and might ultimately halt the progression of diabetic nephropathy, says Dr. Le Roux. (medscape.com)
  • We compute 13 separate descriptor vectors (5 statistical, 8 topological) to summarize the morphology of retinal vessel segmentation images and train support vector machines to predict each image's disease classification from the summary vectors. (bvsalud.org)
  • We previously reported that miR-181a/b downregulation boosts mitochondrial turnover in models of primary retinal mitochondrial diseases. (tigem.it)
  • Variants within the high copy number mitochondrial genome (mtDNA) can disrupt organelle function and lead to severe multisystem disease. (jci.org)
  • The procedure is performed to identify the disease, know its extent and to plan treatment. (apollohospitals.com)
  • When you think about the role the retina plays in eyesight, it's easy to understand the importance of early detection and treatment of retinal diseases. (floridamedicalclinic.com)
  • First eye disease treatment based on synthetic protein invented. (worldblindherald.com)
  • Stem cell treatment for Retinal Diseases involves administration of concentrated cells in the targeted area to form colonies, adapt the properties of resident stem cells and initiate some of the lost functions that have been compromised by the disease or injury. (cellebrationlifesciences.com)
  • Advancement in diagnostic technology has resulted in better understanding of the macular diseases and their treatment. (aios.org)
  • Currently, there is no treatment to remove retinal vein blockages, and the poor circulation caused by RVO can promote the growth of new, abnormal blood vessels called neovascularization, which can leak or bleed. (vision-relief.com)
  • In this context, we're going to delve into the specifics of retinal stem cells and their role in eye disease treatment. (nationalstemcelltherapy.com)
  • Let's dive in and discover the potential of stem cells in revolutionizing the treatment of eye diseases. (nationalstemcelltherapy.com)
  • Stay tuned as we delve into the science of these remarkable cells and their potential role in revolutionizing the treatment of eye diseases. (nationalstemcelltherapy.com)
  • This is a game-changer in the field of eye disease treatment, particularly for retinal diseases. (nationalstemcelltherapy.com)