A subclass of cannabinoid receptor found primarily on central and peripheral NEURONS where it may play a role modulating NEUROTRANSMITTER release.
A subclass of cannabinoid receptor found primarily on immune cells where it may play a role modulating release of CYTOKINES.
A class of G-protein-coupled receptors that are specific for CANNABINOIDS such as those derived from CANNABIS. They also bind a structurally distinct class of endogenous factors referred to as ENDOCANNABINOIDS. The receptor class may play a role in modulating the release of signaling molecules such as NEUROTRANSMITTERS and CYTOKINES.
Compounds having the cannabinoid structure. They were originally extracted from Cannabis sativa L. The most pharmacologically active constituents are TETRAHYDROCANNABINOL; CANNABINOL; and CANNABIDIOL.
Compounds that interact with and stimulate the activity of CANNABINOID RECEPTORS.
Compounds that interact with and modulate the activity of CANNABINOID RECEPTORS.
Compounds that inhibit or block the activity of CANNABINOID RECEPTORS.
A psychoactive compound extracted from the resin of Cannabis sativa (marihuana, hashish). The isomer delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is considered the most active form, producing characteristic mood and perceptual changes associated with this compound.
Fatty acid derivatives that have specificity for CANNABINOID RECEPTORS. They are structurally distinct from CANNABINOIDS and were originally discovered as a group of endogenous CANNABINOID RECEPTOR AGONISTS.
OXAZINES with a fused BENZENE ring.
Monohydroxy derivatives of cyclohexanes that contain the general formula R-C6H11O. They have a camphorlike odor and are used in making soaps, insecticides, germicides, dry cleaning, and plasticizers.
Azoles of two nitrogens at the 1,2 positions, next to each other, in contrast with IMIDAZOLES in which they are at the 1,3 positions.
Two-ring crystalline hydrocarbons isolated from coal tar. They are used as intermediates in chemical synthesis, as insect repellents, fungicides, lubricants, preservatives, and, formerly, as topical antiseptics.
Amides composed of unsaturated aliphatic FATTY ACIDS linked with AMINES by an amide bond. They are most prominent in ASTERACEAE; PIPERACEAE; and RUTACEAE; and also found in ARISTOLOCHIACEAE; BRASSICACEAE; CONVOLVULACEAE; EUPHORBIACEAE; MENISPERMACEAE; POACEAE; and SOLANACEAE. They are recognized by their pungent taste and for causing numbing and salivation.
A family of hexahydropyridines.
Proteins that bind specific drugs with high affinity and trigger intracellular changes influencing the behavior of cells. Drug receptors are generally thought to be receptors for some endogenous substance not otherwise specified.
Arachidonic acids are polyunsaturated fatty acids, specifically a type of omega-6 fatty acid, that are essential for human nutrition and play crucial roles in various biological processes, including inflammation, immunity, and cell signaling. They serve as precursors to eicosanoids, which are hormone-like substances that mediate a wide range of physiological responses.
Morpholines are organic compounds containing a morpholine ring, which is a saturated six-membered heterocycle made up of four carbon atoms and two oxygen atoms (OCC1CCO), often used as functional groups in pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and materials science due to their versatile chemical properties.
Compound isolated from Cannabis sativa extract.
GLYCEROL esterified with FATTY ACIDS.
The plant genus in the Cannabaceae plant family, Urticales order, Hamamelidae subclass. The flowering tops are called many slang terms including pot, marijuana, hashish, bhang, and ganja. The stem is an important source of hemp fiber.
A physiologically inactive constituent of Cannabis sativa L.
Amidohydrolases are enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of amides and related compounds, playing a crucial role in various biological processes including the breakdown and synthesis of bioactive molecules.
Compounds capable of relieving pain without the loss of CONSCIOUSNESS.
An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of glycerol monoesters of long-chain fatty acids EC 3.1.1.23.
The relationship between the dose of an administered drug and the response of the organism to the drug.
A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.
Phenomena and pharmaceutics of compounds that bind to the same receptor binding-site as an agonist (DRUG AGONISM) for that receptor but exerts the opposite pharmacological effect.
Drugs capable of inducing illusions, hallucinations, delusions, paranoid ideations, and other alterations of mood and thinking. Despite the name, the feature that distinguishes these agents from other classes of drugs is their capacity to induce states of altered perception, thought, and feeling that are not experienced otherwise.
Derivatives of carbamic acid, H2NC(=O)OH. Included under this heading are N-substituted and O-substituted carbamic acids. In general carbamate esters are referred to as urethanes, and polymers that include repeating units of carbamate are referred to as POLYURETHANES. Note however that polyurethanes are derived from the polymerization of ISOCYANATES and the singular term URETHANE refers to the ethyl ester of carbamic acid.
The excessive use of marijuana with associated psychological symptoms and impairment in social or occupational functioning.
The observable response an animal makes to any situation.
A class of drugs that act by selective inhibition of calcium influx through cellular membranes.
A subgroup of TRP cation channels named after vanilloid receptor. They are very sensitive to TEMPERATURE and hot spicy food and CAPSAICIN. They have the TRP domain and ANKYRIN repeats. Selectivity for CALCIUM over SODIUM ranges from 3 to 100 fold.
Inhaling and exhaling the smoke from CANNABIS.
A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.
Benzopyrroles with the nitrogen at the number one carbon adjacent to the benzyl portion, in contrast to ISOINDOLES which have the nitrogen away from the six-membered ring.
A molecule that binds to another molecule, used especially to refer to a small molecule that binds specifically to a larger molecule, e.g., an antigen binding to an antibody, a hormone or neurotransmitter binding to a receptor, or a substrate or allosteric effector binding to an enzyme. Ligands are also molecules that donate or accept a pair of electrons to form a coordinate covalent bond with the central metal atom of a coordination complex. (From Dorland, 27th ed)
Guanosine 5'-(trihydrogen diphosphate), monoanhydride with phosphorothioic acid. A stable GTP analog which enjoys a variety of physiological actions such as stimulation of guanine nucleotide-binding proteins, phosphoinositide hydrolysis, cyclic AMP accumulation, and activation of specific proto-oncogenes.
Inbred C57BL mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been produced by many generations of brother-sister matings, resulting in a high degree of genetic uniformity and homozygosity, making them widely used for biomedical research, including studies on genetics, immunology, cancer, and neuroscience.
Strains of mice in which certain GENES of their GENOMES have been disrupted, or "knocked-out". To produce knockouts, using RECOMBINANT DNA technology, the normal DNA sequence of the gene being studied is altered to prevent synthesis of a normal gene product. Cloned cells in which this DNA alteration is successful are then injected into mouse EMBRYOS to produce chimeric mice. The chimeric mice are then bred to yield a strain in which all the cells of the mouse contain the disrupted gene. Knockout mice are used as EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL MODELS for diseases (DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL) and to clarify the functions of the genes.
Progressive diminution of the susceptibility of a human or animal to the effects of a drug, resulting from its continued administration. It should be differentiated from DRUG RESISTANCE wherein an organism, disease, or tissue fails to respond to the intended effectiveness of a chemical or drug. It should also be differentiated from MAXIMUM TOLERATED DOSE and NO-OBSERVED-ADVERSE-EFFECT LEVEL.
A loosely defined grouping of drugs that have effects on psychological function. Here the psychotropic agents include the antidepressive agents, hallucinogens, and tranquilizing agents (including the antipsychotics and anti-anxiety agents).
The part of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM that is contained within the skull (CRANIUM). Arising from the NEURAL TUBE, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including PROSENCEPHALON (the forebrain); MESENCEPHALON (the midbrain); and RHOMBENCEPHALON (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of CEREBRUM; CEREBELLUM; and other structures in the BRAIN STEM.
An alkylamide found in CAPSICUM that acts at TRPV CATION CHANNELS.
Inbred ICR mice are a strain of albino laboratory mice that have been selectively bred for consistent genetic makeup and high reproductive performance, making them widely used in biomedical research for studies involving reproduction, toxicology, pharmacology, and carcinogenesis.
The basic cellular units of nervous tissue. Each neuron consists of a body, an axon, and dendrites. Their purpose is to receive, conduct, and transmit impulses in the NERVOUS SYSTEM.
The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.
Compounds based on benzene fused to oxole. They can be formed from methylated CATECHOLS such as EUGENOL.
The communication from a NEURON to a target (neuron, muscle, or secretory cell) across a SYNAPSE. In chemical synaptic transmission, the presynaptic neuron releases a NEUROTRANSMITTER that diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to specific synaptic receptors, activating them. The activated receptors modulate specific ion channels and/or second-messenger systems in the postsynaptic cell. In electrical synaptic transmission, electrical signals are communicated as an ionic current flow across ELECTRICAL SYNAPSES.
A curved elevation of GRAY MATTER extending the entire length of the floor of the TEMPORAL HORN of the LATERAL VENTRICLE (see also TEMPORAL LOBE). The hippocampus proper, subiculum, and DENTATE GYRUS constitute the hippocampal formation. Sometimes authors include the ENTORHINAL CORTEX in the hippocampal formation.
A subclass of analgesic agents that typically do not bind to OPIOID RECEPTORS and are not addictive. Many non-narcotic analgesics are offered as NONPRESCRIPTION DRUGS.
The action of a drug that may affect the activity, metabolism, or toxicity of another drug.
AMINO ALCOHOLS containing the ETHANOLAMINE; (-NH2CH2CHOH) group and its derivatives.
Administration of a drug or chemical by the individual under the direction of a physician. It includes administration clinically or experimentally, by human or animal.
CELL LINE derived from the ovary of the Chinese hamster, Cricetulus griseus (CRICETULUS). The species is a favorite for cytogenetic studies because of its small chromosome number. The cell line has provided model systems for the study of genetic alterations in cultured mammalian cells.
Viscous, nauseating oil obtained from the shrub Croton tiglium (Euphorbaceae). It is a vesicant and skin irritant used as pharmacologic standard for skin inflammation and allergy and causes skin cancer. It was formerly used as an emetic and cathartic with frequent mortality.
Resorcinols are aromatic organic compounds containing two hydroxyl groups attached to a benzene ring, known for their antiseptic and antibacterial properties, used in various medical and cosmetic applications.
Physiological and psychological symptoms associated with withdrawal from the use of a drug after prolonged administration or habituation. The concept includes withdrawal from smoking or drinking, as well as withdrawal from an administered drug.
An unpleasant sensation induced by noxious stimuli which are detected by NERVE ENDINGS of NOCICEPTIVE NEURONS.
Quantitative determination of receptor (binding) proteins in body fluids or tissue using radioactively labeled binding reagents (e.g., antibodies, intracellular receptors, plasma binders).
An increased sensation of pain or discomfort produced by mimimally noxious stimuli due to damage to soft tissue containing NOCICEPTORS or injury to a peripheral nerve.
Drugs designed and synthesized, often for illegal street use, by modification of existing drug structures (e.g., amphetamines). Of special interest are MPTP (a reverse ester of meperidine), MDA (3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine), and MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine). Many drugs act on the aminergic system, the physiologically active biogenic amines.
An enzyme inhibitor that inactivates IRC-50 arvin, subtilisin, and the fatty acid synthetase complex.
The physical activity of a human or an animal as a behavioral phenomenon.
Six-carbon alicyclic hydrocarbons.
A class of opioid receptors recognized by its pharmacological profile. Mu opioid receptors bind, in decreasing order of affinity, endorphins, dynorphins, met-enkephalin, and leu-enkephalin. They have also been shown to be molecular receptors for morphine.
Drugs that act principally at one or more sites within the peripheral neuroeffector systems, the autonomic system, and motor nerve-skeletal system. (From Smith and Reynard, Textbook of Pharmacology, 1991, p75)
Central gray matter surrounding the CEREBRAL AQUEDUCT in the MESENCEPHALON. Physiologically it is probably involved in RAGE reactions, the LORDOSIS REFLEX; FEEDING responses, bladder tonus, and pain.
The distal terminations of axons which are specialized for the release of neurotransmitters. Also included are varicosities along the course of axons which have similar specializations and also release transmitters. Presynaptic terminals in both the central and peripheral nervous systems are included.
A narcotic analgesic that may be habit-forming. It is a controlled substance (opium derivative) listed in the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21 Parts 329.1, 1308.11 (1987). Sale is forbidden in the United States by Federal statute. (Merck Index, 11th ed)
Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.
A subfamily in the family MURIDAE, comprising the hamsters. Four of the more common genera are Cricetus, CRICETULUS; MESOCRICETUS; and PHODOPUS.
Lower than normal body temperature, especially in warm-blooded animals.
Scales, questionnaires, tests, and other methods used to assess pain severity and duration in patients or experimental animals to aid in diagnosis, therapy, and physiological studies.
One of the virulence factors produced by BORDETELLA PERTUSSIS. It is a multimeric protein composed of five subunits S1 - S5. S1 contains mono ADPribose transferase activity.
A condition characterized by inactivity, decreased responsiveness to stimuli, and a tendency to maintain an immobile posture. The limbs tend to remain in whatever position they are placed (waxy flexibility). Catalepsy may be associated with PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS (e.g., SCHIZOPHRENIA, CATATONIC), nervous system drug toxicity, and other conditions.
Learning situations in which the sequence responses of the subject are instrumental in producing reinforcement. When the correct response occurs, which involves the selection from among a repertoire of responses, the subject is immediately reinforced.
The most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system.
Detection of drugs that have been abused, overused, or misused, including legal and illegal drugs. Urine screening is the usual method of detection.
A group of 16-carbon fatty acids that contain no double bonds.
The part of brain that lies behind the BRAIN STEM in the posterior base of skull (CRANIAL FOSSA, POSTERIOR). It is also known as the "little brain" with convolutions similar to those of CEREBRAL CORTEX, inner white matter, and deep cerebellar nuclei. Its function is to coordinate voluntary movements, maintain balance, and learn motor skills.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
The interaction of two or more substrates or ligands with the same binding site. The displacement of one by the other is used in quantitative and selective affinity measurements.
The largest family of cell surface receptors involved in SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION. They share a common structure and signal through HETEROTRIMERIC G-PROTEINS.
A group of compounds that are derivatives of methoxybenzene and contain the general formula R-C7H7O.
The principal alkaloid in opium and the prototype opiate analgesic and narcotic. Morphine has widespread effects in the central nervous system and on smooth muscle.
Depolarization of membrane potentials at the SYNAPTIC MEMBRANES of target neurons during neurotransmission. Excitatory postsynaptic potentials can singly or in summation reach the trigger threshold for ACTION POTENTIALS.
A set of forebrain structures common to all mammals that is defined functionally and anatomically. It is implicated in the higher integration of visceral, olfactory, and somatic information as well as homeostatic responses including fundamental survival behaviors (feeding, mating, emotion). For most authors, it includes the AMYGDALA; EPITHALAMUS; GYRUS CINGULI; hippocampal formation (see HIPPOCAMPUS); HYPOTHALAMUS; PARAHIPPOCAMPAL GYRUS; SEPTAL NUCLEI; anterior nuclear group of thalamus, and portions of the basal ganglia. (Parent, Carpenter's Human Neuroanatomy, 9th ed, p744; NeuroNames, http://rprcsgi.rprc.washington.edu/neuronames/index.html (September 2, 1998)).
The function of opposing or restraining the excitation of neurons or their target excitable cells.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
'Pyrans' are heterocyclic organic compounds containing a six-membered ring with one oxygen atom and five carbon atoms, which can be found in various natural substances and synthesized compounds, and may have potential applications in medicinal chemistry.
A genus in the mint family (LAMIACEAE).
Striped GRAY MATTER and WHITE MATTER consisting of the NEOSTRIATUM and paleostriatum (GLOBUS PALLIDUS). It is located in front of and lateral to the THALAMUS in each cerebral hemisphere. The gray substance is made up of the CAUDATE NUCLEUS and the lentiform nucleus (the latter consisting of the GLOBUS PALLIDUS and PUTAMEN). The WHITE MATTER is the INTERNAL CAPSULE.
An electrophysiologic technique for studying cells, cell membranes, and occasionally isolated organelles. All patch-clamp methods rely on a very high-resistance seal between a micropipette and a membrane; the seal is usually attained by gentle suction. The four most common variants include on-cell patch, inside-out patch, outside-out patch, and whole-cell clamp. Patch-clamp methods are commonly used to voltage clamp, that is control the voltage across the membrane and measure current flow, but current-clamp methods, in which the current is controlled and the voltage is measured, are also used.

The central cannabinoid receptor (CB1) mediates inhibition of nitric oxide production by rat microglial cells. (1/717)

Upon activation, brain microglial cells release proinflammatory mediators, such as nitric oxide (NO), which may play an important role in the central nervous system antibacterial, antiviral, and antitumor activities. However, excessive release of NO has been postulated to elicit immune-mediated neurodegenerative inflammatory processes and to cause brain injury. In the present study, the effect of cannabinoids on the release of NO from endotoxin/cytokine-activated rat cortical microglial cells was evaluated. A drug dose-dependent (0.1 microM-8 microM) inhibition of NO release from rat microglial cells was exerted by the cannabinoid receptor high-affinity binding enantiomer (-)-CP55940. In contrast, a minimal inhibitory effect was exerted by the lower affinity binding paired enantiomer (+)-CP56667. Pretreatment of microglial cells with the Galphai/Galphao protein inactivator pertussis toxin, cyclic AMP reconstitution with the cell-permeable analog dibutyryl-cAMP, or treatment of cells with the Galphas activator cholera toxin, resulted in reversal of the (-)-CP55940-mediated inhibition of NO release. A similar reversal in (-)-CP55940-mediated inhibition of NO release was effected when microglial cells were pretreated with the central cannabinoid receptor (CB1) selective antagonist SR141716A. Mutagenic reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, Western immunoblot assay using a CB1 receptor amine terminal domain-specific antibody, and cellular colocalization of CB1 and the microglial marker Griffonia simplicifolia isolectin B4 confirmed the expression of the CB1 receptor in rat microglial cells. Collectively, these results indicate a functional linkage between the CB1 receptor and cannabinoid-mediated inhibition of NO production by rat microglial cells.  (+info)

Gi protein modulation induced by a selective inverse agonist for the peripheral cannabinoid receptor CB2: implication for intracellular signalization cross-regulation. (2/717)

The peripheral cannabinoid receptor (CB2) is a G protein-coupled receptor that is both positively and negatively coupled to the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and cAMP pathways, respectively, through a Bordetella pertussis toxin-sensitive G protein. CB2 receptor-transfected Chinese hamster ovary cells exhibit high constitutive activity blocked by the CB2-selective ligand, SR 144528, working as an inverse agonist. We showed here that in addition to the inhibition of autoactivated CB2 in this model, we found that SR 144528 inhibited the MAPK activation induced by Gi-dependent receptors such as receptor-tyrosine kinase (insulin, insulin-like growth factor 1) or G protein-coupled receptors (lysophosphatidic acid), but not by Gi-independent receptors such as the fibroblast growth factor receptor. We showed that this SR 144528 inhibitory effect on Gi-dependent receptors was mediated by a direct Gi protein inhibition through CB2 receptors. Indeed, we found that through binding to the CB2 receptors, SR 144528 blocked the direct activation of the Gi protein by mastoparan analog in Chinese hamster ovary CB2 cell membranes. Furthermore, we described that sustained treatment with SR 144528 induced an up-regulation of the cellular Gi protein level as shown in Western blotting as well as in confocal microscopic experiments. This up-regulation occurred with a concomitant loss of SR 144528 ability to inhibit the insulin or lysophosphatidic acid-induced MAPK activation. This inverse agonist-induced modulation of the Gi strongly suggests that the modulated protein is functionally associated with the complex SR 144528/CB2 receptors, and that the Gi level may account for the heterologous desensitization phenomena.  (+info)

Role of a conserved lysine residue in the peripheral cannabinoid receptor (CB2): evidence for subtype specificity. (3/717)

The human cannabinoid receptors, central cannabinoid receptor (CB1) and peripheral cannabinoid receptor (CB2), share only 44% amino acid identity overall, yet most ligands do not discriminate between receptor subtypes. Site-directed mutagenesis was employed as a means of mapping the ligand recognition site for the human CB2 cannabinoid receptor. A lysine residue in the third transmembrane domain of the CB2 receptor (K109), which is conserved between the CB1 and CB2 receptors, was mutated to alanine or arginine to determine the role of this charged amino acid in receptor function. The analogous mutation in the CB1 receptor (K192A) was found to be crucial for recognition of several cannabinoid compounds excluding (R)-(+)-[2, 3-dihydro-5-methyl-3-[(4-morpholinyl)methyl]pyrrolo[1,2,3-de]-1, 4-benzoxazin-6-yl](1-naphthalenyl)methanone (WIN 55,212-2). In contrast, in human embryonic kidney (HEK)-293 cells expressing the mutant or wild-type CB2 receptors, we found no significant differences in either the binding profile of several cannabinoid ligands nor in inhibition of cAMP accumulation. We identified a high-affinity site for (-)-3-[2-hydroxyl-4-(1, 1-dimethylheptyl)phenyl]-4-[3-hydroxyl propyl] cyclohexan-1-ol (CP-55,940) in the region of helices 3, 6, and 7, with S3.31(112), T3.35(116), and N7.49(295) in the K109A mutant using molecular modeling. The serine residue, unique to the CB2 receptor, was then mutated to glycine in the K109A mutant. This double mutant, K109AS112G, retains the ability to bind aminoalkylindoles but loses affinity for classical cannabinoids, as predicted by the molecular model. Distinct cellular localization of the mutant receptors observed with immunofluorescence also suggests differences in receptor function. In summary, we identified amino acid residues in the CB2 receptor that could lead to subtype specificity.  (+info)

Recent progress in the neurotoxicology of natural drugs associated with dependence or addiction, their endogenous agonists and receptors. (4/717)

Nicotine in tobacco, tetrahydrocannabinol (delta 9-THC) in marijuana and morphine in opium are well known as drugs associated with dependence or addiction. Endogenous active substances that mimic the effects of the natural drugs and their respective receptors have been found in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS). Such active substances and receptors include acetylcholine (ACh) and the nicotinic ACh receptor (nAChR) for nicotine, anandamide and CB1 for delta 9-THC, and endomorphins (1 and 2) and the mu (OP3) opioid receptor for morphine, respectively. Considerable progress has been made in studies on neurotoxicity, in terms of the habituation, dependence and withdrawal phenomena associated with these drugs and with respect to correlations with endogenous active substances and their receptors. In this article we shall review recent findings related to the neurotoxicity of tobacco, marijuana and opium, and their toxic ingredients, nicotine, delta 9-THC and morphine in relation to their respective endogenous agents and receptors in the CNS.  (+info)

Effect of the cannabinoid receptor agonist WIN55212-2 on sympathetic cardiovascular regulation. (5/717)

1. The aim of the present study was to analyse the cardiovascular actions of the synthetic CB1/CB2 cannabinoid receptor agonist WIN55212-2, and specifically to determine its sites of action on sympathetic cardiovascular regulation. 2. Pithed rabbits in which the sympathetic outflow was continuously stimulated electrically or which received a pressor infusion of noradrenaline were used to study peripheral prejunctional and direct vascular effects, respectively. For studying effects on brain stem cardiovascular regulatory centres, drugs were administered into the cisterna cerebellomedullaris in conscious rabbits. Overall cardiovascular effects of the cannabinoid were studied in conscious rabbits with intravenous drug administration. 3. In pithed rabbits in which the sympathetic outflow was continuously electrically stimulated, intravenous injection of WIN55212-2 (5, 50 and 500 microg kg(-1)) markedly reduced blood pressure, the spillover of noradrenaline into plasma and the plasma noradrenaline concentration, and these effects were antagonized by the CB1 cannabinoid receptor-selective antagonist SR141716A. The hypotensive and the sympathoinhibitory effect of WIN55212-2 was shared by CP55940, another mixed CB1/CB2 cannabinoid receptor agonist, but not by WIN55212-3, the enantiomer of WIN55212-2, which lacks affinity for cannabinoid binding sites. WIN55212-2 had no effect on vascular tone established by infusion of noradrenaline in pithed rabbits. 4. Intracisternal application of WIN55212-2 (0.1, 1 and 10 microg kg(-1)) in conscious rabbits increased blood pressure and the plasma noradrenaline concentration and elicited bradycardia; this latter effect was antagonized by atropine. 5. In conscious animals, intravenous injection of WIN55212-2 (5 and 50 microg kg(-1)) caused bradycardia, slight hypotension, no change in the plasma noradrenaline concentration, and an increase in renal sympathetic nerve firing. The highest dose of WIN55212-2 (500 microg kg(-1)) elicited hypotension and tachycardia, and sympathetic nerve activity and the plasma noradrenaline concentration declined. 6. The results obtained in pithed rabbits indicate that activation of CB1 cannabinoid receptors leads to marked peripheral prejunctional inhibition of noradrenaline release from postganglionic sympathetic axons. Intracisternal application of WIN55212-2 uncovered two effects on brain stem cardiovascular centres: sympathoexcitation and activation of cardiac vagal fibres. The highest dose of systemically administered WIN55212-2 produced central sympathoinhibition; the primary site of this action is not known.  (+info)

Stage-specific excitation of cannabinoid receptor exhibits differential effects on mouse embryonic development. (6/717)

Anandamide (N-arachidonoylethanolamine), an arachidonic acid derivative, is an endogenous ligand for both the brain-type (CB1-R) and spleen-type (CB2-R) cannabinoid receptors. We have previously demonstrated that preimplantation mouse embryos express mRNA for these receptors and that the periimplantation uterus contains the highest level of anandamide yet discovered in a mammalian tissue. We further demonstrated that 2-cell mouse embryos exposed to low levels of anandamide (7 nM) or other known cannabinoid agonists in culture exhibit markedly compromised embryonic development to blastocysts and that this effect is mediated by CB1-R. In contrast, the present study demonstrates that blastocysts exposed in culture to the same low levels of cannabinoid agonists exhibited accelerated trophoblast differentiation with respect to fibronectin-binding activity and trophoblast outgrowth. Again, these effects resulted from activation of embryonic CB1-R. There was a differential concentration-dependent effect of cannabinoids on the trophoblast, with an observed inhibition of differentiation at higher doses. These results provide evidence for the first time that cannabinoid effects are differentially executed depending on the embryonic stage and cannabinoid levels in the environment. Since uterine anandamide levels are lowest at the sites of implantation and highest at the interimplantation sites, the new findings imply that site-specific levels of anandamide and/or other endogenous ligands in the uterus may regulate implantation spatially by promoting trophoblast differentiation at the sites of blastocyst implantation.  (+info)

A role for N-arachidonylethanolamine (anandamide) as the mediator of sensory nerve-dependent Ca2+-induced relaxation. (7/717)

We tested the hypothesis that an endogenous cannabinoid (CB) receptor agonist, such as N-arachidonylethanolamine (anandamide), is the transmitter that mediates perivascular sensory nerve-dependent Ca2+-induced relaxation. Rat mesenteric branch arteries were studied using wire myography; relaxation was determined after inducing contraction with norepinephrine. Cumulative addition of Ca2+ caused dose-dependent relaxation (ED50 = 2.2 +/- 0.09 mM). The relaxation was inhibited by 10 mM TEA and 100 nM iberiotoxin, a blocker of large conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels, but not by 5 microM glibenclamide, 1 mM 4-aminopyridine, or 30 nM apamin. Ca2+-induced relaxation was also blocked by the selective CB receptor antagonist SR141716A and was enhanced by pretreatment with 4-(2-aminoethyl)benzenesulfonyl fluoride hydrochloride (pefabloc; 30 microM), an inhibitor of anandamide metabolism. Anandamide also caused dose-dependent relaxation (ED50 =.72 +/- 0.3 microM). The relaxation was not inhibited by endothelial denudation, 10 microM indomethacin, or 1 microM miconazole, but was blocked by 3 microM SR141716A, 10 mM TEA, precontraction with 100 mM K+, and 100 nM iberiotoxin, and was enhanced by treatment with 30 microM pefabloc. Mesenteric branch arteries were 200-fold more sensitive to the relaxing action of anandamide than arachidonic acid (ED50 = 160 +/- 7 microM). These data show that: 1) Ca2+ and anandamide cause hyperpolarization-mediated relaxation of mesenteric branch arteries, which is dependent on an iberiotoxin-sensitive Ca2+-activated K+ channel, 2) relaxation induced by both Ca2+ and anandamide is inhibited by CB receptor blockade, and 3) relaxation induced by anandamide is not dependent on its breakdown to arachidonic acid and subsequent metabolism. These findings support the hypothesis that anandamide, or a similar cannabinoid receptor agonist, mediates nerve-dependent Ca2+-induced relaxation in the rat.  (+info)

Agonist-inverse agonist characterization at CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors of L759633, L759656, and AM630. (8/717)

We have tested our prediction that AM630 is a CB2 cannabinoid receptor ligand and also investigated whether L759633 and L759656, are CB2 receptor agonists. Binding assays with membranes from CHO cells stably transfected with human CB1 or CB2 receptors using [3H]-CP55940, confirmed the CB2-selectivity of L759633 and L759656 (CB2/CB1 affinity ratios = 163 and 414 respectively) and showed AM630 to have a Ki at CB2 receptors of 31.2 nM and a CB2/CB1 affinity ratio of 165. In CB2-transfected cells, L759633 and L759656 were potent inhibitors of forskolin-stimulated cyclic AMP production, with EC50 values of 8.1 and 3.1 nM respectively and CB1/CB2 EC50 ratios of > 1000 and > 3000 respectively. AM630 inhibited [35S]-GTPgammaS binding to CB2 receptor membranes (EC50 = 76.6 nM), enhanced forskolin-stimulated cyclic AMP production in CB2-transfected cells (5.2 fold by 1 microM), and antagonized the inhibition of forskolin-stimulated cyclic AMP production in this cell line induced by CP55940. In CB1-transfected cells, forskolin-stimulated cyclic AMP production was significantly inhibited by AM630 (22.6% at 1 microM and 45.9% at 10 microM) and by L759633 at 10 microM (48%) but not 1 microM. L759656 (10 microM) was not inhibitory. AM630 also produced a slight decrease in the mean inhibitory effect of CP55940 on cyclic AMP production which was not statistically significant. We conclude that AM630 is a CB2-selective ligand that behaves as an inverse agonist at CB2 receptors and as a weak partial agonist at CB1 receptors. L759633 and L759656 are both potent CB2-selective agonists.  (+info)

A cannabinoid receptor, CB1, is a G protein-coupled receptor that is primarily found in the brain and central nervous system. It is one of the two main types of cannabinoid receptors, the other being CB2, and is activated by the endocannabinoid anandamide and the phytocannabinoid Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which is the primary psychoactive component of cannabis. The activation of CB1 receptors is responsible for many of the psychological effects of cannabis, including euphoria, altered sensory perception, and memory impairment. CB1 receptors are also found in peripheral tissues, such as the adipose tissue, liver, and muscles, where they play a role in regulating energy metabolism, appetite, and pain perception.

A cannabinoid receptor CB2 is a G-protein coupled receptor that is primarily found in the immune system and cells associated with the immune system. They are expressed on the cell surface and are activated by endocannabinoids, plant-derived cannabinoids (phytocannabinoids) like those found in marijuana, and synthetic cannabinoids.

CB2 receptors are involved in a variety of physiological processes including inflammation, pain perception, and immune function. They have been shown to play a role in modulating the release of cytokines, which are signaling molecules that mediate and regulate immunity and inflammation. CB2 receptors may also be found in the brain, although at much lower levels than CB1 receptors.

CB2 receptor agonists have been studied as potential treatments for a variety of conditions including pain management, neuroinflammation, and autoimmune disorders. However, more research is needed to fully understand their therapeutic potential and any associated risks.

Cannabinoid receptors are a class of cell membrane receptors in the endocannabinoid system that are activated by cannabinoids. The two major types of cannabinoid receptors are CB1 receptors, which are predominantly found in the brain and central nervous system, and CB2 receptors, which are primarily found in the immune system and peripheral tissues. These receptors play a role in regulating various physiological processes such as appetite, pain-sensation, mood, and memory. They can be activated by endocannabinoids (cannabinoids produced naturally in the body), phytocannabinoids (found in cannabis plants), and synthetic cannabinoids.

Cannabinoids are a class of chemical compounds that are produced naturally in the resin of the cannabis plant (also known as marijuana). There are more than 100 different cannabinoids that have been identified, the most well-known of which are delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD).

THC is the primary psychoactive component of cannabis, meaning it is responsible for the "high" or euphoric feeling that people experience when they use marijuana. CBD, on the other hand, does not have psychoactive effects and is being studied for its potential therapeutic uses in a variety of medical conditions, including pain management, anxiety, and epilepsy.

Cannabinoids work by interacting with the body's endocannabinoid system, which is a complex network of receptors and chemicals that are involved in regulating various physiological processes such as mood, appetite, pain sensation, and memory. When cannabinoids bind to these receptors, they can alter or modulate these processes, leading to potential therapeutic effects.

It's important to note that while some cannabinoids have been shown to have potential medical benefits, marijuana remains a controlled substance in many countries, and its use is subject to legal restrictions. Additionally, the long-term health effects of using marijuana or other forms of cannabis are not fully understood and are the subject of ongoing research.

Cannabinoid receptor agonists are compounds that bind to and activate cannabinoid receptors, which are part of the endocannabinoid system in the human body. These receptors are involved in various physiological processes, including pain modulation, appetite regulation, memory, and mood.

There are two main types of cannabinoid receptors: CB1 receptors, which are primarily found in the brain and central nervous system, and CB2 receptors, which are mainly found in the immune system and peripheral tissues.

Cannabinoid receptor agonists can be classified based on their chemical structure and origin. Some naturally occurring cannabinoids, such as THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) and CBD (cannabidiol), are found in the Cannabis sativa plant and can activate cannabinoid receptors. Synthetic cannabinoids, on the other hand, are human-made compounds designed to mimic or enhance the effects of natural cannabinoids.

Examples of cannabinoid receptor agonists include:

1. THC (tetrahydrocannabinol): The primary psychoactive component of marijuana, THC binds to CB1 receptors and produces feelings of euphoria or "high." It also has analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and appetite-stimulating properties.
2. CBD (cannabidiol): A non-psychoactive compound found in cannabis, CBD has a more complex interaction with the endocannabinoid system. While it does not bind strongly to CB1 or CB2 receptors, it can influence their activity and modulate the effects of other cannabinoids. CBD is known for its potential therapeutic benefits, including anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anxiolytic, and neuroprotective properties.
3. Synthetic cannabinoids: These are human-made compounds designed to mimic or enhance the effects of natural cannabinoids. Examples include dronabinol (Marinol), a synthetic THC used to treat nausea and vomiting in cancer patients, and nabilone (Cesamet), another synthetic THC used to manage pain and nausea in cancer and AIDS patients.
4. CP 55,940: A potent synthetic cannabinoid agonist that binds to both CB1 and CB2 receptors with high affinity. It is used in research to study the endocannabinoid system and its functions.
5. WIN 55,212-2: Another synthetic cannabinoid agonist that binds to both CB1 and CB2 receptors. It is often used in research to investigate the therapeutic potential of cannabinoids.

It's important to note that while some cannabinoid receptor agonists have demonstrated therapeutic benefits, they can also have side effects and potential risks, particularly when used in high doses or without medical supervision. Always consult a healthcare professional before using any cannabinoid-based medication or supplement.

Cannabinoid receptor modulators are a class of compounds that interact with and modify the function of cannabinoid receptors, which are part of the endocannabinoid system in the human body. These receptors play a role in regulating various physiological processes such as pain, mood, memory, appetite, and immunity.

There are two main types of cannabinoid receptors: CB1 receptors, which are primarily found in the brain and central nervous system, and CB2 receptors, which are mainly found in the immune system and peripheral tissues. Cannabinoid receptor modulators can be classified into three categories based on their effects on these receptors:

1. Agonists: These compounds bind to and activate cannabinoid receptors, leading to a range of effects such as pain relief, anti-inflammation, and mood enhancement. Examples include THC (tetrahydrocannabinol), the psychoactive component of marijuana, and synthetic cannabinoids like dronabinol (Marinol) and nabilone (Cesamet).
2. Antagonists: These compounds bind to cannabinoid receptors but do not activate them, instead blocking or reducing the effects of agonist compounds. Examples include rimonabant (Acomplia), which was withdrawn from the market due to psychiatric side effects, and SR141716A.
3. Inverse Agonists: These compounds bind to cannabinoid receptors and produce effects opposite to those of agonist compounds. Examples include CBD (cannabidiol), a non-psychoactive component of marijuana that has anti-inflammatory, anxiolytic, and neuroprotective properties.

Cannabinoid receptor modulators have potential therapeutic applications in various medical conditions such as chronic pain, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, cancer, and mental health disorders. However, further research is needed to fully understand their mechanisms of action and potential side effects.

Cannabinoid receptor antagonists are a class of compounds that bind to and block cannabinoid receptors, which are specialized proteins found on the surface of certain cells in the body. These receptors play an important role in regulating various physiological processes, including pain perception, appetite regulation, and memory formation.

There are two main types of cannabinoid receptors: CB1 receptors, which are primarily found in the brain and central nervous system, and CB2 receptors, which are mainly found in immune cells and other peripheral tissues.

Cannabinoid receptor antagonists work by preventing the activation of these receptors by natural cannabinoids such as THC (tetrahydrocannabinol), the main psychoactive component of marijuana. By blocking the effects of THC, cannabinoid receptor antagonists can be used to treat conditions that are exacerbated by THC, such as substance use disorders and psychosis.

One example of a cannabinoid receptor antagonist is rimonabant, which was approved in Europe for the treatment of obesity but was later withdrawn from the market due to concerns about psychiatric side effects. Other cannabinoid receptor antagonists are currently being investigated for their potential therapeutic uses, including the treatment of pain, inflammation, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Dronabinol is a synthetic form of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which is the main psychoactive compound found in cannabis. It is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of nausea and vomiting caused by chemotherapy in cancer patients, as well as to stimulate appetite and weight gain in patients with AIDS wasting syndrome.

Dronabinol is available in capsule form and is typically taken two to three times a day, depending on the prescribed dosage. It may take several days or even weeks of regular use before the full therapeutic effects are achieved.

Like cannabis, dronabinol can cause psychoactive effects such as euphoria, altered mood, and impaired cognitive function. Therefore, it is important to follow the prescribing instructions carefully and avoid driving or operating heavy machinery while taking this medication. Common side effects of dronabinol include dizziness, drowsiness, dry mouth, and difficulty with coordination.

Endocannabinoids are naturally occurring compounds in the body that bind to cannabinoid receptors, which are found in various tissues and organs throughout the body. These compounds play a role in regulating many physiological processes, including appetite, mood, pain sensation, and memory. They are similar in structure to the active components of cannabis (marijuana), called phytocannabinoids, such as THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) and CBD (cannabidiol). However, endocannabinoids are produced by the body itself, whereas phytocannabinoids come from the cannabis plant. The two most well-known endocannabinoids are anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG).

Benzoxazines are a class of heterocyclic organic compounds that contain a benzene fused to an oxazine ring. They are known for their diverse chemical and pharmacological properties, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antitumor activities. Some benzoxazines also exhibit potential as building blocks in the synthesis of pharmaceuticals and materials. However, it is important to note that specific medical definitions for individual compounds within this class may vary depending on their unique structures and properties.

Cyclohexanols are a class of organic compounds that contain a cyclohexane ring (a six-carbon saturated ring) with a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to it. The hydroxyl group makes these compounds alcohols, and the cyclohexane ring provides a unique structure that can adopt different conformations.

The presence of the hydroxyl group in cyclohexanols allows them to act as solvents, intermediates in chemical synthesis, and starting materials for the production of other chemicals. They are used in various industries, including pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and polymers.

Cyclohexanols can exist in different forms, such as cis- and trans-isomers, depending on the orientation of the hydroxyl group relative to the cyclohexane ring. The physical and chemical properties of these isomers can differ significantly due to their distinct structures and conformations.

Examples of cyclohexanols include cyclohexanol itself (C6H11OH), as well as its derivatives, such as methylcyclohexanol (C7H13OH) and phenylcyclohexanol (C12H15OH).

Pyrazoles are heterocyclic aromatic organic compounds that contain a six-membered ring with two nitrogen atoms at positions 1 and 2. The chemical structure of pyrazoles consists of a pair of nitrogen atoms adjacent to each other in the ring, which makes them unique from other azole heterocycles such as imidazoles or triazoles.

Pyrazoles have significant biological activities and are found in various pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and natural products. Some pyrazole derivatives exhibit anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antipyretic, antimicrobial, antiviral, antifungal, and anticancer properties.

In the medical field, pyrazoles are used in various drugs to treat different conditions. For example, celecoxib (Celebrex) is a selective COX-2 inhibitor used for pain relief and inflammation reduction in arthritis patients. It contains a pyrazole ring as its core structure. Similarly, febuxostat (Uloric) is a medication used to treat gout, which also has a pyrazole moiety.

Overall, pyrazoles are essential compounds with significant medical applications and potential for further development in drug discovery and design.

Naphthalene is not typically referred to as a medical term, but it is a chemical compound with the formula C10H8. It is a white crystalline solid that is aromatic and volatile, and it is known for its distinctive mothball smell. In a medical context, naphthalene is primarily relevant as a potential toxin or irritant.

Naphthalene can be found in some chemical products, such as mothballs and toilet deodorant blocks. Exposure to high levels of naphthalene can cause symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and headaches. Long-term exposure has been linked to anemia and damage to the liver and nervous system.

In addition, naphthalene is a known environmental pollutant that can be found in air, water, and soil. It is produced by the combustion of fossil fuels and is also released from some industrial processes. Naphthalene has been shown to have toxic effects on aquatic life and may pose a risk to human health if exposure levels are high enough.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Polyunsaturated Alkamides" is not a widely recognized medical term or concept. It seems to be a combination of two different terms: "polyunsaturated" which relates to fatty acid chemistry, and "alkamides" which are a type of compound found in certain plants.

1. Polyunsaturated: This term refers to fatty acids that have multiple double bonds in their carbon chain. These fatty acids are essential to the human diet and are commonly found in foods like fish, nuts, and seeds. They are often referred to as Omega-3 or Omega-6 fatty acids.

2. Alkamides: These are a type of compound found in some plants, including Echinacea species. They have been studied for their potential biological activities, such as anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects.

Without more context, it's difficult to provide a precise definition or medical interpretation of "Polyunsaturated Alkamides." If you have more information about how these terms are being used together, I'd be happy to try to provide a more specific answer.

Piperidines are not a medical term per se, but they are a class of organic compounds that have important applications in the pharmaceutical industry. Medically relevant piperidines include various drugs such as some antihistamines, antidepressants, and muscle relaxants.

A piperidine is a heterocyclic amine with a six-membered ring containing five carbon atoms and one nitrogen atom. The structure can be described as a cyclic secondary amine. Piperidines are found in some natural alkaloids, such as those derived from the pepper plant (Piper nigrum), which gives piperidines their name.

In a medical context, it is more common to encounter specific drugs that belong to the class of piperidines rather than the term itself.

Drug receptors are specific protein molecules found on the surface of cells, to which drugs can bind. These receptors are part of the cell's communication system and are responsible for responding to neurotransmitters, hormones, and other signaling molecules in the body. When a drug binds to its corresponding receptor, it can alter the receptor's function and trigger a cascade of intracellular events that ultimately lead to a biological response.

Drug receptors can be classified into several types based on their function, including:

1. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs): These are the largest family of drug receptors and are involved in various physiological processes such as vision, olfaction, neurotransmission, and hormone signaling. They activate intracellular signaling pathways through heterotrimeric G proteins.
2. Ion channel receptors: These receptors form ion channels that allow the flow of ions across the cell membrane when activated. They are involved in rapid signal transduction and can be directly gated by ligands or indirectly through G protein-coupled receptors.
3. Enzyme-linked receptors: These receptors have an intracellular domain that functions as an enzyme, activating intracellular signaling pathways when bound to a ligand. Examples include receptor tyrosine kinases and receptor serine/threonine kinases.
4. Nuclear receptors: These receptors are located in the nucleus and function as transcription factors, regulating gene expression upon binding to their ligands.

Understanding drug receptors is crucial for developing new drugs and predicting their potential therapeutic and adverse effects. By targeting specific receptors, drugs can modulate cellular responses and produce desired pharmacological actions.

Arachidonic acids are a type of polyunsaturated fatty acid that is primarily found in the phospholipids of cell membranes. They contain 20 carbon atoms and four double bonds (20:4n-6), with the first double bond located at the sixth carbon atom from the methyl end.

Arachidonic acids are derived from linoleic acid, an essential fatty acid that cannot be synthesized by the human body and must be obtained through dietary sources such as meat, fish, and eggs. Once ingested, linoleic acid is converted to arachidonic acid in a series of enzymatic reactions.

Arachidonic acids play an important role in various physiological processes, including inflammation, immune response, and cell signaling. They serve as precursors for the synthesis of eicosanoids, which are signaling molecules that include prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes. These eicosanoids have diverse biological activities, such as modulating blood flow, platelet aggregation, and pain perception, among others.

However, excessive production of arachidonic acid-derived eicosanoids has been implicated in various pathological conditions, including inflammation, atherosclerosis, and cancer. Therefore, the regulation of arachidonic acid metabolism is an important area of research for the development of new therapeutic strategies.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Morpholines" is not a medical term. It is a chemical term that refers to a class of heterocyclic organic compounds containing one nitrogen atom and one oxygen atom in the ring. They are widely used as intermediates in the synthesis of various pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and dyes. If you have any questions about a medical issue or term, I'd be happy to try to help answer those for you!

Cannabidiol (CBD) is a chemical compound found in the Cannabis sativa plant, also known as cannabis or marijuana. It is one of many such compounds, known as cannabinoids, that are found in the plant. Unlike tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which is the main psychoactive component of cannabis and is responsible for the "high" associated with its use, CBD does not have psychoactive effects.

CBD has been studied for its potential therapeutic uses in a variety of medical conditions, including epilepsy, anxiety, and chronic pain. It is available in various forms, such as oils, capsules, and topical creams, and can be taken orally or applied to the skin. However, it is important to note that the use of CBD is not currently approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of any medical condition, except for the treatment of certain forms of epilepsy. As with any medication or supplement, it is important to talk to your doctor before using CBD, especially if you are taking other medications or have underlying health conditions.

Glycerides are esters formed from glycerol and one, two, or three fatty acids. They include monoglycerides (one fatty acid), diglycerides (two fatty acids), and triglycerides (three fatty acids). Triglycerides are the main constituents of natural fats and oils, and they are a major form of energy storage in animals and plants. High levels of triglycerides in the blood, also known as hypertriglyceridemia, can increase the risk of heart disease and stroke.

Cannabis is a plant genus that includes three species: Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica, and Cannabis ruderalis. It contains psychoactive compounds called cannabinoids, the most notable of which is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which produces the "high" associated with marijuana use.

Cannabis sativa and Cannabis indica are primarily used for recreational and medicinal purposes, while Cannabis ruderalis has a lower THC content and is mainly used for industrial purposes, such as hemp fiber production.

Medicinally, cannabis is used to treat various conditions, including pain, nausea, and loss of appetite associated with cancer and HIV/AIDS, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), among others. However, its use remains controversial due to its psychoactive effects and potential for abuse. Its legal status varies widely around the world, ranging from outright prohibition to decriminalization or full legalization for medical and/or recreational purposes.

Cannabinol (CBN) is a chemical compound found in cannabis plants. It is one of the many cannabinoids that can be extracted from the plant, but it is not as well-known or widely studied as tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD).

CBN is formed when THC degrades over time due to exposure to air, heat, and light. As a result, older or improperly stored cannabis may contain higher levels of CBN than fresh or properly stored cannabis.

CBN has been shown to have some therapeutic potential, including as a sedative, an anti-inflammatory, and an appetite stimulant. However, more research is needed to fully understand its effects and potential medical uses. It's worth noting that CBN does not produce the psychoactive effects associated with THC.

Amidohydrolases are a class of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of amides and related compounds, resulting in the formation of an acid and an alcohol. This reaction is also known as amide hydrolysis or amide bond cleavage. Amidohydrolases play important roles in various biological processes, including the metabolism of xenobiotics (foreign substances) and endogenous compounds (those naturally produced within an organism).

The term "amidohydrolase" is a broad one that encompasses several specific types of enzymes, such as proteases, esterases, lipases, and nitrilases. These enzymes have different substrate specificities and catalytic mechanisms but share the common ability to hydrolyze amide bonds.

Proteases, for example, are a major group of amidohydrolases that specifically cleave peptide bonds in proteins. They are involved in various physiological processes, such as protein degradation, digestion, and regulation of biological pathways. Esterases and lipases hydrolyze ester bonds in various substrates, including lipids and other organic compounds. Nitrilases convert nitriles into carboxylic acids and ammonia by cleaving the nitrile bond (C≡N) through hydrolysis.

Amidohydrolases are found in various organisms, from bacteria to humans, and have diverse applications in industry, agriculture, and medicine. For instance, they can be used for the production of pharmaceuticals, biofuels, detergents, and other chemicals. Additionally, inhibitors of amidohydrolases can serve as therapeutic agents for treating various diseases, such as cancer, viral infections, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Analgesics are a class of drugs that are used to relieve pain. They work by blocking the transmission of pain signals in the nervous system, allowing individuals to manage their pain levels more effectively. There are many different types of analgesics available, including both prescription and over-the-counter options. Some common examples include acetaminophen (Tylenol), ibuprofen (Advil or Motrin), and opioids such as morphine or oxycodone.

The choice of analgesic will depend on several factors, including the type and severity of pain being experienced, any underlying medical conditions, potential drug interactions, and individual patient preferences. It is important to use these medications as directed by a healthcare provider, as misuse or overuse can lead to serious side effects and potential addiction.

In addition to their pain-relieving properties, some analgesics may also have additional benefits such as reducing inflammation (like in the case of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or NSAIDs) or causing sedation (as with certain opioids). However, it is essential to weigh these potential benefits against the risks and side effects associated with each medication.

When used appropriately, analgesics can significantly improve a person's quality of life by helping them manage their pain effectively and allowing them to engage in daily activities more comfortably.

Monoacylglycerol lipases (MAGLs) are a type of enzyme that play a role in the metabolism of lipids, specifically by breaking down monoacylglycerols into glycerol and free fatty acids. Monoacylglycerols are formed during the digestion of dietary fats and are also produced endogenously as a result of the breakdown of complex lipids.

MAGLs are widely distributed throughout the body, but are particularly abundant in tissues that utilize large amounts of fatty acids for energy, such as the liver, heart, and skeletal muscle. In addition to their role in lipid metabolism, MAGLs have been implicated in various physiological processes, including inflammation, pain perception, and cancer.

Inhibition of MAGL activity has been proposed as a potential therapeutic strategy for the treatment of various diseases, including obesity, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders. However, further research is needed to fully understand the role of MAGLs in these processes and to determine the safety and efficacy of MAGL inhibitors as drugs.

A dose-response relationship in the context of drugs refers to the changes in the effects or symptoms that occur as the dose of a drug is increased or decreased. Generally, as the dose of a drug is increased, the severity or intensity of its effects also increases. Conversely, as the dose is decreased, the effects of the drug become less severe or may disappear altogether.

The dose-response relationship is an important concept in pharmacology and toxicology because it helps to establish the safe and effective dosage range for a drug. By understanding how changes in the dose of a drug affect its therapeutic and adverse effects, healthcare providers can optimize treatment plans for their patients while minimizing the risk of harm.

The dose-response relationship is typically depicted as a curve that shows the relationship between the dose of a drug and its effect. The shape of the curve may vary depending on the drug and the specific effect being measured. Some drugs may have a steep dose-response curve, meaning that small changes in the dose can result in large differences in the effect. Other drugs may have a more gradual dose-response curve, where larger changes in the dose are needed to produce significant effects.

In addition to helping establish safe and effective dosages, the dose-response relationship is also used to evaluate the potential therapeutic benefits and risks of new drugs during clinical trials. By systematically testing different doses of a drug in controlled studies, researchers can identify the optimal dosage range for the drug and assess its safety and efficacy.

Sprague-Dawley rats are a strain of albino laboratory rats that are widely used in scientific research. They were first developed by researchers H.H. Sprague and R.C. Dawley in the early 20th century, and have since become one of the most commonly used rat strains in biomedical research due to their relatively large size, ease of handling, and consistent genetic background.

Sprague-Dawley rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not suffer from the same limitations as inbred strains, which can have reduced fertility and increased susceptibility to certain diseases. They are also characterized by their docile nature and low levels of aggression, making them easier to handle and study than some other rat strains.

These rats are used in a wide variety of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, and behavioral studies. Because they are genetically diverse, Sprague-Dawley rats can be used to model a range of human diseases and conditions, making them an important tool in the development of new drugs and therapies.

Drug inverse agonism is a property of certain drugs that can bind to and stabilize the inactive conformation of a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) or other type of receptor. This results in a reduction of the receptor's basal activity, which is the level of signaling that occurs in the absence of an agonist ligand.

An inverse agonist drug can have the opposite effect of an agonist drug, which binds to and stabilizes the active conformation of a receptor and increases its signaling activity. An inverse agonist drug can also have a greater effect than a simple antagonist drug, which binds to a receptor without activating or inhibiting it but rather prevents other ligands from binding.

Inverse agonism is an important concept in pharmacology and has implications for the development of drugs that target GPCRs and other types of receptors. For example, inverse agonist drugs have been developed to treat certain conditions such as anxiety disorders, where reducing the basal activity of a particular receptor may be beneficial.

Hallucinogens are a class of psychoactive substances that alter perception, mood, and thought, often causing hallucinations, which are profound distortions in a person's perceptions of reality. These substances work by disrupting the normal functioning of the brain, particularly the parts that regulate mood, sensory perception, sleep, hunger, and sexual behavior.

Hallucinogens can be found in various forms, including plants, mushrooms, and synthetic compounds. Some common examples of hallucinogens include LSD (d-lysergic acid diethylamide), psilocybin (found in certain species of mushrooms), DMT (dimethyltryptamine), and ayahuasca (a plant-based brew from South America).

The effects of hallucinogens can vary widely depending on the specific substance, the dose, the individual's personality, mood, and expectations, and the environment in which the drug is taken. These effects can range from pleasant sensory experiences and heightened emotional awareness to terrifying hallucinations and overwhelming feelings of anxiety or despair.

It's important to note that hallucinogens can be dangerous, particularly when taken in high doses or in combination with other substances. They can also cause long-term psychological distress and may trigger underlying mental health conditions. As such, they should only be used under the guidance of a trained medical professional for therapeutic purposes.

Carbamates are a group of organic compounds that contain the carbamate functional group, which is a carbon atom double-bonded to oxygen and single-bonded to a nitrogen atom (> N-C=O). In the context of pharmaceuticals and agriculture, carbamates are a class of drugs and pesticides that have carbamate as their core structure.

Carbamate insecticides work by inhibiting the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, which is responsible for breaking down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the synapses of the nervous system. When this enzyme is inhibited, acetylcholine accumulates in the synaptic cleft, leading to overstimulation of the nervous system and ultimately causing paralysis and death in insects.

Carbamate drugs are used for a variety of medical indications, including as anticonvulsants, muscle relaxants, and psychotropic medications. They work by modulating various neurotransmitter systems in the brain, such as GABA, glutamate, and dopamine. Carbamates can also be used as anti- parasitic agents, such as ivermectin, which is effective against a range of parasites including nematodes, arthropods, and some protozoa.

It's important to note that carbamate pesticides can be toxic to non-target organisms, including humans, if not used properly. Therefore, it's essential to follow all safety guidelines when handling or using these products.

"Marijuana Abuse" is not a term that is typically used in the medical field. Instead, the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), which is used by mental health professionals to diagnose mental conditions, uses the term "Cannabis Use Disorder." This disorder is defined as a problematic pattern of cannabis use leading to clinically significant impairment or distress, with symptoms including:

1. Taking larger amounts of cannabis over a longer period than intended.
2. A persistent desire or unsuccessful efforts to cut down or control cannabis use.
3. Spending a lot of time obtaining, using, or recovering from the effects of cannabis.
4. Craving or a strong desire to use cannabis.
5. Recurrent cannabis use resulting in failure to fulfill major role obligations at work, school, or home.
6. Continued cannabis use despite having persistent or recurrent social or interpersonal problems caused or exacerbated by the effects of cannabis.
7. Giving up or reducing important activities because of cannabis use.
8. Recurrent cannabis use in situations in which it is physically hazardous.
9. Continued cannabis use despite knowledge of having a persistent or recurrent physical or psychological problem that is likely to have been caused or exacerbated by cannabis.
10. Tolerance, as defined by either:
a) A need for markedly increased amounts of cannabis to achieve intoxication or desired effect.
b) Markedly diminished effect with continued use of the same amount of cannabis.
11. Withdrawal, as manifested by either:
a) The characteristic withdrawal syndrome for cannabis.
b) Cannabis is taken to relieve or avoid withdrawal symptoms.

The diagnosis of a mild, moderate, or severe Cannabis Use Disorder depends on the number of symptoms present.

'Animal behavior' refers to the actions or responses of animals to various stimuli, including their interactions with the environment and other individuals. It is the study of the actions of animals, whether they are instinctual, learned, or a combination of both. Animal behavior includes communication, mating, foraging, predator avoidance, and social organization, among other things. The scientific study of animal behavior is called ethology. This field seeks to understand the evolutionary basis for behaviors as well as their physiological and psychological mechanisms.

Calcium channel blockers (CCBs) are a class of medications that work by inhibiting the influx of calcium ions into cardiac and smooth muscle cells. This action leads to relaxation of the muscles, particularly in the blood vessels, resulting in decreased peripheral resistance and reduced blood pressure. Calcium channel blockers also have anti-arrhythmic effects and are used in the management of various cardiovascular conditions such as hypertension, angina, and certain types of arrhythmias.

Calcium channel blockers can be further classified into two main categories based on their chemical structure: dihydropyridines (e.g., nifedipine, amlodipine) and non-dihydropyridines (e.g., verapamil, diltiazem). Dihydropyridines are more selective for vascular smooth muscle and have a greater effect on blood pressure than heart rate or conduction. Non-dihydropyridines have a more significant impact on cardiac conduction and contractility, in addition to their vasodilatory effects.

It is important to note that calcium channel blockers may interact with other medications and should be used under the guidance of a healthcare professional. Potential side effects include dizziness, headache, constipation, and peripheral edema.

Transient receptor potential vanilloid (TRPV) cation channels are a subfamily of transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, which are non-selective cation channels that play important roles in various physiological processes such as nociception, thermosensation, and mechanosensation. TRPV channels are activated by a variety of stimuli including temperature, chemical ligands, and mechanical forces.

TRPV channels are composed of six transmembrane domains with intracellular N- and C-termini. The TRPV subfamily includes six members: TRPV1 to TRPV6. Among them, TRPV1 is also known as the vanilloid receptor 1 (VR1) and is activated by capsaicin, the active component of hot chili peppers, as well as noxious heat. TRPV2 is activated by noxious heat and mechanical stimuli, while TRPV3 and TRPV4 are activated by warm temperatures and various chemical ligands. TRPV5 and TRPV6 are primarily involved in calcium transport and are activated by low pH and divalent cations.

TRPV channels play important roles in pain sensation, neurogenic inflammation, and temperature perception. Dysfunction of these channels has been implicated in various pathological conditions such as chronic pain, inflammatory diseases, and cancer. Therefore, TRPV channels are considered promising targets for the development of novel therapeutics for these conditions.

'Marijuana smoking' is not typically defined in a medical context, but it generally refers to the act of inhaling smoke from burning marijuana leaves or flowers, which are often dried and rolled into a cigarette (known as a "joint"), pipe, or bong. The active ingredients in marijuana, primarily delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), are absorbed through the lungs and enter the bloodstream, leading to various psychological and physiological effects.

It's worth noting that marijuana smoking is associated with several potential health risks, including respiratory problems such as bronchitis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), as well as potential cognitive impairments and an increased risk of mental health disorders such as psychosis and schizophrenia in vulnerable individuals.

"Wistar rats" are a strain of albino rats that are widely used in laboratory research. They were developed at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, USA, and were first introduced in 1906. Wistar rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not have a fixed set of genetic characteristics like inbred strains.

Wistar rats are commonly used as animal models in biomedical research because of their size, ease of handling, and relatively low cost. They are used in a wide range of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and behavioral studies. Wistar rats are also used in safety testing of drugs, medical devices, and other products.

Wistar rats are typically larger than many other rat strains, with males weighing between 500-700 grams and females weighing between 250-350 grams. They have a lifespan of approximately 2-3 years. Wistar rats are also known for their docile and friendly nature, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory setting.

Indole is not strictly a medical term, but it is a chemical compound that can be found in the human body and has relevance to medical and biological research. Indoles are organic compounds that contain a bicyclic structure consisting of a six-membered benzene ring fused to a five-membered pyrrole ring.

In the context of medicine, indoles are particularly relevant due to their presence in certain hormones and other biologically active molecules. For example, the neurotransmitter serotonin contains an indole ring, as does the hormone melatonin. Indoles can also be found in various plant-based foods, such as cruciferous vegetables (e.g., broccoli, kale), and have been studied for their potential health benefits.

Some indoles, like indole-3-carbinol and diindolylmethane, are found in these vegetables and can have anti-cancer properties by modulating estrogen metabolism, reducing inflammation, and promoting cell death (apoptosis) in cancer cells. However, it is essential to note that further research is needed to fully understand the potential health benefits and risks associated with indoles.

A ligand, in the context of biochemistry and medicine, is a molecule that binds to a specific site on a protein or a larger biomolecule, such as an enzyme or a receptor. This binding interaction can modify the function or activity of the target protein, either activating it or inhibiting it. Ligands can be small molecules, like hormones or neurotransmitters, or larger structures, like antibodies. The study of ligand-protein interactions is crucial for understanding cellular processes and developing drugs, as many therapeutic compounds function by binding to specific targets within the body.

C57BL/6 (C57 Black 6) is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The term "inbred" refers to a strain of animals where matings have been carried out between siblings or other closely related individuals for many generations, resulting in a population that is highly homozygous at most genetic loci.

The C57BL/6 strain was established in 1920 by crossing a female mouse from the dilute brown (DBA) strain with a male mouse from the black strain. The resulting offspring were then interbred for many generations to create the inbred C57BL/6 strain.

C57BL/6 mice are known for their robust health, longevity, and ease of handling, making them a popular choice for researchers. They have been used in a wide range of biomedical research areas, including studies of cancer, immunology, neuroscience, cardiovascular disease, and metabolism.

One of the most notable features of the C57BL/6 strain is its sensitivity to certain genetic modifications, such as the introduction of mutations that lead to obesity or impaired glucose tolerance. This has made it a valuable tool for studying the genetic basis of complex diseases and traits.

Overall, the C57BL/6 inbred mouse strain is an important model organism in biomedical research, providing a valuable resource for understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying human health and disease.

A "knockout" mouse is a genetically engineered mouse in which one or more genes have been deleted or "knocked out" using molecular biology techniques. This allows researchers to study the function of specific genes and their role in various biological processes, as well as potential associations with human diseases. The mice are generated by introducing targeted DNA modifications into embryonic stem cells, which are then used to create a live animal. Knockout mice have been widely used in biomedical research to investigate gene function, disease mechanisms, and potential therapeutic targets.

Drug tolerance is a medical concept that refers to the decreased response to a drug following its repeated use, requiring higher doses to achieve the same effect. This occurs because the body adapts to the presence of the drug, leading to changes in the function or expression of targets that the drug acts upon, such as receptors or enzymes. Tolerance can develop to various types of drugs, including opioids, benzodiazepines, and alcohol, and it is often associated with physical dependence and addiction. It's important to note that tolerance is different from resistance, which refers to the ability of a pathogen to survive or grow in the presence of a drug, such as antibiotics.

Psychotropic drugs, also known as psychoactive drugs, are a class of medications that affect the function of the central nervous system, leading to changes in consciousness, perception, mood, cognition, or behavior. These drugs work by altering the chemical neurotransmitters in the brain, such as dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine, which are involved in regulating mood, thought, and behavior.

Psychotropic drugs can be classified into several categories based on their primary therapeutic effects, including:

1. Antipsychotic drugs: These medications are used to treat psychosis, schizophrenia, and other related disorders. They work by blocking dopamine receptors in the brain, which helps reduce hallucinations, delusions, and disordered thinking.
2. Antidepressant drugs: These medications are used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, and some chronic pain conditions. They work by increasing the availability of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrine, or dopamine in the brain, which helps improve mood and reduce anxiety.
3. Mood stabilizers: These medications are used to treat bipolar disorder and other mood disorders. They help regulate the ups and downs of mood swings and can also be used as adjunctive treatment for depression and anxiety.
4. Anxiolytic drugs: Also known as anti-anxiety medications, these drugs are used to treat anxiety disorders, panic attacks, and insomnia. They work by reducing the activity of neurotransmitters such as GABA, which can help reduce anxiety and promote relaxation.
5. Stimulant drugs: These medications are used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy. They work by increasing the availability of dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain, which helps improve focus, concentration, and alertness.

It is important to note that psychotropic drugs can have significant side effects and should only be used under the close supervision of a qualified healthcare provider.

The brain is the central organ of the nervous system, responsible for receiving and processing sensory information, regulating vital functions, and controlling behavior, movement, and cognition. It is divided into several distinct regions, each with specific functions:

1. Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions such as thinking, learning, memory, language, and perception. It is divided into two hemispheres, each controlling the opposite side of the body.
2. Cerebellum: Located at the back of the brain, it is responsible for coordinating muscle movements, maintaining balance, and fine-tuning motor skills.
3. Brainstem: Connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord, controlling vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. It also serves as a relay center for sensory information and motor commands between the brain and the rest of the body.
4. Diencephalon: A region that includes the thalamus (a major sensory relay station) and hypothalamus (regulates hormones, temperature, hunger, thirst, and sleep).
5. Limbic system: A group of structures involved in emotional processing, memory formation, and motivation, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus.

The brain is composed of billions of interconnected neurons that communicate through electrical and chemical signals. It is protected by the skull and surrounded by three layers of membranes called meninges, as well as cerebrospinal fluid that provides cushioning and nutrients.

Capsaicin is defined in medical terms as the active component of chili peppers (genus Capsicum) that produces a burning sensation when it comes into contact with mucous membranes or skin. It is a potent irritant and is used topically as a counterirritant in some creams and patches to relieve pain. Capsaicin works by depleting substance P, a neurotransmitter that relays pain signals to the brain, from nerve endings.

Here is the medical definition of capsaicin from the Merriam-Webster's Medical Dictionary:

caпсаісіn : an alkaloid (C18H27NO3) that is the active principle of red peppers and is used in topical preparations as a counterirritant and analgesic.

ICR (Institute of Cancer Research) is a strain of albino Swiss mice that are widely used in scientific research. They are an outbred strain, which means that they have been bred to maintain maximum genetic heterogeneity. However, it is also possible to find inbred strains of ICR mice, which are genetically identical individuals produced by many generations of brother-sister mating.

Inbred ICR mice are a specific type of ICR mouse that has been inbred for at least 20 generations. This means that they have a high degree of genetic uniformity and are essentially genetically identical to one another. Inbred strains of mice are often used in research because their genetic consistency makes them more reliable models for studying biological phenomena and testing new therapies or treatments.

It is important to note that while inbred ICR mice may be useful for certain types of research, they do not necessarily represent the genetic diversity found in human populations. Therefore, it is important to consider the limitations of using any animal model when interpreting research findings and applying them to human health.

Neurons, also known as nerve cells or neurocytes, are specialized cells that constitute the basic unit of the nervous system. They are responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting information and signals within the body. Neurons have three main parts: the dendrites, the cell body (soma), and the axon. The dendrites receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptors, while the axon transmits these signals to other neurons, muscles, or glands. The junction between two neurons is called a synapse, where neurotransmitters are released to transmit the signal across the gap (synaptic cleft) to the next neuron. Neurons vary in size, shape, and structure depending on their function and location within the nervous system.

Signal transduction is the process by which a cell converts an extracellular signal, such as a hormone or neurotransmitter, into an intracellular response. This involves a series of molecular events that transmit the signal from the cell surface to the interior of the cell, ultimately resulting in changes in gene expression, protein activity, or metabolism.

The process typically begins with the binding of the extracellular signal to a receptor located on the cell membrane. This binding event activates the receptor, which then triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling molecules, such as second messengers, protein kinases, and ion channels. These molecules amplify and propagate the signal, ultimately leading to the activation or inhibition of specific cellular responses.

Signal transduction pathways are highly regulated and can be modulated by various factors, including other signaling molecules, post-translational modifications, and feedback mechanisms. Dysregulation of these pathways has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

Benzodioxoles are chemical compounds that consist of a benzene ring (a six-carbon cyclic structure with alternating double bonds) linked to two oxide groups through methane bridges. They can be found naturally in some plants, such as nutmeg and tea, but they are also synthesized for use in various pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs.

In the medical field, benzodioxoles are used in the synthesis of certain drugs, including some antimicrobials, antihelmintics (drugs that treat parasitic worm infections), and muscle relaxants. However, they are perhaps best known for their use as a structural component in certain illicit drugs, such as ecstasy (MDMA) and related substances.

It's important to note that while benzodioxoles themselves may have some medical uses, many of the drugs that contain this structure can be dangerous when used improperly or without medical supervision.

Synaptic transmission is the process by which a neuron communicates with another cell, such as another neuron or a muscle cell, across a junction called a synapse. It involves the release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic terminal of the neuron, which then cross the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell, leading to changes in the electrical or chemical properties of the target cell. This process is critical for the transmission of signals within the nervous system and for controlling various physiological functions in the body.

The hippocampus is a complex, curved formation in the brain that resembles a seahorse (hence its name, from the Greek word "hippos" meaning horse and "kampos" meaning sea monster). It's part of the limbic system and plays crucial roles in the formation of memories, particularly long-term ones.

This region is involved in spatial navigation and cognitive maps, allowing us to recognize locations and remember how to get to them. Additionally, it's one of the first areas affected by Alzheimer's disease, which often results in memory loss as an early symptom.

Anatomically, it consists of two main parts: the Ammon's horn (or cornu ammonis) and the dentate gyrus. These structures are made up of distinct types of neurons that contribute to different aspects of learning and memory.

Analgesics, non-narcotic are a class of medications used to relieve pain that do not contain narcotics or opioids. They work by blocking the transmission of pain signals in the nervous system or by reducing inflammation and swelling. Examples of non-narcotic analgesics include acetaminophen (Tylenol), ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin), naproxen (Aleve), and aspirin. These medications are often used to treat mild to moderate pain, such as headaches, menstrual cramps, muscle aches, and arthritis symptoms. They can be obtained over-the-counter or by prescription, depending on the dosage and formulation. It is important to follow the recommended dosages and usage instructions carefully to avoid adverse effects.

A drug interaction is the effect of combining two or more drugs, or a drug and another substance (such as food or alcohol), which can alter the effectiveness or side effects of one or both of the substances. These interactions can be categorized as follows:

1. Pharmacodynamic interactions: These occur when two or more drugs act on the same target organ or receptor, leading to an additive, synergistic, or antagonistic effect. For example, taking a sedative and an antihistamine together can result in increased drowsiness due to their combined depressant effects on the central nervous system.
2. Pharmacokinetic interactions: These occur when one drug affects the absorption, distribution, metabolism, or excretion of another drug. For example, taking certain antibiotics with grapefruit juice can increase the concentration of the antibiotic in the bloodstream, leading to potential toxicity.
3. Food-drug interactions: Some drugs may interact with specific foods, affecting their absorption, metabolism, or excretion. An example is the interaction between warfarin (a blood thinner) and green leafy vegetables, which can increase the risk of bleeding due to enhanced vitamin K absorption from the vegetables.
4. Drug-herb interactions: Some herbal supplements may interact with medications, leading to altered drug levels or increased side effects. For instance, St. John's Wort can decrease the effectiveness of certain antidepressants and oral contraceptives by inducing their metabolism.
5. Drug-alcohol interactions: Alcohol can interact with various medications, causing additive sedative effects, impaired judgment, or increased risk of liver damage. For example, combining alcohol with benzodiazepines or opioids can lead to dangerous levels of sedation and respiratory depression.

It is essential for healthcare providers and patients to be aware of potential drug interactions to minimize adverse effects and optimize treatment outcomes.

Ethanolamines are a class of organic compounds that contain an amino group (-NH2) and a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to a carbon atom. They are derivatives of ammonia (NH3) in which one or two hydrogen atoms have been replaced by a ethanol group (-CH2CH2OH).

The most common ethanolamines are:

* Monethanolamine (MEA), also called 2-aminoethanol, with the formula HOCH2CH2NH2.
* Diethanolamine (DEA), also called 2,2'-iminobisethanol, with the formula HOCH2CH2NHCH2CH2OH.
* Triethanolamine (TEA), also called 2,2',2''-nitrilotrisethanol, with the formula N(CH2CH2OH)3.

Ethanolamines are used in a wide range of industrial and consumer products, including as solvents, emulsifiers, detergents, pharmaceuticals, and personal care products. They also have applications as intermediates in the synthesis of other chemicals. In the body, ethanolamines play important roles in various biological processes, such as neurotransmission and cell signaling.

Self-administration, in the context of medicine and healthcare, refers to the act of an individual administering medication or treatment to themselves. This can include various forms of delivery such as oral medications, injections, or topical treatments. It is important that individuals who self-administer are properly trained and understand the correct dosage, timing, and technique to ensure safety and effectiveness. Self-administration promotes independence, allows for timely treatment, and can improve overall health outcomes.

CHO cells, or Chinese Hamster Ovary cells, are a type of immortalized cell line that are commonly used in scientific research and biotechnology. They were originally derived from the ovaries of a female Chinese hamster (Cricetulus griseus) in the 1950s.

CHO cells have several characteristics that make them useful for laboratory experiments. They can grow and divide indefinitely under appropriate conditions, which allows researchers to culture large quantities of them for study. Additionally, CHO cells are capable of expressing high levels of recombinant proteins, making them a popular choice for the production of therapeutic drugs, vaccines, and other biologics.

In particular, CHO cells have become a workhorse in the field of biotherapeutics, with many approved monoclonal antibody-based therapies being produced using these cells. The ability to genetically modify CHO cells through various methods has further expanded their utility in research and industrial applications.

It is important to note that while CHO cells are widely used in scientific research, they may not always accurately represent human cell behavior or respond to drugs and other compounds in the same way as human cells do. Therefore, results obtained using CHO cells should be validated in more relevant systems when possible.

Croton oil is a highly toxic, irritant, and vesicant liquid that is derived from the seeds of the croton tiglium plant. It is a type of unsaturated fatty acid known as an octadecatrienoic acid, and it contains a mixture of various chemical compounds including crotonic acid, diglycerides, and phorbol esters.

Croton oil is commonly used in laboratory research as a pharmacological tool to study the mechanisms of inflammation, pain, and skin irritation. It can also be used as a veterinary medicine to treat certain types of intestinal parasites in animals. However, due to its high toxicity and potential for causing severe burns and blisters on the skin, it is not used in human medicine.

It's important to note that croton oil should only be handled by trained professionals in a controlled laboratory setting, as improper use or exposure can result in serious injury or death.

Resorcinols are a type of chemical compound that contain a resorcinol moiety, which is made up of a benzene ring with two hydroxyl groups in the ortho position. In medicine, resorcinol and its derivatives have been used for various purposes, including as antiseptics, antibacterials, and intermediates in the synthesis of other pharmaceuticals.

Resorcinol itself has some medicinal properties, such as being able to reduce pain and inflammation, and it has been used topically to treat conditions like eczema, psoriasis, and acne. However, resorcinol can also be toxic in large amounts, so it must be used with caution.

It's important to note that while resorcinol is a chemical compound, the term "resorcinols" may also refer to a group of related compounds that contain the resorcinol moiety. These compounds can have different medicinal properties and uses depending on their specific structure and function.

Substance Withdrawal Syndrome is a medically recognized condition that occurs when an individual who has been using certain substances, such as alcohol, opioids, or benzodiazepines, suddenly stops or significantly reduces their use. The syndrome is characterized by a specific set of symptoms that can be physical, cognitive, and emotional in nature. These symptoms can vary widely depending on the substance that was being used, the length and intensity of the addiction, and individual factors such as genetics, age, and overall health.

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), published by the American Psychiatric Association, provides the following diagnostic criteria for Substance Withdrawal Syndrome:

A. The development of objective evidence of withdrawal, referring to the specific physiological changes associated with the particular substance, or subjective evidence of withdrawal, characterized by the individual's report of symptoms that correspond to the typical withdrawal syndrome for the substance.

B. The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

C. The symptoms are not better explained by co-occurring mental, medical, or other substance use disorders.

D. The withdrawal syndrome is not attributable to another medical condition and is not better accounted for by another mental disorder.

The DSM-5 also specifies that the diagnosis of Substance Withdrawal Syndrome should be substance-specific, meaning that it should specify the particular class of substances (e.g., alcohol, opioids, benzodiazepines) responsible for the withdrawal symptoms. This is important because different substances have distinct withdrawal syndromes and require different approaches to management and treatment.

In general, Substance Withdrawal Syndrome can be a challenging and potentially dangerous condition that requires professional medical supervision and support during the detoxification process. The specific symptoms and their severity will vary depending on the substance involved, but they may include:

* For alcohol: tremors, seizures, hallucinations, agitation, anxiety, nausea, vomiting, and insomnia.
* For opioids: muscle aches, restlessness, lacrimation (tearing), rhinorrhea (runny nose), yawning, perspiration, chills, mydriasis (dilated pupils), piloerection (goosebumps), nausea or vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal cramps.
* For benzodiazepines: anxiety, irritability, insomnia, restlessness, confusion, hallucinations, seizures, and increased heart rate and blood pressure.

It is essential to consult with a healthcare professional if you or someone you know is experiencing symptoms of Substance Withdrawal Syndrome. They can provide appropriate medical care, support, and referrals for further treatment as needed.

Pain is an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage. It is a complex phenomenon that can result from various stimuli, such as thermal, mechanical, or chemical irritation, and it can be acute or chronic. The perception of pain involves the activation of specialized nerve cells called nociceptors, which transmit signals to the brain via the spinal cord. These signals are then processed in different regions of the brain, leading to the conscious experience of pain. It's important to note that pain is a highly individual and subjective experience, and its perception can vary widely among individuals.

A radioligand assay is a type of in vitro binding assay used in molecular biology and pharmacology to measure the affinity and quantity of a ligand (such as a drug or hormone) to its specific receptor. In this technique, a small amount of a radioactively labeled ligand, also known as a radioligand, is introduced to a sample containing the receptor of interest. The radioligand binds competitively with other unlabeled ligands present in the sample for the same binding site on the receptor. After allowing sufficient time for binding, the reaction is stopped, and the amount of bound radioligand is measured using a technique such as scintillation counting. The data obtained from this assay can be used to determine the dissociation constant (Kd) and maximum binding capacity (Bmax) of the receptor-ligand interaction, which are important parameters in understanding the pharmacological properties of drugs and other ligands.

Hyperalgesia is a medical term that describes an increased sensitivity to pain. It occurs when the nervous system, specifically the nociceptors (pain receptors), become excessively sensitive to stimuli. This means that a person experiences pain from a stimulus that normally wouldn't cause pain or experiences pain that is more intense than usual. Hyperalgesia can be a result of various conditions such as nerve damage, inflammation, or certain medications. It's an important symptom to monitor in patients with chronic pain conditions, as it may indicate the development of tolerance or addiction to pain medication.

Designer drugs are synthetic or chemically altered substances that are designed to mimic the effects of controlled substances. They are often created in clandestine laboratories and marketed as legal alternatives to illegal drugs. These drugs are called "designer" because they are intentionally modified to avoid detection and regulation by law enforcement agencies and regulatory bodies.

Designer drugs can be extremely dangerous, as their chemical composition is often unknown or only partially understood. They may contain potentially harmful impurities or variations that can lead to unpredictable and sometimes severe health consequences. Examples of designer drugs include synthetic cannabinoids (such as "Spice" or "K2"), synthetic cathinones (such as "bath salts"), and novel psychoactive substances (NPS).

It is important to note that while some designer drugs may be legal at the time they are manufactured and sold, their possession and use may still be illegal under federal or state laws. Additionally, many designer drugs have been made illegal through scheduling by the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) or through legislation specifically targeting them.

Phenylmethylsulfonyl Fluoride (PMSF) is not a medication or a treatment, but it is a chemical compound with the formula C8H9FO3S. It is commonly used in biochemistry and molecular biology research as a serine protease inhibitor.

Proteases are enzymes that break down other proteins by cleaving specific peptide bonds. Serine proteases are a class of proteases that use a serine residue in their active site to carry out the hydrolysis reaction. PMSF works by irreversibly modifying this serine residue, inhibiting the enzyme's activity.

PMSF is used in laboratory settings to prevent protein degradation during experiments such as protein purification or Western blotting. It is important to note that PMSF is highly toxic and must be handled with care, using appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) and safety measures.

"Motor activity" is a general term used in the field of medicine and neuroscience to refer to any kind of physical movement or action that is generated by the body's motor system. The motor system includes the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and muscles that work together to produce movements such as walking, talking, reaching for an object, or even subtle actions like moving your eyes.

Motor activity can be voluntary, meaning it is initiated intentionally by the individual, or involuntary, meaning it is triggered automatically by the nervous system without conscious control. Examples of voluntary motor activity include deliberately lifting your arm or kicking a ball, while examples of involuntary motor activity include heartbeat, digestion, and reflex actions like jerking your hand away from a hot stove.

Abnormalities in motor activity can be a sign of neurological or muscular disorders, such as Parkinson's disease, cerebral palsy, or multiple sclerosis. Assessment of motor activity is often used in the diagnosis and treatment of these conditions.

Cyclohexanes are organic compounds that consist of a six-carbon ring arranged in a cyclic structure, with each carbon atom joined to two other carbon atoms by single bonds. This gives the molecule a shape that resembles a hexagonal ring. The carbons in the ring can be saturated, meaning that they are bonded to hydrogen atoms, or they can contain double bonds between some of the carbon atoms.

Cyclohexanes are important intermediates in the production of many industrial and consumer products, including plastics, fibers, dyes, and pharmaceuticals. They are also used as solvents and starting materials for the synthesis of other organic compounds.

One of the most well-known properties of cyclohexane is its ability to exist in two different conformations: a "chair" conformation and a "boat" conformation. In the chair conformation, the carbon atoms are arranged in such a way that they form a puckered ring, with each carbon atom bonded to two other carbons and two hydrogens. This conformation is more stable than the boat conformation, in which the carbon atoms form a flattened, saddle-shaped ring.

Cyclohexanes are relatively nonpolar and have low water solubility, making them useful as solvents for nonpolar substances. They also have a relatively high boiling point compared to other hydrocarbons of similar molecular weight, due to the fact that they can form weak intermolecular forces called London dispersion forces.

Cyclohexane is a flammable liquid with a mild, sweet odor. It is classified as a hazardous substance and should be handled with care. Exposure to cyclohexane can cause irritation of the eyes, skin, and respiratory tract, and prolonged exposure can lead to more serious health effects, including neurological damage.

Opioid mu receptors, also known as mu-opioid receptors (MORs), are a type of G protein-coupled receptor that binds to opioids, a class of chemicals that include both natural and synthetic painkillers. These receptors are found in the brain, spinal cord, and gastrointestinal tract, and play a key role in mediating the effects of opioid drugs such as morphine, heroin, and oxycodone.

MORs are involved in pain modulation, reward processing, respiratory depression, and physical dependence. Activation of MORs can lead to feelings of euphoria, decreased perception of pain, and slowed breathing. Prolonged activation of these receptors can also result in tolerance, where higher doses of the drug are required to achieve the same effect, and dependence, where withdrawal symptoms occur when the drug is discontinued.

MORs have three main subtypes: MOR-1, MOR-2, and MOR-3, with MOR-1 being the most widely studied and clinically relevant. Selective agonists for MOR-1, such as fentanyl and sufentanil, are commonly used in anesthesia and pain management. However, the abuse potential and risk of overdose associated with these drugs make them a significant public health concern.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS) agents are a category of pharmaceutical drugs that act on the peripheral nervous system, which includes all the nerves outside the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord). These agents can be further classified into various subgroups based on their specific mechanisms of action and therapeutic effects. Here are some examples:

1. Local anesthetics: These drugs block nerve impulses by inhibiting the sodium channels in the neuronal membrane, thereby preventing the generation and transmission of nerve impulses. They are commonly used to provide local or regional anesthesia during surgical procedures or to manage pain. Examples include lidocaine, bupivacaine, and prilocaine.
2. Neuropathic pain agents: These drugs are used to treat neuropathic pain, which is caused by damage or dysfunction of the peripheral nerves. They can act on various targets, including sodium channels, N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, and voltage-gated calcium channels. Examples include gabapentin, pregabalin, duloxetine, and amitriptyline.
3. Muscle relaxants: These drugs act on the skeletal muscle to reduce muscle tone and spasticity. They can be classified into two main categories: centrally acting muscle relaxants (e.g., baclofen, tizanidine) and peripherally acting muscle relaxants (e.g., cyclobenzaprine, carisoprodol).
4. Cholinergic agents: These drugs act on the cholinergic receptors in the PNS to modulate nerve impulse transmission. They can be further classified into muscarinic and nicotinic agonists or antagonists, depending on their specific mechanism of action. Examples include neostigmine, pyridostigmine, and physostigmine.
5. Sympathomimetic agents: These drugs stimulate the sympathetic nervous system, which is part of the PNS that regulates the "fight or flight" response. They can be used to treat various conditions, such as hypotension, bronchospasm, and nasal congestion. Examples include epinephrine, norepinephrine, phenylephrine, and pseudoephedrine.
6. Sympatholytic agents: These drugs block the sympathetic nervous system to reduce its activity. They can be used to treat various conditions, such as hypertension, tachycardia, and anxiety. Examples include beta-blockers (e.g., propranolol, metoprolol), alpha-blockers (e.g., prazosin, doxazosin), and combined alpha-beta blockers (e.g., labetalol, carvedilol).
7. Neuropathic pain agents: These drugs are used to treat neuropathic pain, which is caused by damage or dysfunction of the nervous system. They can act on various targets in the PNS, such as sodium channels, N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, and opioid receptors. Examples include lidocaine, capsaicin, tramadol, and tapentadol.
8. Antiepileptic drugs: These drugs are used to treat epilepsy, which is a neurological disorder characterized by recurrent seizures. They can act on various targets in the PNS, such as sodium channels, calcium channels, and GABA receptors. Examples include phenytoin, carbamazepine, valproate, lamotrigine, topiramate, and levetiracetam.
9. Antidepressant drugs: These drugs are used to treat depression, which is a mental disorder characterized by persistent low mood and loss of interest in activities. They can act on various targets in the PNS, such as serotonin receptors, norepinephrine receptors, and dopamine receptors. Examples include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) (e.g., fluoxetine, sertraline), serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) (e.g., venlafaxine, duloxetine), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) (e.g., amitriptyline, imipramine), and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) (e.g., phenelzine, selegiline).
10. Antipsychotic drugs: These drugs are used to treat psychosis, which is a mental disorder characterized by hallucinations, delusions, and disordered thought processes. They can act on various targets in the PNS, such as dopamine receptors, serotonin receptors, and histamine receptors. Examples include typical antipsychotics (e.g., haloperidol, chlorpromazine) and atypical antipsychotics (e.g., clozapine, risperidone).
11. Anxiolytic drugs: These drugs are used to treat anxiety disorders, which are mental disorders characterized by excessive fear, worry, or nervousness. They can act on various targets in the PNS, such as GABA receptors and benzodiazepine receptors. Examples include benzodiazepines (e.g., diazepam, alprazolam), buspirone, and hydroxyzine.
12. Sedative drugs: These drugs are used to induce sleep or reduce excitement. They can act on various targets in the PNS, such as GABA receptors and histamine receptors. Examples include barbiturates (e.g., phenobarbital, secobarbital), benzodiazepines (e.g., diazepam, temazepam), and antihistamines (e.g., diphenhydramine, doxylamine).
13. Hypnotic drugs: These drugs are used to induce sleep. They can act on various targets in the PNS, such as GABA receptors and benzodiazepine receptors. Examples include benzodiazepines (e.g., triazolam, flunitrazepam) and non-benzodiazepine hypnotics (e.g., zolpidem, eszopiclone).
14. Antidepressant drugs: These drugs are used to treat depression, which is a mental disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, or worthlessness. They can act on various targets in the PNS, such as serotonin receptors and norepinephrine transporters. Examples include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (e.g., fluoxetine, sertraline), tricyclic antidepressants (e.g., amitriptyline, imipramine), and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (e.g., phenelzine, selegiline).
15. Anxiolytic drugs: These drugs are used to reduce anxiety, which is a feeling of fear, worry, or unease. They can act on various targets in the PNS, such as GABA receptors and benzodiazepine receptors. Examples include benzodiazepines (e.g., alprazolam, lorazepam), buspirone, and hydroxyzine.
16. Antipsychotic drugs: These drugs are used to treat psychosis, which is a mental disorder characterized by hallucinations, delusions, or disordered thinking. They can act on various targets in the PNS, such as dopamine receptors and serotonin receptors. Examples include typical antipsychotics (e.g., haloperidol, chlorpromazine) and atypical antipsychotics (e.g., risperidone, olanzapine).
17. Mood stabilizers: These drugs are used to treat mood disorders, such as bipolar disorder or major depressive disorder. They can act on various targets in the PNS, such as sodium channels and GABA receptors. Examples include lithium, valproic acid, and carbamazepine.
18. Stimulants: These drugs are used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or narcolepsy. They can act on various targets in the PNS, such as dopamine transporters and norepinephrine transporters. Examples include amphetamine, methylphenidate, and modafinil.
19. Antihistamines: These drugs are used to treat allergies or symptoms of the common cold. They can act on various targets in the PNS, such as histamine receptors and muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. Examples include diphenhydramine, loratadine, and cetirizine.
20. Antiemetics: These

The periaqueductal gray (PAG) is a region in the midbrain, surrounding the cerebral aqueduct (a narrow channel connecting the third and fourth ventricles within the brain). It is a column of neurons that plays a crucial role in the modulation of pain perception, cardiorespiratory regulation, and defensive behaviors. The PAG is involved in the descending pain modulatory system, where it receives input from various emotional and cognitive areas and sends output to the rostral ventromedial medulla, which in turn regulates nociceptive processing at the spinal cord level. Additionally, the PAG is implicated in the regulation of fear, anxiety, and stress responses, as well as sexual behavior and reward processing.

Presynaptic terminals, also known as presynaptic boutons or nerve terminals, refer to the specialized structures located at the end of axons in neurons. These terminals contain numerous small vesicles filled with neurotransmitters, which are chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons.

When an action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal, it triggers the influx of calcium ions into the terminal, leading to the fusion of the vesicles with the presynaptic membrane and the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft, a small gap between the presynaptic and postsynaptic terminals.

The released neurotransmitters then bind to receptors on the postsynaptic terminal, leading to the generation of an electrical or chemical signal that can either excite or inhibit the postsynaptic neuron. Presynaptic terminals play a crucial role in regulating synaptic transmission and are targets for various drugs and toxins that modulate neuronal communication.

Heroin is a highly addictive drug that is processed from morphine, a naturally occurring substance extracted from the seed pod of the Asian opium poppy plant. It is a "downer" or depressant that affects the brain's pleasure systems and interferes with the brain's ability to perceive pain.

Heroin can be injected, smoked, or snorted. It is sold as a white or brownish powder or as a black, sticky substance known as "black tar heroin." Regardless of how it is taken, heroin enters the brain rapidly and is highly addictive.

The use of heroin can lead to serious health problems, including fatal overdose, spontaneous abortion, and infectious diseases like HIV and hepatitis. Long-term use of heroin can lead to physical dependence and addiction, a chronic disease that can be difficult to treat.

Animal disease models are specialized animals, typically rodents such as mice or rats, that have been genetically engineered or exposed to certain conditions to develop symptoms and physiological changes similar to those seen in human diseases. These models are used in medical research to study the pathophysiology of diseases, identify potential therapeutic targets, test drug efficacy and safety, and understand disease mechanisms.

The genetic modifications can include knockout or knock-in mutations, transgenic expression of specific genes, or RNA interference techniques. The animals may also be exposed to environmental factors such as chemicals, radiation, or infectious agents to induce the disease state.

Examples of animal disease models include:

1. Mouse models of cancer: Genetically engineered mice that develop various types of tumors, allowing researchers to study cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis.
2. Alzheimer's disease models: Transgenic mice expressing mutant human genes associated with Alzheimer's disease, which exhibit amyloid plaque formation and cognitive decline.
3. Diabetes models: Obese and diabetic mouse strains like the NOD (non-obese diabetic) or db/db mice, used to study the development of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, respectively.
4. Cardiovascular disease models: Atherosclerosis-prone mice, such as ApoE-deficient or LDLR-deficient mice, that develop plaque buildup in their arteries when fed a high-fat diet.
5. Inflammatory bowel disease models: Mice with genetic mutations affecting intestinal barrier function and immune response, such as IL-10 knockout or SAMP1/YitFc mice, which develop colitis.

Animal disease models are essential tools in preclinical research, but it is important to recognize their limitations. Differences between species can affect the translatability of results from animal studies to human patients. Therefore, researchers must carefully consider the choice of model and interpret findings cautiously when applying them to human diseases.

Cricetinae is a subfamily of rodents that includes hamsters, gerbils, and relatives. These small mammals are characterized by having short limbs, compact bodies, and cheek pouches for storing food. They are native to various parts of the world, particularly in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Some species are popular pets due to their small size, easy care, and friendly nature. In a medical context, understanding the biology and behavior of Cricetinae species can be important for individuals who keep them as pets or for researchers studying their physiology.

Hypothermia is a medically defined condition where the core body temperature drops below 35°C (95°F). It is often associated with exposure to cold environments, but can also occur in cases of severe illness, injury, or immersion in cold water. Symptoms may include shivering, confusion, slowed heart rate and breathing, and if not treated promptly, can lead to unconsciousness, cardiac arrest, and even death.

Pain measurement, in a medical context, refers to the quantification or evaluation of the intensity and/or unpleasantness of a patient's subjective pain experience. This is typically accomplished through the use of standardized self-report measures such as numerical rating scales (NRS), visual analog scales (VAS), or categorical scales (mild, moderate, severe). In some cases, physiological measures like heart rate, blood pressure, and facial expressions may also be used to supplement self-reported pain ratings. The goal of pain measurement is to help healthcare providers better understand the nature and severity of a patient's pain in order to develop an effective treatment plan.

Pertussis toxin is an exotoxin produced by the bacterium Bordetella pertussis, which is responsible for causing whooping cough in humans. This toxin has several effects on the host organism, including:

1. Adenylyl cyclase activation: Pertussis toxin enters the host cell and modifies a specific G protein (Gαi), leading to the continuous activation of adenylyl cyclase. This results in increased levels of intracellular cAMP, which disrupts various cellular processes.
2. Inhibition of immune response: Pertussis toxin impairs the host's immune response by inhibiting the migration and function of immune cells like neutrophils and macrophages. It also interferes with antigen presentation and T-cell activation, making it difficult for the body to clear the infection.
3. Increased inflammation: The continuous activation of adenylyl cyclase by pertussis toxin leads to increased production of proinflammatory cytokines, contributing to the severe coughing fits and other symptoms associated with whooping cough.

Pertussis toxin is an essential virulence factor for Bordetella pertussis, and its effects contribute significantly to the pathogenesis of whooping cough. Vaccination against pertussis includes inactivated or genetically detoxified forms of pertussis toxin, which provide immunity without causing disease symptoms.

Catalepsy is a medical condition characterized by a trance-like state, with reduced sensitivity to pain and external stimuli, muscular rigidity, and fixed postures. In this state, the person's body may maintain any position in which it is placed for a long time, and there is often a decreased responsiveness to social cues or communication attempts.

Catalepsy can be a symptom of various medical conditions, including neurological disorders such as epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, or brain injuries. It can also occur in the context of mental health disorders, such as severe depression, catatonic schizophrenia, or dissociative identity disorder.

In some cases, catalepsy may be induced intentionally through hypnosis or other forms of altered consciousness practices. However, when it occurs spontaneously or as a symptom of an underlying medical condition, it can be a serious concern and requires medical evaluation and treatment.

Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is modified by its consequences, either reinforcing or punishing the behavior. It was first described by B.F. Skinner and involves an association between a response (behavior) and a consequence (either reward or punishment). There are two types of operant conditioning: positive reinforcement, in which a desirable consequence follows a desired behavior, increasing the likelihood that the behavior will occur again; and negative reinforcement, in which a undesirable consequence is removed following a desired behavior, also increasing the likelihood that the behavior will occur again.

For example, if a child cleans their room (response) and their parent gives them praise or a treat (positive reinforcement), the child is more likely to clean their room again in the future. If a child is buckling their seatbelt in the car (response) and the annoying buzzer stops (negative reinforcement), the child is more likely to buckle their seatbelt in the future.

It's important to note that operant conditioning is a form of learning, not motivation. The behavior is modified by its consequences, regardless of the individual's internal state or intentions.

Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) is a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system. It plays a crucial role in regulating neuronal excitability and preventing excessive neuronal firing, which helps to maintain neural homeostasis and reduce the risk of seizures. GABA functions by binding to specific receptors (GABA-A, GABA-B, and GABA-C) on the postsynaptic membrane, leading to hyperpolarization of the neuronal membrane and reduced neurotransmitter release from presynaptic terminals.

In addition to its role in the central nervous system, GABA has also been identified as a neurotransmitter in the peripheral nervous system, where it is involved in regulating various physiological processes such as muscle relaxation, hormone secretion, and immune function.

GABA can be synthesized in neurons from glutamate, an excitatory neurotransmitter, through the action of the enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD). Once synthesized, GABA is stored in synaptic vesicles and released into the synapse upon neuronal activation. After release, GABA can be taken up by surrounding glial cells or degraded by the enzyme GABA transaminase (GABA-T) into succinic semialdehyde, which is further metabolized to form succinate and enter the Krebs cycle for energy production.

Dysregulation of GABAergic neurotransmission has been implicated in various neurological and psychiatric disorders, including epilepsy, anxiety, depression, and sleep disturbances. Therefore, modulating GABAergic signaling through pharmacological interventions or other therapeutic approaches may offer potential benefits for the treatment of these conditions.

Substance abuse detection refers to the process of identifying the use or misuse of psychoactive substances, such as alcohol, illicit drugs, or prescription medications, in an individual. This can be done through various methods, including:

1. Physical examination: A healthcare professional may look for signs of substance abuse, such as track marks, enlarged pupils, or unusual behavior.
2. Laboratory tests: Urine, blood, hair, or saliva samples can be analyzed to detect the presence of drugs or their metabolites. These tests can provide information about recent use (hours to days) or longer-term use (up to several months).
3. Self-report measures: Individuals may be asked to complete questionnaires or interviews about their substance use patterns and behaviors.
4. Observational assessments: In some cases, such as in a treatment setting, healthcare professionals may observe an individual's behavior over time to identify patterns of substance abuse.

Substance abuse detection is often used in clinical, workplace, or legal settings to assess individuals for potential substance use disorders, monitor treatment progress, or ensure compliance with laws or regulations.

Palmitic acid is a type of saturated fatty acid, which is a common component in many foods and also produced by the body. Its chemical formula is C16:0, indicating that it contains 16 carbon atoms and no double bonds. Palmitic acid is found in high concentrations in animal fats, such as butter, lard, and beef tallow, as well as in some vegetable oils, like palm kernel oil and coconut oil.

In the human body, palmitic acid can be synthesized from other substances or absorbed through the diet. It plays a crucial role in various biological processes, including energy storage, membrane structure formation, and signaling pathways regulation. However, high intake of palmitic acid has been linked to an increased risk of developing cardiovascular diseases due to its potential to raise low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels in the blood.

It is essential to maintain a balanced diet and consume palmitic acid-rich foods in moderation, along with regular exercise and a healthy lifestyle, to reduce the risk of chronic diseases.

The cerebellum is a part of the brain that lies behind the brainstem and is involved in the regulation of motor movements, balance, and coordination. It contains two hemispheres and a central portion called the vermis. The cerebellum receives input from sensory systems and other areas of the brain and spinal cord and sends output to motor areas of the brain. Damage to the cerebellum can result in problems with movement, balance, and coordination.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

"Competitive binding" is a term used in pharmacology and biochemistry to describe the behavior of two or more molecules (ligands) competing for the same binding site on a target protein or receptor. In this context, "binding" refers to the physical interaction between a ligand and its target.

When a ligand binds to a receptor, it can alter the receptor's function, either activating or inhibiting it. If multiple ligands compete for the same binding site, they will compete to bind to the receptor. The ability of each ligand to bind to the receptor is influenced by its affinity for the receptor, which is a measure of how strongly and specifically the ligand binds to the receptor.

In competitive binding, if one ligand is present in high concentrations, it can prevent other ligands with lower affinity from binding to the receptor. This is because the higher-affinity ligand will have a greater probability of occupying the binding site and blocking access to the other ligands. The competition between ligands can be described mathematically using equations such as the Langmuir isotherm, which describes the relationship between the concentration of ligand and the fraction of receptors that are occupied by the ligand.

Competitive binding is an important concept in drug development, as it can be used to predict how different drugs will interact with their targets and how they may affect each other's activity. By understanding the competitive binding properties of a drug, researchers can optimize its dosage and delivery to maximize its therapeutic effect while minimizing unwanted side effects.

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are a family of membrane receptors that play an essential role in cellular signaling and communication. These receptors possess seven transmembrane domains, forming a structure that spans the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane. They are called "G-protein-coupled" because they interact with heterotrimeric G proteins upon activation, which in turn modulate various downstream signaling pathways.

When an extracellular ligand binds to a GPCR, it causes a conformational change in the receptor's structure, leading to the exchange of guanosine diphosphate (GDP) for guanosine triphosphate (GTP) on the associated G protein's α subunit. This exchange triggers the dissociation of the G protein into its α and βγ subunits, which then interact with various effector proteins to elicit cellular responses.

There are four main families of GPCRs, classified based on their sequence similarities and downstream signaling pathways:

1. Gq-coupled receptors: These receptors activate phospholipase C (PLC), which leads to the production of inositol trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG). IP3 induces calcium release from intracellular stores, while DAG activates protein kinase C (PKC).
2. Gs-coupled receptors: These receptors activate adenylyl cyclase, which increases the production of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and subsequently activates protein kinase A (PKA).
3. Gi/o-coupled receptors: These receptors inhibit adenylyl cyclase, reducing cAMP levels and modulating PKA activity. Additionally, they can activate ion channels or regulate other signaling pathways through the βγ subunits.
4. G12/13-coupled receptors: These receptors primarily activate RhoGEFs, which in turn activate RhoA and modulate cytoskeletal organization and cellular motility.

GPCRs are involved in various physiological processes, including neurotransmission, hormone signaling, immune response, and sensory perception. Dysregulation of GPCR function has been implicated in numerous diseases, making them attractive targets for drug development.

Anisoles are organic compounds that consist of a phenyl ring (a benzene ring with a hydroxyl group replaced by a hydrogen atom) attached to a methoxy group (-O-CH3). The molecular formula for anisole is C6H5OCH3. Anisoles are aromatic ethers and can be found in various natural sources, including anise plants and some essential oils. They have a wide range of applications, including as solvents, flavoring agents, and intermediates in the synthesis of other chemicals.

Morphine is a potent opioid analgesic (pain reliever) derived from the opium poppy. It works by binding to opioid receptors in the brain and spinal cord, blocking the transmission of pain signals and reducing the perception of pain. Morphine is used to treat moderate to severe pain, including pain associated with cancer, myocardial infarction, and other conditions. It can also be used as a sedative and cough suppressant.

Morphine has a high potential for abuse and dependence, and its use should be closely monitored by healthcare professionals. Common side effects of morphine include drowsiness, respiratory depression, constipation, nausea, and vomiting. Overdose can result in respiratory failure, coma, and death.

Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) are electrical signals that occur in the dendrites and cell body of a neuron, or nerve cell. They are caused by the activation of excitatory synapses, which are connections between neurons that allow for the transmission of information.

When an action potential, or electrical impulse, reaches the end of an axon, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft, the small gap between the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes. The excitatory neurotransmitters then bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, causing a local depolarization of the membrane potential. This depolarization is known as an EPSP.

EPSPs are responsible for increasing the likelihood that an action potential will be generated in the postsynaptic neuron. When multiple EPSPs occur simultaneously or in close succession, they can summate and cause a large enough depolarization to trigger an action potential. This allows for the transmission of information from one neuron to another.

It's important to note that there are also inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) which decrease the likelihood that an action potential will be generated in the postsynaptic neuron, by causing a local hyperpolarization of the membrane potential.

The limbic system is a complex set of structures in the brain that includes the hippocampus, amygdala, fornix, cingulate gyrus, and other nearby areas. It's associated with emotional responses, instinctual behaviors, motivation, long-term memory formation, and olfaction (smell). The limbic system is also involved in the modulation of visceral functions and drives, such as hunger, thirst, and sexual drive.

The structures within the limbic system communicate with each other and with other parts of the brain, particularly the hypothalamus and the cortex, to regulate various physiological and psychological processes. Dysfunctions in the limbic system can lead to a range of neurological and psychiatric conditions, including depression, anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and certain types of memory impairment.

Neural inhibition is a process in the nervous system that decreases or prevents the activity of neurons (nerve cells) in order to regulate and control communication within the nervous system. It is a fundamental mechanism that allows for the balance of excitation and inhibition necessary for normal neural function. Inhibitory neurotransmitters, such as GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) and glycine, are released from the presynaptic neuron and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, reducing its likelihood of firing an action potential. This results in a decrease in neural activity and can have various effects depending on the specific neurons and brain regions involved. Neural inhibition is crucial for many functions including motor control, sensory processing, attention, memory, and emotional regulation.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

"Pyrans" is not a term commonly used in medical definitions. It is a chemical term that refers to a class of heterocyclic compounds containing a six-membered ring with one oxygen atom and five carbon atoms. The name "pyran" comes from the fact that it contains a pyroline unit (two double-bonded carbons) and a ketone group (a carbon double-bonded to an oxygen).

While pyrans are not directly related to medical definitions, some of their derivatives have been studied for potential medicinal applications. For example, certain pyran derivatives have shown anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and anticancer activities in laboratory experiments. However, more research is needed before these compounds can be considered as potential therapeutic agents.

"Salvia" is a genus of plants that includes over 900 species, with some commonly known as sage. However, in a medical context, the term "Salvia" often refers to Salvia divinorum, a specific species of this plant. Salvia divinorum, also known as sage of the diviners, is a psychoactive herb that can produce hallucinations and other altered mental states when ingested, usually by smoking or chewing the leaves. It contains a chemical called salvinorin A, which is believed to be responsible for its psychoactive effects.

It's important to note that while Salvia divinorum has been used in traditional healing practices in some cultures, it can also have dangerous side effects and its use is regulated in many parts of the world. It should only be used under medical supervision and with a clear understanding of its potential risks.

The corpus striatum is a part of the brain that plays a crucial role in movement, learning, and cognition. It consists of two structures called the caudate nucleus and the putamen, which are surrounded by the external and internal segments of the globus pallidus. Together, these structures form the basal ganglia, a group of interconnected neurons that help regulate voluntary movement.

The corpus striatum receives input from various parts of the brain, including the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and other brainstem nuclei. It processes this information and sends output to the globus pallidus and substantia nigra, which then project to the thalamus and back to the cerebral cortex. This feedback loop helps coordinate and fine-tune movements, allowing for smooth and coordinated actions.

Damage to the corpus striatum can result in movement disorders such as Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and dystonia. These conditions are characterized by abnormal involuntary movements, muscle stiffness, and difficulty initiating or controlling voluntary movements.

Patch-clamp techniques are a group of electrophysiological methods used to study ion channels and other electrical properties of cells. These techniques were developed by Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann, who were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1991 for their work. The basic principle of patch-clamp techniques involves creating a high resistance seal between a glass micropipette and the cell membrane, allowing for the measurement of current flowing through individual ion channels or groups of channels.

There are several different configurations of patch-clamp techniques, including:

1. Cell-attached configuration: In this configuration, the micropipette is attached to the outer surface of the cell membrane, and the current flowing across a single ion channel can be measured. This configuration allows for the study of the properties of individual channels in their native environment.
2. Whole-cell configuration: Here, the micropipette breaks through the cell membrane, creating a low resistance electrical connection between the pipette and the inside of the cell. This configuration allows for the measurement of the total current flowing across all ion channels in the cell membrane.
3. Inside-out configuration: In this configuration, the micropipette is pulled away from the cell after establishing a seal, resulting in the exposure of the inner surface of the cell membrane to the solution in the pipette. This configuration allows for the study of the properties of ion channels in isolation from other cellular components.
4. Outside-out configuration: Here, the micropipette is pulled away from the cell after establishing a seal, resulting in the exposure of the outer surface of the cell membrane to the solution in the pipette. This configuration allows for the study of the properties of ion channels in their native environment, but with the ability to control the composition of the extracellular solution.

Patch-clamp techniques have been instrumental in advancing our understanding of ion channel function and have contributed to numerous breakthroughs in neuroscience, pharmacology, and physiology.

... type 1 (CB1) receptors are thought to be one of the most widely expressed Gαi protein-coupled receptors in ... Cannabinoids bind reversibly and stereo-selectively to the cannabinoid receptors. Subtype selective cannabinoids have been ... These discoveries led to determination in 1993 of a second brain cannabinoid receptor named cannabinoid receptor type 2 or CB2 ... the cannabinoid receptors contain seven transmembrane spanning domains. Cannabinoid receptors are activated by three major ...
The cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2), is a G protein-coupled receptor from the cannabinoid receptor family that in humans is ... The receptor was identified among cDNAs based on its similarity in amino-acid sequence to the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) ... "Cannabinoid Receptors: CB2". IUPHAR Database of Receptors and Ion Channels. International Union of Basic and Clinical ... Unlike the CB1 receptor, in the brain, CB2 receptors are found primarily on microglia. The CB2 receptor is expressed in some ...
Discovery and development of Cannabinoid Receptor 1 Antagonists Cannabinoid receptor Cannabinoid receptor type 2 (CB2) GRCh38: ... Cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1), is a G protein-coupled cannabinoid receptor that in humans is encoded by the CNR1 gene. The human ... Selective CB1 agonists may be used to isolate the effects of the receptor from the CB1 receptor, as most cannabinoids and ... "Cannabinoid Receptors: CB1". IUPHAR Database of Receptors and Ion Channels. International Union of Basic and Clinical ...
... cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) and 2 (CB2). Both receptors are 7-transmembrane G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) which inhibit ... A cannabinoid receptor antagonist, also known simply as a cannabinoid antagonist or as an anticannabinoid, is a type of ... The endogenous cannabinoid system includes cannabinoid receptors, their endogenous ligands (endocannabinoids) and enzymes for ... modulate the effects of THC via direct blockade of cannabinoid CB1 receptors, thus behaving like first-generation CB1 receptor ...
These distinct effects are mediated primarily by CB1 cannabinoid receptors in the central nervous system, and CB2 cannabinoid ... CB1 receptor agonists, CB2 receptor agonists, Glycine receptor agonists, Glycine receptor antagonists, Euphoriants, Arachidonyl ... it participates in the body's endocannabinoid system by binding to cannabinoid receptors, the same receptors that the ... Cannabinoid receptors were originally discovered as being sensitive to Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC, commonly called THC), ...
Cannabinoid receptors. Boston: Academic Press. pp. 233-258. ISBN 0-12-551460-3. "Konopí je jedním z nejbezpečnějších známých ... "Isolation and structure of a brain constituent that binds to the cannabinoid receptor". Science. 258 (5090): 1946-9. doi: ... an endogenous cannabinoid neurotransmitter. Hanuš continues his research in Jerusalem on cannabinoids, endocannabinoids and ... In April 2010 and September 2011, Hanuš took part in a seminar of the Czech Parliament aimed at introduction of cannabinoid ...
2008). "Ligand-Binding Architecture of Human CB2 Cannabinoid Receptor: Evidence for Receptor Subtype-Specific Binding Motif and ... List of CP cannabinoids List of JWH cannabinoids List of HU cannabinoids List of miscellaneous designer cannabinoids Lan, Ruoxi ... of the in vivo receptor occupancy for the behavioral effects of cannabinoids using a radiolabeled cannabinoid receptor agonist ... "F200A substitution in the third transmembrane helix of human cannabinoid CB1 receptor converts AM2233 from receptor agonist to ...
"Entrez Gene: GPR55 G protein-coupled receptor 55". Brown AJ (Nov 2007). "Novel cannabinoid receptors". British Journal of ... "The orphan receptor GPR55 is a novel cannabinoid receptor". British Journal of Pharmacology. 152 (7): 1092-101. doi:10.1038/sj. ... Later it was identified by an in silico screen as a putative cannabinoid receptor because of a similar amino acid sequence in ... Whyte LS, Ryberg E, Sims NA, Ridge SA, Mackie K, Greasley PJ, Ross RA, Rogers MJ (Sep 2009). "The putative cannabinoid receptor ...
JWH cannabinoids, Phenylacetylindoles, Phenol ethers, Designer drugs, CB1 receptor agonists, CB2 receptor agonists). ... The Cannabinoid Receptors. Edited by Patricia H Reggio. Humana Press 2009. ISBN 978-1-58829-712-9 "Understanding the 'Spice' ... AM-2201 JWH-073 JWH-200 List of JWH cannabinoids List of AM cannabinoids MEPIRAPIM SDB-001 THJ-2201 Anvisa (2023-07-24). "RDC ... an analgesic chemical from the phenylacetylindole family that acts as a cannabinoid agonist at both the CB1 and CB2 receptors, ...
JWH cannabinoids, Chloroarenes, Designer drugs, CB1 receptor agonists, CB2 receptor agonists, All stub articles, Cannabinoid ... Structure-Activity Relationships and Receptor Interactions. The Cannabinoid Receptors. The Receptors. Humana Press. doi:10.1007 ... 19th Annual Symposium on the Cannabinoids. Burlington, Vermont: International Cannabinoid Research Society. p. 2. Controlled ... which acts as a cannabinoid agonist at both the CB1 and CB2 receptors. It has mild selectivity for CB1 with a Ki of 2.3 nM and ...
2009). "Cannabinoid Receptor Ligands and Structure-Activity Relationships.". The Cannabinoid Receptors. Part I. Humana Press. ... O-774 is a classical cannabinoid derivative which acts as a potent agonist for the cannabinoid receptors, with a Ki of 0.6 nM ... at CB1, and very potent cannabinoid effects in animal studies. AM-2232 O-1057 O-1812 Singer M, Ryan WJ, Saha B, Martin BR, ...
"Entrez Gene: GPR119 G protein-coupled receptor 119". Brown AJ (November 2007). "Novel cannabinoid receptors". British Journal ... G protein-coupled receptor 119 also known as GPR119 is a G protein-coupled receptor that in humans is encoded by the GPR119 ... GPR119, along with GPR55 and GPR18, have been implicated as novel cannabinoid receptors. GPR119 is expressed predominantly in ... G protein-coupled receptors, All stub articles, Transmembrane receptor stubs). ...
"Cannabinoid receptor structure revealed". National Institutes of Health (NIH). November 1, 2016. Singer, Thea (October 20, 2016 ... His work has identified the structure of cannabinoid receptors in the brain, helping to elucidate the psychoactive properties ... The Cannabinoid Receptors. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 21-48. ISBN 978-1-59745-503-9. Stockton, Nick (July 6, 2017 ... of these substances and to point towards modifications in the receptors so as to retain the positive effects of cannabinoids ...
Cannabinoids Cannabinoid receptors Delta-6-Cannabidiol O-1918 Rimonabant Adams MD, Earnhardt JT, Martin BR, Harris LS, Dewey WL ... December 2007). "The orphan receptor GPR55 is a novel cannabinoid receptor". British Journal of Pharmacology. 152 (7): 1092- ... November 1999). "Cannabinoid-induced mesenteric vasodilation through an endothelial site distinct from CB1 or CB2 receptors". ... February 2003). "Nonpsychotropic cannabinoid receptors regulate microglial cell migration". The Journal of Neuroscience. 23 (4 ...
The Cannabinoid Receptors. The Receptors. pp. 3-19. doi:10.1007/978-1-59745-503-9_1. ISBN 978-1-58829-712-9. v t e (Articles ... A-40174 (SP-1) is an analgesic drug which acts as a potent cannabinoid receptor agonist, and was developed by Abbott ... Cannabinoids, Benzopyrans, Propargyl compounds, Phenols, All stub articles, Cannabinoid stubs). ... A-41988 Menabitan Razdan RK (2009). "Structure-Activity Relationships of Classical Cannabinoids". In Reggio PR (ed.). ...
OEA has been demonstrated to bind to the novel cannabinoid receptor GPR119. OEA has been suggested to be the receptor's ... 2007). "Novel cannabinoid receptors". Br J Pharmacol. 152 (5): 567-575. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0707481. PMC 2190013. PMID 17906678 ... Oleoylethanolamide (OEA) is an endogenous peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPAR-α) agonist. It is a naturally ... but unlike anandamide it acts independently of the cannabinoid pathway, regulating PPAR-α activity to stimulate lipolysis. OEA ...
The Cannabinoid Receptors. The Receptors. 2009. doi:10.1007/978-1-59745-503-9. ISBN 978-1-58829-712-9. (Articles with short ... List of AM cannabinoids List of CP cannabinoids List of HU cannabinoids List of miscellaneous designer cannabinoids Ki is the ... compound's binding affinity for the cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1) or cannabinoid receptor type 2 (CB2). Manera C, ... Classification of cannabinoid receptors". Pharmacological Reviews. 54 (2): 161-202. doi:10.1124/pr.54.2.161. PMID 12037135. ...
Klein TW, Newton C, Friedman H (1998). "Cannabinoid receptors and the cytokine network". Drugs of Abuse, Immunomodulation, and ... November 1997). "Evidence for the presence of CB2-like cannabinoid receptors on peripheral nerve terminals". European Journal ... "Synthesis and pharmacology of a very potent cannabinoid lacking a phenolic hydroxyl with high affinity for the CB2 receptor". ... JWH-051 retains high affinity for the CB1 receptor, but is a much stronger agonist for CB2, with a Ki value of 14nM at CB2 vs ...
"Immunomodulation by cannabinoids is absent in mice deficient for the cannabinoid CB2 receptor." European Journal of ... "Concurrent stimulation of cannabinoid CB1 and dopamine D2 receptors enhances heterodimer formation: a mechanism for receptor ... "Cannabinoid receptors in the human brain: a detailed anatomical and quantitative autoradiographic study in the fetal, neonatal ... "Concurrent stimulation of cannabinoid CB1 and dopamine D2 receptors augments cAMP accumulation in striatal neurons: evidence ...
"Cannabinoid receptors couple to NMDA receptors to reduce the production of NO and the mobilization of zinc induced by glutamate ... The NMDA receptor is one of three types of ionotropic glutamate receptors, the other two being AMPA and kainate receptors. ... The N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (also known as the NMDA receptor or NMDAR), is a glutamate receptor and ion channel found in ... NMDA receptors have been implicated by a number of studies to be strongly involved with excitotoxicity. Because NMDA receptors ...
These receptors are common in animals. Two known cannabinoid receptors are termed CB1 and CB2, with mounting evidence of more. ... SR144528, a CB2 receptor antagonist/ inverse agonist WIN 55,212-2, a potent cannabinoid receptor agonist JWH-133, a potent ... The human brain has more cannabinoid receptors than any other G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) type. The Endocannabinoid ... December 2007). "The orphan receptor GPR55 is a novel cannabinoid receptor". British Journal of Pharmacology. 152 (7): 1092- ...
"Adenosine-cannabinoid receptor interactions. Implications for striatal function". Br. J. Pharmacol. 160 (3): 443-453. doi: ... MSNs that express D2-like receptors and "direct" MSNs that express D1-like receptors. The main nucleus of the basal ganglia is ... It is also important to mention that a small percentage of MSNs have a mixed phenotype and express both D1 and D2 receptors ( ... A subpopulation of MSNs contain both D1-type and D2-type receptors, with approximately 40% of striatal MSNs expressing both ...
"Adenosine-cannabinoid receptor interactions. Implications for striatal function". Br. J. Pharmacol. 160 (3): 443-453. doi: ... It has been demonstrated that D1 receptors form the hetero-oligomer with D2 receptors, and that the D1-D2 receptor hetero- ... Glucocorticoids and dopamine: Glucocorticoid receptors are the only corticosteroid receptors in the nucleus accumbens shell. L- ... dopamine receptors. A subpopulation of MSNs contain both D1-type and D2-type receptors, with approximately 40% of striatal MSNs ...
"Adenosine-cannabinoid receptor interactions. Implications for striatal function". British Journal of Pharmacology. 160 (3): 443 ... This pathway consists of MSNs that express dopamine receptor D2, muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M1, and adenosine receptor ... This pathway consists of medium spiny neurons (MSNs) that express dopamine receptor D1, muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M4, ... This model of direct D1, and indirect D2 pathways explain why selective agonists of each receptor are not rewarding, as ...
"Adenosine-cannabinoid receptor interactions. Implications for striatal function". Br. J. Pharmacol. 160 (3): 443-453. doi: ... Both types express glutamate receptors (NMDAR and AMPAR), cholinergic receptors (M1 and M4) and CB1 receptors are expressed on ... It has been demonstrated that D1 receptors form the hetero-oligomer with D2 receptors, and that the D1-D2 receptor hetero- ... The dopamine receptors are a superfamily of heptahelical G protein-coupled receptors, and are grouped into two categories, D1- ...
Cannabinoids produce a marked depression of motor activity via activation of neuronal cannabinoid receptors belonging to the ... The binding of cannabinoids to cannabinoid receptors decrease adenylyl cyclase activity, inhibit calcium N channels, and ... There are at least two types of cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2). Most cannabinoids are lipophilic (fat soluble) compounds ... it binds to cannabinoid receptors. The endogenous ligand of these receptors is anandamide, the effects of which THC emulates. ...
... of cannabinoid CB1 receptors. It is shown that pepcan-12 opposite acts as a potent CB2 cannabinoid receptor positive allosteric ... which was originally proposed to act as a selective agonist for the CB1 cannabinoid receptor. It is a 12-amino acid polypeptide ... "Hemopressin is an inverse agonist of CB1 cannabinoid receptors". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United ... "Novel endogenous peptide agonists of cannabinoid receptors". FASEB Journal. 23 (9): 3020-9. doi:10.1096/fj.09-132142. PMC ...
McPartland JM (2002). "Sourcing the Code: Searching for the Evolutionary Origins of Cannabinoid Receptors, Vanilloid Receptors ... that activate specific cannabinoid receptors, is why cannabinoids are found to be selective antitumour compounds, that can kill ... "Cannabinoid receptor-dependent and -independent anti-proliferative effects of omega-3 ethanolamides in androgen receptor- ... is an endogenous agonist of the cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2), and the physiological ligand for the cannabinoid CB2 ...
It binds cannabinoid receptors, acting as an inverse agonist at CB1 receptors. Longer forms of hemopressin containing 2-3 ... May 2010). "The peptide hemopressin acts through CB1 cannabinoid receptors to reduce food intake in rats and mice". J. Neurosci ... December 2007). "Hemopressin is an inverse agonist of CB1 cannabinoid receptors". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (51): 20588 ... September 2009). "Novel endogenous peptide agonists of cannabinoid receptors". FASEB J. 23 (9): 3020-9. doi:10.1096/fj.09- ...
Xiong, Wei (2011). "Cannabinoid potentiation of glycine receptors contributes to cannabis-induced analgesia". Nature Chemical ... The glycine receptor (abbreviated as GlyR or GLR) is the receptor of the amino acid neurotransmitter glycine. GlyR is an ... As it binds to a glycine receptor, a conformational change is induced, and the channel created by the receptor opens. As the ... are not found in dorsal root ganglion neurons despite the presence of GABAA receptors. Glycine and its receptor were first ...
... (6-Bromopravadoline) is a drug that acts as a potent and selective inverse agonist for the cannabinoid receptor CB2 ... "Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists and Antagonists". Current Pharmaceutical Design. 1 (3): 343-352. doi:10.2174/ ... Cannabinoids, Aminoalkylindoles, WIN compounds, Benzoylindoles, 4-Morpholinyl compounds, Organobromides, All stub articles, ...
Herkenham M, Lynn A, Little M, Johnson M, Melvin L, de Costa B, Rice K (1990). "Cannabinoid receptor localization in brain". ... They based their claims on studies of the brain's cannabinoid receptor system conducted by the National Institute of Mental ... Gettman claims that the discovery of the cannabinoid receptor system in the late 1980s revolutionized scientific understanding ... See also Appendix B of ISBN 978-0936485065, ISBN 093648506X Herkenham M (1992). "Cannabinoid receptor localization in brain: ...
212-2 for cannabinoid receptors [11C]flumazenil for GABAA receptors. (+)PHNO for D2 dopamine receptors. [11C]raclopride for D2 ... Pertwee RG (1999). "Pharmacology of cannabinoid receptor ligands". Curr. Med. Chem. 6 (8): 635-64. doi:10.2174/ ... for 5-HT2 receptors 18F-altanserin and 18F-setoperone for the 5-HT2A receptor 11C-ketanserin and tritiated ketanserin 11C-DASB ... Radioligands are used for diagnosis or for research-oriented study of the receptor systems of the body, and for anti-cancer ...
It is a tricyclic aryl derivative that acts as a competitive antagonist at the CB2 cannabinoid receptor. Its activity at CB1 ... WIN 55,212-2 WIN 55,225 Howlett AC, Berglund B, Melvin LS (October 1995). "Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists and Antagonists". ... Cannabinoids, Aminoalkylindoles, WIN compounds, 4-Morpholinyl compounds, Anthracenes, All stub articles, Cannabinoid stubs). ...
... (6-Iodopravadoline) is a drug that acts as a potent and selective inverse agonist for the cannabinoid receptor CB2, with ... May 2010). "Brain cannabinoid CB2 receptor in schizophrenia". Biological Psychiatry. 67 (10): 974-982. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych. ... Morgan NH, Stanford IM, Woodhall GL (September 2009). "Functional CB2 type cannabinoid receptors at CNS synapses". ... March 2008). "Indol-3-yl-tetramethylcyclopropyl ketones: effects of indole ring substitution on CB2 cannabinoid receptor ...
Cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1) receptors are thought to be one of the most widely expressed Gαi protein-coupled receptors in ... Cannabinoids bind reversibly and stereo-selectively to the cannabinoid receptors. Subtype selective cannabinoids have been ... These discoveries led to determination in 1993 of a second brain cannabinoid receptor named cannabinoid receptor type 2 or CB2 ... the cannabinoid receptors contain seven transmembrane spanning domains. Cannabinoid receptors are activated by three major ...
The presence of cannabinoid receptors in... , Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate ... Two cannabinoid receptors, CB1 and CB2, are expressed in mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish. ... and named Cannabinoid Receptor 1 (CB1) and Cannabinoid Receptor 2 (CB2). After the discovery of these receptors, it was a short ... non-selective cannabinoid receptor agonist) and AM-251 (cannabinoid receptor type 1 antagonist) and AM-630 (cannabinoid ...
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Learn about Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB2 at online-medical-dictionary.org ... Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB2. Synonyms. CB2 Receptor. CB2, Cannabinoid Receptor. Cannabinoid Receptor CB2. Receptor CB2, ... A subclass of cannabinoid receptor found primarily on immune cells where it may play a role modulating release of CYTOKINES. ...
The specific CB2 cannabinoid receptor agonist JWH-133 induced cognitive improvement in double AβPP/PS1 transgenic mice, a ... CB2 cannabinoid receptor agonist ameliorates Alzheimer-like phenotype in AβPP/PS1 mice J Alzheimers Dis. 2013;35(4):847-58. doi ... The specific CB2 cannabinoid receptor agonist JWH-133 induced cognitive improvement in double AβPP/PS1 transgenic mice, a ... In conclusion, the present study lends support to the idea that stimulation of CB2 receptors ameliorates several altered ...
Phasic Dopamine Release Evoked by Abused Substances Requires Cannabinoid Receptor Activation. Joseph F. Cheer, Kate M. Wassum, ... Phasic Dopamine Release Evoked by Abused Substances Requires Cannabinoid Receptor Activation. Joseph F. Cheer, Kate M. Wassum, ... Phasic Dopamine Release Evoked by Abused Substances Requires Cannabinoid Receptor Activation. Joseph F. Cheer, Kate M. Wassum, ... Phasic Dopamine Release Evoked by Abused Substances Requires Cannabinoid Receptor Activation Message Subject (Your Name) has ...
Cannabinoid receptor 1 signaling in hepatocytes and stellate cells does not contribute to NAFLD. Simeng Wang,1 Qingzhang Zhu,1 ... kinase insert domain receptor (Kdr), adhesion G protein-coupled receptor E1 (Adgre1), and protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor ... CB1 cannabinoid receptor antagonism: a new strategy for the treatment of liver fibrosis. Nat Med. 2006;12(6):671-676.. View ... Cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB-1) has a well-defined role in regulating appetite and energy expenditure through its actions in the ...
We recently showed that measures of cannabinoid 1 receptor (CB1R) mRNA and protein were significantly reduced in dorsolateral ... Cannabinoid CB1 receptor immunoreactivity in the prefrontal cortex: Comparison of schizophrenia and major depressive disorder ... We recently showed that measures of cannabinoid 1 receptor (CB1R) mRNA and protein were significantly reduced in dorsolateral ...
Cannabinoid receptor 1 signaling in hepatocytes and stellate cells does not contribute to NAFLD. ... Cannabinoid receptor 1 signaling in hepatocytes and stellate cells does not contribute to NAFLD. ... The endocannabinoid system regulates appetite and energy expenditure and inhibitors of cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB-1) induce ...
GABAB receptors and CB1Rs(Glu) are insensitive to BDNF. A, The depressant effect of the GABAB receptor agonist baclofen on ... Here, we addressed the functional interplay between BDNF and cannabinoid CB1 receptors (CB1Rs) in the striatum, a brain area in ... GABAB receptors and CB1Rs(Glu) are insensitive to BDNF. Striatal GABA synapses are modulated by many receptor subtypes ... Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Controls Cannabinoid CB1 Receptor Function in the Striatum. Valentina De Chiara, Francesco ...
... in human type-1 cannabinoid receptor. Download Prime PubMed App to iPhone, iPad, or Android ... D2 dopamine receptors modulate Galpha-subunit coupling of the CB1 cannabinoid receptor. ... The type 1 cannabinoid receptor is highly expressed in embryonic cortical projection neurons and negatively regulates neurite ... Functional Characterization of Putative Cholesterol Binding Sequence (CRAC) in Human Type-1 Cannabinoid Receptor. J Neurochem. ...
anandamidebiochemistrybrain researchcannabinoid receptorsCB1 receptorsendocannabinoid systemHealthmental healthneurobiology ... Original Research: Abstract for "Elevated brain cannabinoid CB1 receptor availability in post-traumatic stress disorder: a ... researchers at NYU Langone Medical Center have discovered a connection between the quantity of cannabinoid receptors in the ... CB1 receptors are part of the endocannabinoid system, a diffuse network of chemicals and signaling pathways in the body that ...
Determination and characterization of a cannabinoid receptor in rat brain.. W A Devane, F A Dysarz 3rd, M R Johnson, L S Melvin ... Determination and characterization of a cannabinoid receptor in rat brain.. W A Devane, F A Dysarz, M R Johnson, L S Melvin and ... Determination and characterization of a cannabinoid receptor in rat brain.. W A Devane, F A Dysarz, M R Johnson, L S Melvin and ... Determination and characterization of a cannabinoid receptor in rat brain. Message Subject (Your Name) has forwarded a page to ...
... their efficacy may be limited by pain-induced adaptations in the cannabinoid system. Cannabinoid receptor subtype 1 (CB1Rs) ... Endocannabinoids readily induce cannabinoid 1 receptor desensitization if their degradation is blocked, indicating that ... Here we find that persistent inflammation increases endocannabinoid levels, priming presynaptic cannabinoid 1 receptors for ... Monoacylglycerol lipase protects the presynaptic cannabinoid 1 receptor from desensitization by endocannabinoids after ...
Cannabinoids and their receptors are increasingly being studied because of their high potential for clinical use. As a ... study of the expression and function of cannabinoid receptors in the hearing organ is of high interest. Stria vascularis and ... Cellular types such as supporting cells and outer hair cells, in which the expression of other types of functional receptors ... That fact suggests promising potential of CB2 receptor as a therapeutic target for new treatments to palliate cisplatin-induced ...
Design, synthesis and evaluation of modified coumarins as CB receptor ligands, Reihe: Beiträge zur organischen Synthese, Bd. 88 ... Synthetic cannabinoids in drug discovery. Design, synthesis and evaluation of modified coumarins as CB receptor ligands ... Synthetic cannabinoids in drug discovery. Design, synthesis and evaluation of modified coumarins as CB receptor ligands The ... Since the discovery of the two main cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2 in the early 90, intensive research reviled a ...
... as cannabinoids are known to activate Gi/o-coupled cannabinoid receptors type 1 (CB1), resulting in neuronal inhibition. ... cannabinoid receptor type 2 (CB2), CGRP and receptor activity modifying protein 1 (RAMP1), a subunit of the functional CGRP ... Dual action of the cannabinoid receptor 1 ligand arachidonyl-2′-chloroethylamide on calcitonin gene-related peptide release. ... we explored the therapeutic potential of a specific cannabinoid agonist. The aim of the present study was to examine the effect ...
Cannabinoid Receptor 2 Participates in Amyloid-β Processing in a Mouse Model of Alzheimers Disease but Plays a Minor Role in ...
... as cannabinoids are known to activate G,sub,i/o,/sub,-coupled cannabinoid receptors type 1 (CB1), resulting in neuronal ... as cannabinoids are known to activate Gi/o-coupled cannabinoid receptors type 1 (CB1), resulting in neuronal inhibition. ... as cannabinoids are known to activate Gi/o-coupled cannabinoid receptors type 1 (CB1), resulting in neuronal inhibition. ... cannabinoid receptor type 2 (CB2), CGRP and receptor activity modifying protein 1 (RAMP1), a subunit of the functional CGRP ...
Repeated Thrombosis After Synthetic Cannabinoid Use. The Journal of emergency medicine 2016 Nov;51;540-543 2016 Nov ...
CANNABINOID RECEPTOR TYPE 1 AVAILABILITY AND SPONTANEOUS TEMPORAL LOBE SEIZURES. A. Hammers, Riano D. A. Barros, C. J. ... CANNABINOID RECEPTOR TYPE 1 AVAILABILITY AND SPONTANEOUS TEMPORAL LOBE SEIZURES. In: Epilepsia. 2014 ; Vol. 55, No. S2. pp. 223 ... CANNABINOID RECEPTOR TYPE 1 AVAILABILITY AND SPONTANEOUS TEMPORAL LOBE SEIZURES. Epilepsia. 2014 Jun;55(S2):223-223. 689. doi: ... CANNABINOID RECEPTOR TYPE 1 AVAILABILITY AND SPONTANEOUS TEMPORAL LOBE SEIZURES. / Hammers, A.; Barros, Riano D. A.; McGinnity ...
The main aim of this thesis was to characterize the role of the cannabinoid receptors and free fatty acid receptor 1 (GPR40) in ... Molecular characterization of cannabinoids and free fatty acid receptors in human and rat skeletal muscle ... Shermado, Fairouz M. (2014) Molecular characterization of cannabinoids and free fatty acid receptors in human and rat skeletal ... Gene expression profiling of human skeletal muscle and cultured myotubes and myoblasts indicated that the cannabinoid receptor ...
Macrophage expression of cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2) is induced by inflammatory stimuli and regulates multiple functions ... The cannabinoid system and immune modulation. J Leukoc Biol. 2003;74:4486-96. doi:10.1189/jlb.0303101. ... We have therefore begun to analyze the effects of novel cannabinoid agonists on TAMs in a murine model of breast cancer. ... Although the in vivo anti-tumor efficacy of cannabinoids is mimicked in continuously cultured cancer cells in vitro, ...
"Characterization of two duplicate zebrafish Cb2-like cannabinoid receptors",. abstract = "Several cannabinoid receptors have ... with human CB2 sequence and conserve some specific key residues for cannabinoid receptor function. Both duplicate receptors are ... with human CB2 sequence and conserve some specific key residues for cannabinoid receptor function. Both duplicate receptors are ... with human CB2 sequence and conserve some specific key residues for cannabinoid receptor function. Both duplicate receptors are ...
Altered Expression of the CB1 Cannabinoid Receptor in the Triple Transgenic Mouse Model of Alzheimers Disease * QMRO Home ... Altered Expression of the CB1 Cannabinoid Receptor in the Triple Transgenic Mouse Model of Alzheimers Disease. ... Altered Expression of the CB1 Cannabinoid Receptor in the Triple Transgenic Mouse Model of Alzheimers Disease ...
What Are CBD Receptors?. The receptors often referred to as CBD receptors, are technically known as cannabinoid receptors. ... What are CBD Receptors? How Cannabinoid Receptors Work with the Endocannabinoid System. ... When you take hemp-derived CBD, the cannabinoids circulate through your body until they find a receptor they can connect with, ... Your cannabinoid receptors receive information from your Endocannabinoid System messengers and use this information to initiate ...
Modulation of cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) and CB2 activity in the kidney in diabetes and obesity has been identified as ... Modulation of cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) and CB2 activity in the kidney in diabetes and obesity has been identified as ... Endocannabinoids bind to G protein-coupled receptors in the central nervous system and periphery, including the kidney. ... Endocannabinoids bind to G protein-coupled receptors in the central nervous system and periphery, including the kidney. ...
Cannabinoid approaches. CB-1 Receptor Agonists. Agonist approaches have been considered in the treatment of CUD given the ... In summary, medications with CB-1 receptor agonism are effective in treating cannabis withdrawal. CB receptor agonists role in ... Blockade of effects of smoked marijuana by the CB1-selective cannabinoid receptor antagonist SR141716. Arch Gen Psychiatry 58: ... Altered responsiveness of serotonin receptor subtypes following long-term cannabinoid treatment. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 9: ...
Contact Us. Tel:610-426-3128. Fax:888-484-5008. Email:[email protected]. Add:1 Deer Park Dr, Suite Q,. Monmouth Junction, NJ 08852, USA. ...
Cannabinoid, CB1" by people in this website by year, and whether "Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1" was a major or minor topic of ... Surprising outcomes in cannabinoid CB1/CB2 receptor double knockout mice in two models of ischemia. Life Sci. 2018 Feb 15; 195: ... A subclass of cannabinoid receptor found primarily on central and peripheral NEURONS where it may play a role modulating ... "Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1" is a descriptor in the National Library of Medicines controlled vocabulary thesaurus, MeSH ( ...
  • In naïve rats, exogenous cannabinoid agonists robustly reduce both eIPSCs and mIPSCs. (iasp-pain.org)
  • Here we find that persistent inflammation increases endocannabinoid levels, priming presynaptic cannabinoid 1 receptors for desensitization upon subsequent addition of exogenous agonists. (iasp-pain.org)
  • The functionality of CB1 and GPR40 receptors was demonstrated using selective agonists and antagonists. (nottingham.ac.uk)
  • Neither agonists nor antagonists of CB1 or GPR40 receptors were found to modulate insulin signalling as determined by phosphorylation of downstream targets Akt and GSK3alpha/beta. (nottingham.ac.uk)
  • We have therefore begun to analyze the effects of novel cannabinoid agonists on TAMs in a murine model of breast cancer. (bmj.com)
  • Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the detection of use of the synthetic cannabinoid agonists UR-144 and XLR-11 in human urine. (jefferson.edu)
  • furthermore, cannabinoid receptor agonists (activate a receptor) attenuate inflammation, whereas cannabinoid receptor antagonists (block the action of an agonist) exacerbate it. (candidtails.com)
  • The discovery of selective agonists of cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2) is strongly pursued to successfully tuning endocannabinoid signaling for therapeutic purposes. (bvsalud.org)
  • However, the design of selective CB2 agonists is still challenging because of the high homology with the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) and for the yet unclear molecular basis of the agonist/antagonist switch. (bvsalud.org)
  • Synthetic cannabinoids are manufactured drugs that are tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) receptor agonists. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Enzymes involved in biosynthesis/inactivation of endocannabinoids and endocannabinoid signaling in general (involving targets other than CB1/2-type receptors) occur throughout the animal kingdom. (wikipedia.org)
  • Endocannabinoids released from the depolarized post-synaptic neuron bind to CB1 receptors in the pre-synaptic neuron and cause a reduction in GABA release due to limited presynaptic calcium ions entry. (wikipedia.org)
  • Monoacylglycerol lipase protects the presynaptic cannabinoid 1 receptor from desensitization by endocannabinoids after persistent inflammation. (iasp-pain.org)
  • Endocannabinoids readily induce cannabinoid 1 receptor desensitization if their degradation is blocked, indicating that endocannabinoid concentrations are maintained at sub-desensitizing levels and that degradation is critical for maintaining endocannabinoid regulation of presynaptic GABA release in the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray during inflammatory states. (iasp-pain.org)
  • Endocannabinoids bind to G protein-coupled receptors in the central nervous system and periphery, including the kidney. (edu.au)
  • Humans and animals alike naturally synthesize endocannabinoids, chemical compounds that activate the same receptors as delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the active component of marijuana ( Cannabis sativa ). (medscape.com)
  • Endocannabinoids and their receptors are located throughout our bodies: in the brain, organs, connective tissues, glands, and immune cells. (bayqueen.life)
  • Cannabinoids and endocannabinoids are also present where the body's many systems converge, enabling intercellular communication and coordination. (bayqueen.life)
  • Note that our bodies naturally produce endocannabinoids to activate these receptors. (bayqueen.life)
  • To stimulate these receptors, our bodies produce endocannabinoids, which share structural similarities with molecules in the cannabis plant. (bayqueen.life)
  • It consists of three components: cannabinoid receptors, endogenous cannabinoids (i.e., cannabinoids that are produced inside the body, also known as endocannabinoids ), and the enzymes (proteins) responsible for creating and breaking down the endocannabinoids. (elementapothec.com)
  • The activation of the CB1 receptor by the endocannabinoids inhibits the release of various chemical substances in the brain. (elementapothec.com)
  • G-protein coupled receptor for cannabinoids, including endocannabinoids (eCBs), such as N-arachidonoylethanolamide (also called anandamide or AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG). (cusabio.com)
  • The CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors are the two primary receptors for endocannabinoids and THC. (cannabismd.com)
  • The endogenous cannabinoid molecules, or endocannabinoids, are anandamide (N-arachidonoylethanolamide, AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG). (cannabismd.com)
  • Instead, we contain cannabinoid receptors because the human body naturally creates its own version of cannabis compounds known as endocannabinoids. (cleanremedies.com)
  • Animal studies have shown that psychoactive chemicals such as cannabis, along with certain neurotransmitters produced naturally in the body, can impair memory and reduce anxiety when they activate CB1 receptors in the brain. (neurosciencenews.com)
  • Cannabinoid-targeted pain therapies are increasing with the expansion of cannabis legalization, however, their efficacy may be limited by pain-induced adaptations in the cannabinoid system. (iasp-pain.org)
  • Cannabinoid Receptor 2 Participates in Amyloid-β Processing in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease but Plays a Minor Role in the Therapeutic Properties of a Cannabis-Based Medicine. (j-alz.com)
  • When researching scientific literature and research on the medical applications of cannabis and cannabinoids, one thing becomes clear. (bayqueen.life)
  • Interestingly, cannabidiol (CBD), a well-known compound derived from the cannabis plant, does not have a direct interaction with CB1 or CB2 receptors. (elementapothec.com)
  • Because of these receptors, molecules in cannabis called "cannabinoids" are able to affect the human body. (jamesgrowhouse.com)
  • Cannabinoids are chemical compounds present in cannabis and the human body. (jamesgrowhouse.com)
  • The cannabinoids found in cannabis plants are called phytocannabinoids. (jamesgrowhouse.com)
  • The remaining 111 cannabinoids are present in cannabis in lower amounts than THC and CBD. (jamesgrowhouse.com)
  • Ingesting cannabis high in both cannabinoids will produce a different result because of the effect each cannabinoid has on the other. (jamesgrowhouse.com)
  • Studies suggest that cannabis acts on CB1 receptors to create mental, emotional, and psychoactive effects. (jamesgrowhouse.com)
  • Cannabis likely uses the CB2 receptors to create a calming, anti-inflammatory effect. (jamesgrowhouse.com)
  • Each individual's cannabinoid receptors create a different effect in the presence of cannabis. (jamesgrowhouse.com)
  • As you experiment with cannabis containing different concentrations and ratios of cannabinoids THC and CBD, you'll learn which products work best to create the effect you desire. (jamesgrowhouse.com)
  • Cannabis Education What Are Cannabinoid Receptors? (cannabolix420.com)
  • There are over eighty different cannabinoid chemical compounds found in cannabis trichomes (tiny hairs). (cannabolix420.com)
  • Both types respond to chemicals which are found in the cannabis plant, known as cannabinoids. (cannabismd.com)
  • It is the response of these receptors to these cannabinoids which cause the therapeutic effects now associated with cannabis. (cannabismd.com)
  • It is these cannabinoids in particular with which the benefits of cannabis for the body are associated. (cannabismd.com)
  • Below, we'll break down why humans have cannabinoid receptors, what the body already does to mimic the compounds found in cannabis and hemp plants, and how you can leverage CBD and THC to work best for you and your body. (cleanremedies.com)
  • After all, if we possess cannabinoid receptors, it begs the question of whether the human body was designed specifically to engage with the cannabis plant. (cleanremedies.com)
  • For example, a 2016 study found that CBD, one of the most popular plant cannabinoids found in cannabis, may affect joint inflammation, offering potential beneficial effects. (cleanremedies.com)
  • Cannabinoids are found in cannabis plants like this one. (wikipedia.org)
  • A cannabinoid is a chemical found in the cannabis (marijuana) plant . (wikipedia.org)
  • Phytocannabinoids are cannabinoids that are found naturally in the cannabis plant are are affected by light . (wikipedia.org)
  • Over 80 chemicals, known as cannabinoids, have been found in the Cannabis sativa plant. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Cannabis sativa contains 120 cannabinoids, only two of which have been studied for medical use: delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) 7-9 . (cdc.gov)
  • A class of G-protein-coupled receptors that are specific for CANNABINOIDS such as those derived from CANNABIS. (bvsalud.org)
  • These cannabinoids include cannabidiol (CBD) and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). (cannabismd.com)
  • Two of the best known cannabinoids are tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). (wikipedia.org)
  • As of early 2022, two cannabinoid receptors have been discovered: cannabinoid type receptor 1 (CB1) and cannabinoid type receptor 2 (CB2). (elementapothec.com)
  • A neurotransmitter for a possible endocannabinoid system in the brain and peripheral nervous system, anandamide (from 'ananda', Sanskrit for 'bliss'), was first characterized in 1992, followed by discovery of other fatty acid neurotransmitters that behave as endogenous cannabinoids having a low-to-high range of efficacy for stimulating CB1 receptors in the brain and CB2 receptors in the periphery. (wikipedia.org)
  • Endogenous cannabinoids are those produced by humans. (jamesgrowhouse.com)
  • They attract endogenous cannabinoids like 2-AG. (cannabismd.com)
  • we therefore tested for cannabinoid receptors in seven representative species, using tritiated ligand binding assays with [3H]CP55,940 displaced by the CB1-selective antagonist SR141716A. (researchgate.net)
  • Despite differential release dynamics, all drug effects are uniformly inhibited by administration of rimonabant, a cannabinoid receptor (CB 1 ) antagonist, suggesting that an increase in endocannabinoid tone facilitates the effects of commonly abused drugs on subsecond dopamine release. (jneurosci.org)
  • In mice lacking one copy of the BDNF gene ( BDNF +/− ), CB 1 R (GABA) responses were potentiated and were preserved from the action of haloperidol, a DA D 2 receptor (D 2 R) antagonist able to fully abolish CB 1 R (GABA) function in rewarded animals. (jneurosci.org)
  • Direct intra-accumbal infusion of a beta-adrenergic receptor antagonist abolishes WIN 55,212-2-induced aversion. (jefferson.edu)
  • Rimonabant redux and strategies to improve the future outlook of CB1 receptor neutral-antagonist/inverse-agonist therapies. (jefferson.edu)
  • It is known that the CB1 receptor antagonist Rimonabant can block all these different forms of behaviour. (uu.nl)
  • Inhibition was maximal at 16 hr and abolished in the presence of SR141716A, a selective CB1 receptor antagonist. (elsevierpure.com)
  • CDC is currently coordinating national surveillance activities for possible cases of vitamin K-dependent antagonist coagulopathy associated with synthetic cannabinoids use. (cdc.gov)
  • Maintain a high index of suspicion for vitamin K-dependent antagonist coagulopathy in patients with a history or suspicion of using synthetic cannabinoids. (cdc.gov)
  • The existence of additional cannabinoid receptors has long been suspected, due to the actions of compounds such as abnormal cannabidiol that produce cannabinoid-like effects on blood pressure and inflammation, yet do not activate either CB1 or CB2. (wikipedia.org)
  • Recent research strongly supports the hypothesis that the N-arachidonoyl glycine (NAGly) receptor GPR18 is the molecular identity of the abnormal cannabidiol receptor and additionally suggests that NAGly, the endogenous lipid metabolite of anandamide (also known as arachidonoylethanolamide or AEA), initiates directed microglial migration in the CNS through activation of GPR18. (wikipedia.org)
  • Since cannabidiol (CBD) is a cannabinoid, a lipid that functions as a neurotransmitter, it interacts with the receptors of your Endocannabinoid System. (thecbdistillery.com)
  • Also intra-RVLM activation of GPR18 receptors with abnormal cannabidiol (Abn CBD) produced a dose-dependent reduction in BP in conscious male Sprague Dawley rats whereas blockade of those receptors with 1, 3-dimethoxy-5-methyl-2-[(1R, 6R)-3-methyl-6-(1-methylethenyl)-2-cyclohexen-1-yl] benzene (O-1918) increased BP and abrogated the Abn CBD-evoked reduction in BP. (ecu.edu)
  • Subtype selective cannabinoids have been developed which theoretically may have advantages for treatment of certain diseases such as obesity. (wikipedia.org)
  • In the presented thesis, the design, syntheses and pharmacologic evaluation of substituted coumarins as potential new drug candidates as selective synthetic cannabinoids were investigated. (logos-verlag.de)
  • Now that the structures of both cannabinoid receptors are known, we can design selective compounds targeting only one of the receptors, as well as agents with a desired polypharmacological profile targeting both receptors at once. (analyticalcannabis.com)
  • Determination and characterization of a cannabinoid receptor in rat brain. (aspetjournals.org)
  • Here we report the molecular characterization of two duplicate CB2-like cannabinoid receptors from zebrafish (Danio rerio) (zebrafish Cb2a and zebrafish Cb2b). (umn.edu)
  • Characterization of cannabinoid receptors expressed in Ewing sarcoma TC-71 and A-673 cells as potential targets for anti-cancer drug development. (uams.edu)
  • Shoeib AM, Yarbrough AL, Ford BM, Franks LN, Urbaniak A, Hensley LL, Benson LN, Mu S, Radominska-Pandya A, Prather PL. Characterization of cannabinoid receptors expressed in Ewing sarcoma TC-71 and A-673 cells as potential targets for anti-cancer drug development. (uams.edu)
  • The specific CB2 cannabinoid receptor agonist JWH-133 induced cognitive improvement in double AβPP/PS1 transgenic mice, a genetic model of Alzheimer's disease. (nih.gov)
  • Background: Based on the current understanding of the role of neuropeptide signalling in migraine, we explored the therapeutic potential of a specific cannabinoid agonist. (ku.dk)
  • Agonist-induced internalization of G-protein-coupled receptors is an important mechanism for regulating receptor abundance and availability at the plasma membrane. (elsevierpure.com)
  • in this study we have used immunolabeling techniques and confocal microscopy to investigate agonist-induced internalization and trafficking of CB1 receptors in rat cultured hippocampal neurons. (elsevierpure.com)
  • The levels of cell surface CB1 receptor immunoreactivity associated with presynaptic GABAergic terminals decreased markedly (by up to 84%) after exposure to the cannabinoid agonist (+)-WIN55212, in a concentration-dependent (0.1-1 muM) and stereoselective manner. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Differential labeling of cell surface and intracellular pools of receptor demonstrated that the reduction in cell surface immunoreactivity reflects agonist-induced internalization and suggests that the internalized CB1 receptors are translocated toward the soma. (elsevierpure.com)
  • In these cells substantial CB1 receptor internalization was also observed after exposure to (+)-WIN55212 (1 muM) for relatively short periods (30 min) of agonist exposure. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Agonist-induced internalization at presynaptic terminals has important implications for the modulatory effects of G-protein-coupled receptors on neurotransmitter release. (elsevierpure.com)
  • The affinity of the cannabinoid agonist CP55,940 was unaffected by the F3.25A, F3.36A, W5.43A, or W6.48A mutations, making CP55,940 an appropriate choice as the radioligand for binding studies. (kennesaw.edu)
  • If anandamide levels are too low, Dr. Neumeister explains, the brain compensates by increasing the number of CB1 receptors. (neurosciencenews.com)
  • Biological markers of PTSD, such as tests for CB1 receptors and anandamide levels, could dramatically improve diagnosis and treatment for trauma victims. (neurosciencenews.com)
  • Brailoiu GC, Oprea TI, Zhao P, Abood ME, Brailoiu E. Intracellular cannabinoid type 1 (CB1) receptors are activated by anandamide. (jefferson.edu)
  • The two most studied cannabinoids that are produced in the body are N -arachidonylethanolamide (anandamide, AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG). (elementapothec.com)
  • Methanandamide (an analog of an endogenous cannabinoid, anandamide) also reduced cell surface labeling (by 43% at 1 muM). (elsevierpure.com)
  • OBJECTIVES & HYPOTHESIS → The main objective of the present investigation was to determine the distribution of cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1) and type 2 (CB2) in skin of clinically normal dogs and dogs with atopic dermatitis (AD). (candidtails.com)
  • Design, synthesis and evaluation of modified coumarins as CB receptor ligands, Reihe: Beiträge zur organischen Synthese, Bd. (logos-verlag.de)
  • Endocannabinoid: endogenous cannabinoid receptor ligands with neuromodulatory action. (bvsalud.org)
  • abstract = "Several cannabinoid receptors have been detected in many organisms. (umn.edu)
  • Modulation of cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) and CB2 activity in the kidney in diabetes and obesity has been identified as potential therapeutic target to reduce albuminuria and renal fibrosis. (edu.au)
  • Exploring the 1,3-benzoxazine chemotype for cannabinoid receptor 2 as a promising anti-cancer therapeutic. (bvsalud.org)
  • Cannabinoids are a biologically plausible therapeutic agent. (medscape.com)
  • The CB2 receptor is expressed mainly in the immune system, in hematopoietic cells, and in parts of the brain. (wikipedia.org)
  • CB2 receptors are expressed on T cells of the immune system, on macrophages and B cells, in hematopoietic cells, and in the brain and CNS (2019). (wikipedia.org)
  • The organs and cells of your immune system, including your mast cells, T-cells, tonsils, and lymphocytes are rich with endocannabinoid receptors. (thecbdistillery.com)
  • In particular, CB1 receptor plays an important role in the central nervous system including emotional behavior (stress, fear, or anxiety) and cognition, and CB2 receptor seems to be a part of a general protective system (immune system). (elementapothec.com)
  • While the CB1 receptors are mostly found in the nervous system and are responsible for psychoactive effects, the CB2 receptors are predominantly present in the immune system. (analyticalcannabis.com)
  • In contrast, the immune system is home to CB2 receptors. (jamesgrowhouse.com)
  • These receptors are responsible for regulating functions of the immune system as it serves to aid protection against illness - the brain as it assists in regulating cognitive function and moods - the gastrointestinal tract which helps digestion issues - and, the peripheral nervous system (which is referring to the nervous system outside of the brain and spine). (cannabismd.com)
  • CB 2 receptors are found in the immune system , which is the system that prevents us from getting sick . (wikipedia.org)
  • Your Endocannabinoid System is the largest system of neurotransmitters and receptors in your body. (thecbdistillery.com)
  • The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is a complex and sophisticated system made up of neurotransmitters or receptors. (cannabismd.com)
  • These neurotransmitters then attach to cannabinoid receptors which exist on the surface of cells throughout the body, kickstarting the ECS. (cleanremedies.com)
  • The receptor class may play a role in modulating the release of signaling molecules such as NEUROTRANSMITTERS and CYTOKINES. (bvsalud.org)
  • Rimonabant, designed to block CB1 receptor, was approved for the treatment of obesity but was subsequently withdrawn from the market due to psychiatric side effects such as anxiety and depression. (elementapothec.com)
  • Repeated Thrombosis After Synthetic Cannabinoid Use. (pneumotox.com)
  • Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the synthetic cannabinoid, 5F-MDMB-PICA, in male rats. (jefferson.edu)
  • Hundreds of different synthetic cannabinoid chemicals are manufactured and sold (1). (cdc.gov)
  • The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of the synthetic endocannabinoid (eCB) analogue, arachidonyl-2′-chloroethylamide (ACEA), on calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) release in the dura and trigeminal ganglion (TG), as cannabinoids are known to activate G i/o -coupled cannabinoid receptors type 1 (CB1), resulting in neuronal inhibition. (ku.dk)
  • THC binds to the CB1 receptor in the body to activate CB1 expression. (cannabismd.com)
  • That quest led them to a network of cannabinoid receptors, now called the endocannabinoid system. (jamesgrowhouse.com)
  • These receptors make up a system called the endocannabinoid system (ECS). (wikipedia.org)
  • The body's own 'endocannabinoid' receptors are concentrated in the basal ganglia - the neuroanatomical nexus of TS," he said on Twitter. (medscape.com)
  • Effects vary greatly depending on the specific cannabinoid, and many of the acute and chronic effects remain unknown. (msdmanuals.com)
  • We recently showed that measures of cannabinoid 1 receptor (CB1R) mRNA and protein were significantly reduced in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) area 9 in schizophrenia subjects relative to matched normal comparison subjects. (nih.gov)
  • After 5-7 days of inflammation, the effects of exogenous cannabinoids are significantly reduced due to CB1R desensitization via GRK2/3, as function is recovered in the presence of the GRK2/3 inhibitor, Compound 101 (Cmp101). (iasp-pain.org)
  • We also investigated whether the neuromodulatory effects of THC are related to the local expression of its key molecular target, cannabinoid-type-1 (CB1R) but not type-2 (CB2R) receptor. (kcl.ac.uk)
  • We also investigated whether the neuromodulatory effects of THC are related to the local expression of its key molecular target, cannabinoid-type-1 (CB1R) but not type-2 (CB2R) receptor.MethodsA systematic search was conducted of acute THC-challenge studies using fMRI, PET, and arterial spin labelling in accordance with established guidelines. (kcl.ac.uk)
  • But the discovery of the cannabinoid receptors suggested that molecules that may stimulate or inhibit these receptors in the body are present. (elementapothec.com)
  • The team made a crystal from CB2 receptors bound to molecules blocking this receptor, which are potential drug candidates. (analyticalcannabis.com)
  • CompoMug is a software suite that predicts mutations potentially useful for stabilizing receptor molecules. (analyticalcannabis.com)
  • Because both endogenous and phytocannabinoids are similarly shaped molecules, they fit on the same receptors located throughout the human body. (jamesgrowhouse.com)
  • Once they found cannabinoids, they studied the human body to find out where these molecules were making a connection. (jamesgrowhouse.com)
  • In response to cannabinoids, drives the release of orexigenic beta-endorphin, but not that of melanocyte-stimulating hormone alpha/alpha-MSH, from hypothalamic POMC neurons, hence promoting food intake. (cusabio.com)
  • In the forebrains of rats, levels of cannabinoid receptor mRNA are extremely high in certain subpopulations of neurons. (grantome.com)
  • Results from the studies described here will help define how this gene expresses differential levels of cannabinoid receptor mRNAs in specific subpopulations of neurons. (grantome.com)
  • The information obtained regarding the expression of the cannabinoid receptor gene in neurons will likely also apply to the expression of the cannabinoid receptor gene in peripheral tissues since it appears that a gene similar to that expressed in brain is also expressed in testes. (grantome.com)
  • The data provide the first evidence for expression of GPR18 in the RVLM, the cardiovascular regulatory nuclei of the brainstem and its co-localization in tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-expressing neurons as well as in RVLM neurons expressing cannabinoid₁ receptors (CB₁R). (ecu.edu)
  • Haloperidol also enhanced BDNF levels in the striatum, suggesting that this neurotrophin may act as a downstream effector of D 2 Rs in the modulation of cannabinoid signaling. (jneurosci.org)
  • In summary, this dynamic modulation of CB1 receptor expression may play an important role in the development of cannabinoid tolerance in the CNS. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Cannabinoid receptor subtype 1 (CB1Rs) inhibition of spontaneous, miniature and evoked GABAergic postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs and eIPSCs) in the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray (vlPAG) were compared in slices from naïve and inflamed male and female Sprague-Dawley rats. (iasp-pain.org)
  • There are two types of receptors: CB 1 (cannabinoid receptor type 1) and CB 2 (cannabinoid receptor type 2). (wikipedia.org)
  • The endocannabinoid system regulates appetite and energy expenditure and inhibitors of cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB-1) induce weight loss with improvement in components of the metabolic syndrome. (jci.org)
  • Inhibition of GABA release by presynaptic mu opioid receptors (MORs) in the vlPAG does not desensitize with persistent inflammation. (iasp-pain.org)
  • Association of Rare Genetic Variants in Opioid Receptors with Tourette Syndrome. (cdc.gov)
  • The response initiated by your endocannabinoid receptors is dependent on the chemical composition of the message it receives. (thecbdistillery.com)
  • Endocannabinoid receptors are located in key areas in your body and brain that modulate pain perception and reward-seeking behavior. (thecbdistillery.com)
  • Th ese include genes coding for GABA and endocannabinoid receptors, which are usually downregulated during epileptogenesis, opening up the possibility of interfering with their expression by gene therapy approaches to block the development of recurrent seizures. (lu.se)
  • The existence of cannabinoid receptors in the brain was discovered from in vitro studies in the 1980s, with the receptor designated as the cannabinoid receptor type 1 or CB1. (wikipedia.org)
  • Although the in vivo anti-tumor efficacy of cannabinoids is mimicked in continuously cultured cancer cells in vitro , cannabinoid potency for direct elicitation of apoptosis in cancer cells is far lower, indicating that other mechanisms (perhaps other cell types within the tumor) are involved in vivo . (bmj.com)
  • Cannabinoids bind reversibly and stereo-selectively to the cannabinoid receptors. (wikipedia.org)
  • Cannabinoids that bind to CB 1 and CB 2 receptors get into the bloodstream after being used and can change how the body functions for a short amount of time. (wikipedia.org)
  • Other molecular biology studies have suggested that the orphan receptor GPR55 should in fact be characterised as a cannabinoid receptor, on the basis of sequence homology at the binding site. (wikipedia.org)
  • Cannabinoid receptors, located throughout the body, are part of the endocannabinoid system of vertebrates- a class of cell membrane receptors in the G protein-coupled receptor superfamily. (wikipedia.org)
  • Every G protein-coupled receptor structure that is discovered has prospects for rational design of more efficient drugs," study co-author Petr Popov explains . (analyticalcannabis.com)
  • Gene expression profiling of human skeletal muscle and cultured myotubes and myoblasts indicated that the cannabinoid receptor CB1 and GPR40 were expressed at low levels and these results were confirmed using Taqman QRTPCR. (nottingham.ac.uk)
  • CB2 receptor expression was only detected in rat tissue and as a result was not further studied in cell culture systems. (nottingham.ac.uk)
  • Macrophage expression of cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB 2 ) is induced by inflammatory stimuli and regulates multiple functions including chemotaxis and antigen presentation[ 4 ]. (bmj.com)
  • A different pattern of cell surface CB1 receptor expression was observed using an undifferentiated F-11 cell line, which had pronounced somatic labeling. (elsevierpure.com)
  • In the hypothalamus, inhibits leptin-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation and mediates cannabinoid-induced increase in SREBF1 and FASN gene expression. (cusabio.com)
  • This study examines the gene structure and types of regulatory mechanisms that are involved in the expression of a G protein-coupled cannabinoid receptor in brain. (grantome.com)
  • Cell lines needed to study the expression of this gene will be found by identifying those which are positive for cannabinoid receptor mRNAs using Northern blot analysis. (grantome.com)
  • Our group's current research aims to develop and apply an on-demand, controllable gene expression technology, based on guide RNAs and a catalytically inactive Cas9, targeting the expression of GABA and CB1 receptors for the control of epileptogenesis. (lu.se)
  • Since mRNA levels for this receptor in the brains of embryonic rats differ substantially from those found in adult rats, it is highly probable that this gene is influenced by developmental cues. (grantome.com)
  • In contrast, prior GPR18 receptor blockade (O-1918) produced the opposite effects, and abrogated Abn CBD-evoked responses in conscious Sprague Dawley rats. (ecu.edu)
  • CB1 receptors are part of the endocannabinoid system, a diffuse network of chemicals and signaling pathways in the body that plays a role in memory formation, appetite, pain tolerance and mood. (neurosciencenews.com)
  • Cannabinoids are fatty and oily chemicals that can connect to fat cells in our bodies. (wikipedia.org)
  • For instance, in the liver, activation of the CB1 receptor is known to increase de novo lipogenesis. (wikipedia.org)
  • Endocannabinoid signaling modulates a variety of neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases, mainly through the activation of type-1 and type-2 (CB(1)R and CB(2)R) cannabinoid receptors. (unboundmedicine.com)
  • The activation of CBD receptors modulates nutrient processing, appetite regulation, fat distribution, and metabolic pathways. (thecbdistillery.com)
  • Numerous physiological processes depend on the activation of cannabinoid receptors. (bayqueen.life)
  • This is based on comparisons between the genetics of cannabinoid receptors in various species. (bayqueen.life)
  • The analysis of CGRP release data was combined with immunohistochemistry in order to study the cellular localization of CB1, cannabinoid receptor type 2 (CB2), CGRP and receptor activity modifying protein 1 (RAMP1), a subunit of the functional CGRP receptor, in the TG. (ku.dk)
  • Our bodies and brains are full of cellular receptors and a large network of chemical signals that make up the ECS. (bayqueen.life)
  • In the hippocampus, regulates cellular respiration and energy production in response to cannabinoids. (cusabio.com)
  • CB2 Cannabinoid Receptors are also cellular. (cannabismd.com)
  • When exposed to light, phytocannabinoids can change their chemical structure and turn into other cannabinoids. (wikipedia.org)
  • Our discovery of cannabinoid receptors in some nematodes, onychophorans, and crustaceans does not contradict the Ecdysozoa hypothesis, but gives it no support. (researchgate.net)
  • Association of a Variant of CNR1 Gene Encoding Cannabinoid Receptor 1 With Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome. (cdc.gov)
  • As this motif is different in the two CBR subtypes, we mutated lysine 402 of CB(1)R into glycine, to obtain a cholesterol recognition/interaction amino acid sequence and consensus similar to that of CB(2)R. Both mutated and wild-type receptors were transiently expressed in human neuronal SH-SY5Y cells, and their localization and functioning were investigated using biochemical assays and immunofluorescence labelling. (unboundmedicine.com)
  • The amino acid sequences of these receptors present 56% identity with Takifugu rubripes CB2 sequence and 39% with human CB2 sequence and conserve some specific key residues for cannabinoid receptor function. (umn.edu)
  • These discoveries led to determination in 1993 of a second brain cannabinoid receptor named cannabinoid receptor type 2 or CB2. (wikipedia.org)
  • Cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1) receptors are thought to be one of the most widely expressed Gαi protein-coupled receptors in the brain. (wikipedia.org)
  • coupled cannabinoid receptors type 1 (CB1), resulting in neuronal inhibition. (lu.se)
  • The CB2 receptor, a second type of cannabinoid receptor, is mostly found in immune tissues and is essential for helping to regulate immune activity as well as intestinal inflammation, contraction, and pain in inflammatory bowel conditions. (bayqueen.life)
  • A Chinese research team joined forces with Russian and U.S. biologists to obtain the crystal structure of the human type 2 cannabinoid receptor. (analyticalcannabis.com)
  • The authors of the paper in Cell compare the newly discovered structure to that of the type 1 cannabinoid receptor, deeming the two receptors to be the "yin and yang" of the human endocannabinoid system. (analyticalcannabis.com)
  • These adaptations with inflammation have important implications for the development of cannabinoid-based pain therapeutics targeting MAGL and CB1Rs.Presynaptic G protein-coupled receptors are resistant to desensitization. (iasp-pain.org)
  • The study was funded by the Wesley Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, and the Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, a philanthropically funded research organization at the University of Sydney, Australia. (medscape.com)
  • In fact, we know very well that people with PTSD who use marijuana-a potent cannabinoid-often experience more relief from their symptoms than they do from antidepressants and other psychiatric medications. (neurosciencenews.com)
  • Both duplicate receptors are expressed in peripheral tissues (gills, heart, intestine and muscle), immune tissue (spleen) and also in the central nervous system. (umn.edu)
  • That being said, CB1 is also expressed in peripheral organs and non-brain cells such as fat cells, liver cells, and musculoskeletal tissues, and CB2 receptors are also expressed in the brain but at much lower levels compared to CB1. (elementapothec.com)
  • CB1 cannabinoid receptors are primarily located in the central nervous and peripheral nervous systems. (cannabismd.com)
  • A subclass of cannabinoid receptor found primarily on immune cells where it may play a role modulating release of CYTOKINES . (online-medical-dictionary.org)
  • Whereas CB1 receptors are found abundantly in the brain, CB2 receptors are found primarily in cells of the immune systems. (elementapothec.com)
  • With further study, they found cannabinoid receptors are present in many parts of the body. (jamesgrowhouse.com)
  • CB1 receptors are primarily found in the brain and nervous system. (jamesgrowhouse.com)
  • These receptors are scattered throughout the body but are primarily found in the brain, nervous system, reproductive system, colon and a range of vital organs. (cannabismd.com)
  • THC has an affinity for CB1, while CBD prefers other receptors found throughout the body. (cannabismd.com)
  • The CB1 receptor is primarily found in the hippocampus (in the brain), which is a center for emotion and memory - basal ganglia, a part of the brain associated with the stem, cerebral cortex and thalamus - the cerebellum and neocortex, which are associated with motor functions - the spine, then a main component of the central nervous system, and other areas such as pituitary, thyroid and adrenal glands. (cannabismd.com)
  • CB 1 receptors are mostly found in the central nervous system , which is made up of the brain and spine . (wikipedia.org)
  • The cannabinoid receptor is one of the most abundant receptors found in brain (rat, monkey, human) and is involved in mediating the mind- and mood-altering effects of marijuana. (grantome.com)
  • Many tissues contain CB1 and CB2 receptors, each associated with a distinct function. (bayqueen.life)
  • Single and combined effects of plant-derived and synthetic cannabinoids on cognition and cannabinoid-associated withdrawal signs in mice. (jefferson.edu)
  • They concluded that substances activating one of the receptors can actually weaken or inhibit the other, and vice versa. (analyticalcannabis.com)