A group of deoxyribonucleotides (up to 12) in which the phosphate residues of each deoxyribonucleotide act as bridges in forming diester linkages between the deoxyribose moieties.
Short fragments of DNA that are used to alter the function of target RNAs or DNAs to which they hybridize.
Short fragments of DNA or RNA that are used to alter the function of target RNAs or DNAs to which they hybridize.
RNA molecules which hybridize to complementary sequences in either RNA or DNA altering the function of the latter. Endogenous antisense RNAs function as regulators of gene expression by a variety of mechanisms. Synthetic antisense RNAs are used to effect the functioning of specific genes for investigative or therapeutic purposes.
Polymers made up of a few (2-20) nucleotides. In molecular genetics, they refer to a short sequence synthesized to match a region where a mutation is known to occur, and then used as a probe (OLIGONUCLEOTIDE PROBES). (Dorland, 28th ed)
DNA that is complementary to the sense strand. (The sense strand has the same sequence as the mRNA transcript. The antisense strand is the template for mRNA synthesis.) Synthetic antisense DNAs are used to hybridize to complementary sequences in target RNAs or DNAs to effect the functioning of specific genes for investigative or therapeutic purposes.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
Disruption of the secondary structure of nucleic acids by heat, extreme pH or chemical treatment. Double strand DNA is "melted" by dissociation of the non-covalent hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions. Denatured DNA appears to be a single-stranded flexible structure. The effects of denaturation on RNA are similar though less pronounced and largely reversible.
Substances used for the detection, identification, analysis, etc. of chemical, biological, or pathologic processes or conditions. Indicators are substances that change in physical appearance, e.g., color, at or approaching the endpoint of a chemical titration, e.g., on the passage between acidity and alkalinity. Reagents are substances used for the detection or determination of another substance by chemical or microscopical means, especially analysis. Types of reagents are precipitants, solvents, oxidizers, reducers, fluxes, and colorimetric reagents. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed, p301, p499)
Flammable, amorphous, vegetable products of secretion or disintegration, usually formed in special cavities of plants. They are generally insoluble in water and soluble in alcohol, carbon tetrachloride, ether, or volatile oils. They are fusible and have a conchoidal fracture. They are the oxidation or polymerization products of the terpenes, and are mixtures of aromatic acids and esters. Most are soft and sticky, but harden after exposure to cold. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed & Dorland, 28th ed)
5-Bromo-2,4(1H,3H)-pyrimidinedione. Brominated derivative of uracil that acts as an antimetabolite, substituting for thymine in DNA. It is used mainly as an experimental mutagen, but its deoxyriboside (BROMODEOXYURIDINE) is used to treat neoplasms.
The spatial arrangement of the atoms of a nucleic acid or polynucleotide that results in its characteristic 3-dimensional shape.
Short fragments of RNA that are used to alter the function of target RNAs or DNAs to which they hybridize.
A deoxyribonucleotide polymer that is the primary genetic material of all cells. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms normally contain DNA in a double-stranded state, yet several important biological processes transiently involve single-stranded regions. DNA, which consists of a polysugar-phosphate backbone possessing projections of purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine), forms a double helix that is held together by hydrogen bonds between these purines and pyrimidines (adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine).
Nucleotides in which the base moiety is substituted with one or more sulfur atoms.
Nucleic acids which hybridize to complementary sequences in other target nucleic acids causing the function of the latter to be affected.
An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of linear RNA to a circular form by the transfer of the 5'-phosphate to the 3'-hydroxyl terminus. It also catalyzes the covalent joining of two polyribonucleotides in phosphodiester linkage. EC 6.5.1.3.
A series of steps taken in order to conduct research.
A purine or pyrimidine base bonded to DEOXYRIBOSE.
Organic compounds that contain phosphorus as an integral part of the molecule. Included under this heading is broad array of synthetic compounds that are used as PESTICIDES and DRUGS.
Carbon-containing phosphoric acid derivatives. Included under this heading are compounds that have CARBON atoms bound to one or more OXYGEN atoms of the P(=O)(O)3 structure. Note that several specific classes of endogenous phosphorus-containing compounds such as NUCLEOTIDES; PHOSPHOLIPIDS; and PHOSPHOPROTEINS are listed elsewhere.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
A ribonuclease that specifically cleaves the RNA moiety of RNA:DNA hybrids. It has been isolated from a wide variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms as well as RETROVIRUSES.
A form of SILICON DIOXIDE composed of skeletons of prehistoric aquatic plants which is used for its ABSORPTION quality, taking up 1.5-4 times its weight in water. The microscopic sharp edges are useful for insect control but can also be an inhalation hazard. It has been used in baked goods and animal feed. Kieselguhr is German for flint + earthy sediment.
Widely used technique which exploits the ability of complementary sequences in single-stranded DNAs or RNAs to pair with each other to form a double helix. Hybridization can take place between two complimentary DNA sequences, between a single-stranded DNA and a complementary RNA, or between two RNA sequences. The technique is used to detect and isolate specific sequences, measure homology, or define other characteristics of one or both strands. (Kendrew, Encyclopedia of Molecular Biology, 1994, p503)
Catalyze the joining of preformed ribonucleotides or deoxyribonucleotides in phosphodiester linkage during genetic processes. EC 6.5.1.
Guanine is a purine nucleobase, one of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid of DNA and RNA, involved in forming hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs in double-stranded DNA molecules.
Californium. A man-made radioactive actinide with atomic symbol Cf, atomic number 98, and atomic weight 251. Its valence can be +2 or +3. Californium has medical use as a radiation source for radiotherapy.
A purine or pyrimidine base bonded to a DEOXYRIBOSE containing a bond to a phosphate group.
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
2'-Deoxyuridine. An antimetabolite that is converted to deoxyuridine triphosphate during DNA synthesis. Laboratory suppression of deoxyuridine is used to diagnose megaloblastic anemias due to vitamin B12 and folate deficiencies.
Compounds containing carbon-phosphorus bonds in which the phosphorus component is also bonded to one or more sulfur atoms. Many of these compounds function as CHOLINERGIC AGENTS and as INSECTICIDES.
A purine base and a fundamental unit of ADENINE NUCLEOTIDES.
Thymine is a pyrimidine nucleobase, one of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid of DNA (the other three being adenine, guanine, and cytosine), where it forms a base pair with adenine.
Inorganic derivatives of phosphoric acid (H3PO4). Note that organic derivatives of phosphoric acids are listed under ORGANOPHOSPHATES.
Hard, amorphous, brittle, inorganic, usually transparent, polymerous silicate of basic oxides, usually potassium or sodium. It is used in the form of hard sheets, vessels, tubing, fibers, ceramics, beads, etc.
Liquid chromatographic techniques which feature high inlet pressures, high sensitivity, and high speed.
Synthetic or natural oligonucleotides used in hybridization studies in order to identify and study specific nucleic acid fragments, e.g., DNA segments near or within a specific gene locus or gene. The probe hybridizes with a specific mRNA, if present. Conventional techniques used for testing for the hybridization product include dot blot assays, Southern blot assays, and DNA:RNA hybrid-specific antibody tests. Conventional labels for the probe include the radioisotope labels 32P and 125I and the chemical label biotin.
Pairing of purine and pyrimidine bases by HYDROGEN BONDING in double-stranded DNA or RNA.
The location of the atoms, groups or ions relative to one another in a molecule, as well as the number, type and location of covalent bonds.
Biologically functional sequences of DNA chemically synthesized in vitro.
A DNA-dependent DNA polymerase characterized in prokaryotes and may be present in higher organisms. It has both 3'-5' and 5'-3' exonuclease activity, but cannot use native double-stranded DNA as template-primer. It is not inhibited by sulfhydryl reagents and is active in both DNA synthesis and repair. EC 2.7.7.7.
A series of 7 virulent phages which infect E. coli. The T-even phages T2, T4; (BACTERIOPHAGE T4), and T6, and the phage T5 are called "autonomously virulent" because they cause cessation of all bacterial metabolism on infection. Phages T1, T3; (BACTERIOPHAGE T3), and T7; (BACTERIOPHAGE T7) are called "dependent virulent" because they depend on continued bacterial metabolism during the lytic cycle. The T-even phages contain 5-hydroxymethylcytosine in place of ordinary cytosine in their DNA.
A group of ribonucleotides (up to 12) in which the phosphate residues of each ribonucleotide act as bridges in forming diester linkages between the ribose moieties.
A nucleoside consisting of the base guanine and the sugar deoxyribose.
A single chain of deoxyribonucleotides that occurs in some bacteria and viruses. It usually exists as a covalently closed circle.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria (GRAM-NEGATIVE FACULTATIVELY ANAEROBIC RODS) commonly found in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals. It is usually nonpathogenic, but some strains are known to produce DIARRHEA and pyogenic infections. Pathogenic strains (virotypes) are classified by their specific pathogenic mechanisms such as toxins (ENTEROTOXIGENIC ESCHERICHIA COLI), etc.
Macromolecular molds for the synthesis of complementary macromolecules, as in DNA REPLICATION; GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION of DNA to RNA, and GENETIC TRANSLATION of RNA into POLYPEPTIDES.
Spectroscopic method of measuring the magnetic moment of elementary particles such as atomic nuclei, protons or electrons. It is employed in clinical applications such as NMR Tomography (MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING).
The fission of a CELL. It includes CYTOKINESIS, when the CYTOPLASM of a cell is divided, and CELL NUCLEUS DIVISION.
Purine or pyrimidine bases attached to a ribose or deoxyribose. (From King & Stansfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)
A basic science concerned with the composition, structure, and properties of matter; and the reactions that occur between substances and the associated energy exchange.
A polynucleotide consisting essentially of chains with a repeating backbone of phosphate and ribose units to which nitrogenous bases are attached. RNA is unique among biological macromolecules in that it can encode genetic information, serve as an abundant structural component of cells, and also possesses catalytic activity. (Rieger et al., Glossary of Genetics: Classical and Molecular, 5th ed)
The composition, conformation, and properties of atoms and molecules, and their reaction and interaction processes.
Determination of the spectra of ultraviolet absorption by specific molecules in gases or liquids, for example Cl2, SO2, NO2, CS2, ozone, mercury vapor, and various unsaturated compounds. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
A characteristic feature of enzyme activity in relation to the kind of substrate on which the enzyme or catalytic molecule reacts.
The covalent bonding of an alkyl group to an organic compound. It can occur by a simple addition reaction or by substitution of another functional group.
Thymidine is a pyrimidine nucleoside, consisting of a thymine base linked to a deoxyribose sugar by a β-N1-glycosidic bond, which plays a crucial role in DNA replication and repair processes as one of the four nucleosides in DNA.
A rigorously mathematical analysis of energy relationships (heat, work, temperature, and equilibrium). It describes systems whose states are determined by thermal parameters, such as temperature, in addition to mechanical and electromagnetic parameters. (From Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary, 12th ed)
The relative amounts of the PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in a nucleic acid.
The relationship between the chemical structure of a compound and its biological or pharmacological activity. Compounds are often classed together because they have structural characteristics in common including shape, size, stereochemical arrangement, and distribution of functional groups.
Cells grown in vitro from neoplastic tissue. If they can be established as a TUMOR CELL LINE, they can be propagated in cell culture indefinitely.
The property of objects that determines the direction of heat flow when they are placed in direct thermal contact. The temperature is the energy of microscopic motions (vibrational and translational) of the particles of atoms.
Reagents with two reactive groups, usually at opposite ends of the molecule, that are capable of reacting with and thereby forming bridges between side chains of amino acids in proteins; the locations of naturally reactive areas within proteins can thereby be identified; may also be used for other macromolecules, like glycoproteins, nucleic acids, or other.
The insertion of recombinant DNA molecules from prokaryotic and/or eukaryotic sources into a replicating vehicle, such as a plasmid or virus vector, and the introduction of the resultant hybrid molecules into recipient cells without altering the viability of those cells.
That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum immediately below the visible range and extending into the x-ray frequencies. The longer wavelengths (near-UV or biotic or vital rays) are necessary for the endogenous synthesis of vitamin D and are also called antirachitic rays; the shorter, ionizing wavelengths (far-UV or abiotic or extravital rays) are viricidal, bactericidal, mutagenic, and carcinogenic and are used as disinfectants.
Organic compounds containing the -CO-NH2 radical. Amides are derived from acids by replacement of -OH by -NH2 or from ammonia by the replacement of H by an acyl group. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
The uptake of naked or purified DNA by CELLS, usually meaning the process as it occurs in eukaryotic cells. It is analogous to bacterial transformation (TRANSFORMATION, BACTERIAL) and both are routinely employed in GENE TRANSFER TECHNIQUES.
Species- or subspecies-specific DNA (including COMPLEMENTARY DNA; conserved genes, whole chromosomes, or whole genomes) used in hybridization studies in order to identify microorganisms, to measure DNA-DNA homologies, to group subspecies, etc. The DNA probe hybridizes with a specific mRNA, if present. Conventional techniques used for testing for the hybridization product include dot blot assays, Southern blot assays, and DNA:RNA hybrid-specific antibody tests. Conventional labels for the DNA probe include the radioisotope labels 32P and 125I and the chemical label biotin. The use of DNA probes provides a specific, sensitive, rapid, and inexpensive replacement for cell culture techniques for diagnosing infections.
Extrachromosomal, usually CIRCULAR DNA molecules that are self-replicating and transferable from one organism to another. They are found in a variety of bacterial, archaeal, fungal, algal, and plant species. They are used in GENETIC ENGINEERING as CLONING VECTORS.
The parts of a macromolecule that directly participate in its specific combination with another molecule.
Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of chemical processes or phenomena; includes the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.
A family of 6-membered heterocyclic compounds occurring in nature in a wide variety of forms. They include several nucleic acid constituents (CYTOSINE; THYMINE; and URACIL) and form the basic structure of the barbiturates.
The biosynthesis of PEPTIDES and PROTEINS on RIBOSOMES, directed by MESSENGER RNA, via TRANSFER RNA that is charged with standard proteinogenic AMINO ACIDS.
The biosynthesis of RNA carried out on a template of DNA. The biosynthesis of DNA from an RNA template is called REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION.
A change from planar to elliptic polarization when an initially plane-polarized light wave traverses an optically active medium. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
Electrophoresis in which a polyacrylamide gel is used as the diffusion medium.
Agents that emit light after excitation by light. The wave length of the emitted light is usually longer than that of the incident light. Fluorochromes are substances that cause fluorescence in other substances, i.e., dyes used to mark or label other compounds with fluorescent tags.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
Enzymes that are part of the restriction-modification systems. They catalyze the endonucleolytic cleavage of DNA sequences which lack the species-specific methylation pattern in the host cell's DNA. Cleavage yields random or specific double-stranded fragments with terminal 5'-phosphates. The function of restriction enzymes is to destroy any foreign DNA that invades the host cell. Most have been studied in bacterial systems, but a few have been found in eukaryotic organisms. They are also used as tools for the systematic dissection and mapping of chromosomes, in the determination of base sequences of DNAs, and have made it possible to splice and recombine genes from one organism into the genome of another. EC 3.21.1.
Models used experimentally or theoretically to study molecular shape, electronic properties, or interactions; includes analogous molecules, computer-generated graphics, and mechanical structures.
Domesticated bovine animals of the genus Bos, usually kept on a farm or ranch and used for the production of meat or dairy products or for heavy labor.
Synthetic analogs of NUCLEIC ACIDS composed of morpholine ring derivatives (MORPHOLINES) linked by phosphorodimidates. One standard DNA nucleic acid base (ADENINE; GUANINE; CYTOSINE; OR THYMINE) is bound to each morpholine ring.
Modified oligonucleotides in which one of the oxygens of the phosphate group is replaced with a sulfur atom.
DNA analogs containing neutral amide backbone linkages composed of aminoethyl glycine units instead of the usual phosphodiester linkage of deoxyribose groups. Peptide nucleic acids have high biological stability and higher affinity for complementary DNA or RNA sequences than analogous DNA oligomers.
A negative regulatory effect on physiological processes at the molecular, cellular, or systemic level. At the molecular level, the major regulatory sites include membrane receptors, genes (GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION), mRNAs (RNA, MESSENGER), and proteins.

Ubiquitous induction of p53 in tumor cells by antisense inhibition of MDM2 expression. (1/927)

BACKGROUND: The MDM2 oncogene functions as a negative feedback regulator of the p53 tumor suppressor. Abnormal expression of MDM2 in tumors may attenuate the p53-mediated growth arrest and apoptosis response, resulting in increased cell proliferation and resistance to chemotherapy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We have developed phosphorothioate antisense oligodeoxynucleotides optimized for inhibition of MDM2 expression and investigated the role of MDM2 in a large panel of tumor cell lines. RESULTS: Inhibition of MDM2 expression in 15 tumor types containing wild-type p53 results in a significant induction of nuclear p53 accumulation. The increase in p53 level is due to prolonged half-life and is associated with an increase in p53 transcriptional activity, growth inhibition, or apoptosis. Inhibition of MDM2 expression is also sufficient to induce nuclear p53 accumulation in several cell lines with cytoplasmic p53. CONCLUSIONS: The MDM2 negative feedback loop is important for maintenance of p53 at a low level by promoting p53 degradation. Nuclear export and degradation by MDM2 may contribute to the p53 nuclear exclusion phenotype. Inhibition of MDM2 expression can effectively activate p53 in most tumor types, including those without MDM2 overexpression, and may have broad anti-tumor potential.  (+info)

A cytosine analog that confers enhanced potency to antisense oligonucleotides. (2/927)

Antisense technology is based on the ability to design potent, sequence-specific inhibitors. The G-clamp heterocycle modification, a cytosine analog that clamps on to guanine by forming an additional hydrogen bond, was rationally designed to enhance oligonucleotide/RNA hybrid affinity. A single, context-dependent substitution of a G-clamp heterocycle into a 15-mer phosphorothioate oligodeoxynucleotide (S-ON) targeting the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor, p27(kip1), enhanced antisense activity as compared with a previously optimized C5-propynyl-modified p27(kip1) S-ON and functionally replaced 11 C5-propynyl modifications. Dose-dependent, sequence-specific antisense inhibition was observed at nanomolar concentrations of the G-clamp S-ONs. A single nucleotide mismatch between the G-clamp S-ON and the p27(kip1) mRNA reduced the potency of the antisense ON by five-fold. A 2-base-mismatch S-ON eliminated antisense activity, confirming the sequence specificity of G-clamp-modified S-ONs. The G-clamp-substituted p27(kip1) S-ON activated RNase H-mediated cleavage and demonstrated increased in vitro binding affinity for its RNA target compared with conventional 15-mer S-ONs. Furthermore, incorporation of a single G-clamp modification into a previously optimized 20-mer phosphorothioate antisense S-ON targeting c-raf increased the potency of the S-ON 25-fold. The G-clamp heterocycle is a potent, mismatch-sensitive, automated synthesizer-compatible antisense S-ON modification that will have important applications in the elucidation of gene function, the validation of gene targets, and the development of more potent antisense-based pharmaceuticals.  (+info)

Abrogation of cyclin D1 expression predisposes lung cancer cells to serum deprivation-induced apoptosis. (3/927)

Cyclin D1 antisense (D1AS)-transfected lung epithelial cell lines were serum deprived and then analyzed for three hallmarks of apoptosis: appearance of single-strand DNA breaks, alteration of apoptosis-related protein expression, and induction of chromatin condensation. Single-strand DNA breaks appeared at significant levels 24 h after serum deprivation, whereas induction of chromatin condensation was observed after 72 h. The antioxidants dimethyl sulfoxide, ascorbate, and glutathione, as well as insulin-like growth factor-I, inhibited induction of DNA damage in this assay. Additionally, proliferating cell nuclear antigen expression is completely suppressed in the D1AS cells, indicating a mechanism to explain the reduced capacity for DNA repair. Increased expression of cyclin D1, which is a common lesion in lung cancer, may thus prevent induction of apoptosis in an oxidizing and growth factor-poor environment. Reducing cyclin D1 expression in lung cancer cells by expression of D1AS RNA disrupted these protective pathways.  (+info)

An apamin-sensitive Ca2+-activated K+ current in hippocampal pyramidal neurons. (4/927)

In hippocampal and other cortical neurons, action potentials are followed by afterhyperpolarizations (AHPs) generated by the activation of small-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels (SK channels). By shaping the neuronal firing pattern, these AHPs contribute to the regulation of excitability and to the encoding function of neurons. Here we report that CA1 pyramidal neurons express an AHP current that is suppressed by apamin and is involved in the control of repetitive firing. This current presents distinct kinetic and pharmacological features, and it is modulated differently than the apamin-insensitive slow AHP current. Furthermore, our in situ hybridizations show that the apamin-sensitive SK subunits are expressed in CA1 pyramidal neurons, providing a potential molecular correlate to the apamin-sensitive AHP current. Altogether, these results clarify the discrepancy between the reported high density of apamin-binding sites in the CA1 region and the apparent lack of an apamin-sensitive current in CA1 pyramidal neurons, and they may explain the effects of this toxin on hippocampal synaptic plasticity and learning.  (+info)

Cell cycle regulatory molecules (cyclins, cyclin-dependent kinases and cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors) and the cardiovascular system; potential targets for therapy? (5/927)

In the preceding sections we have described the potential for using cell cycle regulatory molecules as targets for drug development within the cardiovascular system. Opportunities for affecting the expression and activities of selected cell cycle regulatory molecules exist in interventional cardiological procedures such as PTCA to limit specifically the intimal hyperplasia of vascular smooth muscle cells that occurs following angioplasty. In addition, the potential for targeting the cardiac myocyte cell cycle to re-initiate cell division in a controlled manner would provide a suitable approach for repairing damaged areas of myocardial tissue following an infarct. Although this approach has not been demonstrated to date in vivo, data from transgenic mouse models and in vitro studies have implicated the cell cycle as a suitable target for manipulation. The next few years will enable the feasibility of this approach to be demonstrated.  (+info)

Activation of hematopoietic progenitor kinase-1 by erythropoietin. (6/927)

Hematopoietic progenitor kinase-1 (HPK1), which is expressed predominantly in hematopoietic cells, was identified as a mammalian Ste20 homologue that, upon transfection, leads to activation of JNK/SAPK in nonhematopoietic cells. The JNK/SAPK pathway is activated by various environmental stresses and proinflammatory and hematopoietic cytokines. Upstream activators of HPK1 currently remain elusive, and its precise role in hematopoiesis has yet to be defined. We therefore examined the possible involvement of HPK1 in erythropoietin (Epo) and environmental stress-induced JNK/SAPK activation in the Epo-dependent FD-EPO cells and Epo-responsive SKT6 cells. We found that Epo, but not environmental stresses, induced rapid and transient activation of HPK1, whereas both induced activation of JNK/SAPK. A screen for HPK1 binding proteins identified the hematopoietic cell-specific protein 1 (HS1) as a potential HPK1 interaction partner. We found HPK1 constitutively associated with HS1 and that HS1 was tyrosine-phosphorylated in response to cellular stresses as well as Epo stimulation. Furthermore, antisense oligonucleotides to HPK1 suppressed Epo-dependent cell growth and Epo-induced erythroid differentiation. We therefore conclude that Epo induces activation of both HPK1 and HS1, whereas cellular stresses activate only HS1, and that the HPK1-JNK/SAPK pathway is involved in Epo-induced growth and differentiation signals.  (+info)

Regulated expression and functional role of the transcription factor CHOP (GADD153) in erythroid growth and differentiation. (7/927)

The hematopoietic growth factor erythropoietin (Epo) triggers changes in the expression of genes that encode important regulators of erythroid cell growth and differentiation. We now report that Epo markedly upregulates chop (gadd153) expression and that this transcription factor plays a role in erythropoiesis. Using a differential hybridization assay, we isolated a full-length cDNA of chop as an Epo upregulated gene in Rauscher murine erythroleukemia cells. RNase protection assays demonstrated that Epo or dimethyl sulfoxide induction increased steady-state mRNA levels 10- to 20-fold after 24 to 48 hours. Western blot analysis confirmed a marked increase in CHOP protein. Among the other c/ebp family members, only c/ebp beta was also upregulated during erythroid differentiation. Among normal hematopoietic cells examined, steady-state mRNA levels were highest in erythroid cells, with levels peaking during terminal differentiation. Transient overexpression of chop in Rauscher cells resulted in a significant increase in Epo- or dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)-induced hemoglobinization, further linking chop upregulation to erythroid differentiation. Artificial downregulation of chop in normal murine bone marrow cells with antisense oligodeoxynucleotides inhibited colony-forming unit-erythroid (CFU-E)-derived colony growth in a concentration-dependent manner. Burst-forming unit-erythroid (BFU-E)-derived colony growth was not affected. Using a Far Western type of analysis, we detected several potential CHOP binding partners among the nuclear proteins of Rauscher cells. Importantly, the number and relative abundance of these proteins changed with differentiation. The results strongly suggest that CHOP plays a role in erythropoiesis, possibly through interactions with both C/EBP and non-C/EBP family members.  (+info)

Characterization of HOX gene expression during myelopoiesis: role of HOX A5 in lineage commitment and maturation. (8/927)

During the process of normal hematopoiesis, proliferation is tightly linked to maturation. The molecular mechanisms that lead to production of mature effector cells with a variety of phenotypes and functions from a single multipotent progenitor are only beginning to be elucidated. It is important to determine how these maturation events are regulated at the molecular level, because this will provide significant insights into the process of normal hematopoiesis as well as leukemogenesis. Transcription factors containing the highly conserved homeobox motif show considerable promise as potential regulators of hematopoietic maturation events. In this study, we focused on identification and characterization of homeobox genes of the HOX family that are important in regulating normal human myeloid differentiation induced by the hematopoietic growth factor, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF). We have identified three homeobox genes, HOX A5, HOX B6, and HOX B7, which are expressed during early myelopoiesis. Treating bone marrow cells with antisense oligodeoxynucleotides to HOX A5 resulted in inhibition of granulocytic/monocytic hematopoiesis and increased the generation of erythroid progenitors. Also, overexpression of HOX A5 inhibited erythroid differentiation of the K562 cell line. Based on these observations, we propose that HOX A5 functions as an important regulator of hematopoietic lineage determination and maturation.  (+info)

Oligodeoxyribonucleotides (ODNs) are relatively short, synthetic single-stranded DNA molecules. They typically contain 15 to 30 nucleotides, but can range from 2 to several hundred nucleotides in length. ODNs are often used as tools in molecular biology research for various applications such as:

1. Nucleic acid detection and quantification (e.g., real-time PCR)
2. Gene regulation (antisense, RNA interference)
3. Gene editing (CRISPR-Cas systems)
4. Vaccine development
5. Diagnostic purposes

Due to their specificity and affinity towards complementary DNA or RNA sequences, ODNs can be designed to target a particular gene or sequence of interest. This makes them valuable tools in understanding gene function, regulation, and interaction with other molecules within the cell.

Antisense oligodeoxyribonucleotides (ODNs) are short synthetic single-stranded DNA molecules that are designed to be complementary to a specific RNA sequence. They work by binding to the target mRNA through base-pairing, which prevents the translation of the mRNA into protein, either by blocking the ribosome or inducing degradation of the mRNA. This makes antisense ODNs valuable tools in research and therapeutics for modulating gene expression, particularly in cases where traditional small molecule inhibitors are not effective.

The term "oligodeoxyribonucleotides" refers to short DNA sequences, typically made up of 15-30 nucleotides. These molecules can be chemically modified to improve their stability and binding affinity for the target RNA, which increases their efficacy as antisense agents.

In summary, Antisense oligodeoxyribonucleotides (ODNs) are short synthetic single-stranded DNA molecules that bind to a specific RNA sequence, preventing its translation into protein and thus modulating gene expression.

Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) are short synthetic single stranded DNA-like molecules that are designed to complementarily bind to a specific RNA sequence through base-pairing, with the goal of preventing the translation of the target RNA into protein or promoting its degradation.

The antisense oligonucleotides work by hybridizing to the targeted messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule and inducing RNase H-mediated degradation, sterically blocking ribosomal translation, or modulating alternative splicing of the pre-mRNA.

ASOs have shown promise as therapeutic agents for various genetic diseases, viral infections, and cancers by specifically targeting disease-causing genes. However, their clinical application is still facing challenges such as off-target effects, stability, delivery, and potential immunogenicity.

Antisense RNA is a type of RNA molecule that is complementary to another RNA called sense RNA. In the context of gene expression, sense RNA is the RNA transcribed from a protein-coding gene, which serves as a template for translation into a protein. Antisense RNA, on the other hand, is transcribed from the opposite strand of the DNA and is complementary to the sense RNA.

Antisense RNA can bind to its complementary sense RNA through base-pairing, forming a double-stranded RNA structure. This interaction can prevent the sense RNA from being translated into protein or can target it for degradation by cellular machinery, thereby reducing the amount of protein produced from the gene. Antisense RNA can be used as a tool in molecular biology to study gene function or as a therapeutic strategy to silence disease-causing genes.

Oligonucleotides are short sequences of nucleotides, the building blocks of DNA and RNA. They typically contain fewer than 100 nucleotides, and can be synthesized chemically to have specific sequences. Oligonucleotides are used in a variety of applications in molecular biology, including as probes for detecting specific DNA or RNA sequences, as inhibitors of gene expression, and as components of diagnostic tests and therapies. They can also be used in the study of protein-nucleic acid interactions and in the development of new drugs.

Antisense DNA is a segment of DNA that is complementary to a specific RNA molecule. Unlike the sense strand, which carries the genetic information that gets transcribed into RNA, the antisense strand does not directly code for a protein. Instead, it can bind to the corresponding RNA transcript (known as messenger RNA or mRNA) through base-pairing, forming a double-stranded RNA-DNA hybrid. This interaction can prevent the translation of the mRNA into protein, either by blocking the ribosome from binding and initiating translation or by triggering degradation of the mRNA.

Antisense DNA can be used as a tool in molecular biology to study gene function or as a therapeutic strategy to target specific disease-causing genes. In some cases, antisense oligonucleotides (short synthetic single-stranded DNA molecules) are designed to complement and bind to specific mRNA sequences, leading to their degradation or inhibition of translation. This approach has been explored in the treatment of various genetic diseases, viral infections, and cancers.

It's important to note that antisense RNA also exists, which is transcribed from the DNA strand complementary to the coding (or sense) strand. Antisense RNA plays a role in gene regulation by binding to and inhibiting the translation of specific mRNAs or promoting their degradation.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

Nucleic acid denaturation is the process of separating the two strands of a double-stranded DNA molecule, or unwinding the helical structure of an RNA molecule, by disrupting the hydrogen bonds that hold the strands together. This process is typically caused by exposure to high temperatures, changes in pH, or the presence of chemicals called denaturants.

Denaturation can also cause changes in the shape and function of nucleic acids. For example, it can disrupt the secondary and tertiary structures of RNA molecules, which can affect their ability to bind to other molecules and carry out their functions within the cell.

In molecular biology, nucleic acid denaturation is often used as a tool for studying the structure and function of nucleic acids. For example, it can be used to separate the two strands of a DNA molecule for sequencing or amplification, or to study the interactions between nucleic acids and other molecules.

It's important to note that denaturation is a reversible process, and under the right conditions, the double-stranded structure of DNA can be restored through a process called renaturation or annealing.

Indicators and reagents are terms commonly used in the field of clinical chemistry and laboratory medicine. Here are their definitions:

1. Indicator: An indicator is a substance that changes its color or other physical properties in response to a chemical change, such as a change in pH, oxidation-reduction potential, or the presence of a particular ion or molecule. Indicators are often used in laboratory tests to monitor or signal the progress of a reaction or to indicate the end point of a titration. A familiar example is the use of phenolphthalein as a pH indicator in acid-base titrations, which turns pink in basic solutions and colorless in acidic solutions.

2. Reagent: A reagent is a substance that is added to a system (such as a sample or a reaction mixture) to bring about a chemical reaction, test for the presence or absence of a particular component, or measure the concentration of a specific analyte. Reagents are typically chemicals with well-defined and consistent properties, allowing them to be used reliably in analytical procedures. Examples of reagents include enzymes, antibodies, dyes, metal ions, and organic compounds. In laboratory settings, reagents are often prepared and standardized according to strict protocols to ensure their quality and performance in diagnostic tests and research applications.

In a medical context, "resins, plant" refer to the sticky, often aromatic substances produced by certain plants. These resins are typically composed of a mixture of volatile oils, terpenes, and rosin acids. They may be present in various parts of the plant, including leaves, stems, and roots, and are often found in specialized structures such as glands or ducts.

Plant resins have been used for centuries in traditional medicine and other applications. Some resins have antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, or analgesic properties and have been used to treat a variety of ailments, including skin conditions, respiratory infections, and pain.

Examples of plant resins with medicinal uses include:

* Frankincense (Boswellia spp.) resin has been used in traditional medicine to treat inflammation, arthritis, and asthma.
* Myrrh (Commiphora spp.) resin has been used as an antiseptic, astringent, and anti-inflammatory agent.
* Pine resin has been used topically for its antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties.

It's important to note that while some plant resins have demonstrated medicinal benefits, they should be used with caution and under the guidance of a healthcare professional. Some resins can have adverse effects or interact with medications, and it's essential to ensure their safe and effective use.

Bromouracil is a chemical compound that is used in the synthesis of DNA. It is a brominated derivative of uracil, which is one of the nucleobases found in RNA. Bromouracil can be incorporated into DNA during replication in place of thymine, another nucleobase. This can lead to mutations in the DNA because bromouracil behaves differently from thymine in certain chemical reactions.

Bromouracil is not typically found in living organisms and is not considered to be a normal part of the genetic material. It may be used in research settings to study the mechanisms of DNA replication and mutation. In clinical medicine, bromouracil has been used in the treatment of psoriasis, a skin condition characterized by red, scaly patches. However, its use in this context is not common.

It is important to note that bromouracil can have toxic effects and should be handled with care. It can cause irritation to the skin and eyes, and prolonged exposure may lead to more serious health problems. If you have any questions about bromouracil or its use, it is best to speak with a healthcare professional or a qualified scientist.

Nucleic acid conformation refers to the three-dimensional structure that nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) adopt as a result of the bonding patterns between the atoms within the molecule. The primary structure of nucleic acids is determined by the sequence of nucleotides, while the conformation is influenced by factors such as the sugar-phosphate backbone, base stacking, and hydrogen bonding.

Two common conformations of DNA are the B-form and the A-form. The B-form is a right-handed helix with a diameter of about 20 Å and a pitch of 34 Å, while the A-form has a smaller diameter (about 18 Å) and a shorter pitch (about 25 Å). RNA typically adopts an A-form conformation.

The conformation of nucleic acids can have significant implications for their function, as it can affect their ability to interact with other molecules such as proteins or drugs. Understanding the conformational properties of nucleic acids is therefore an important area of research in molecular biology and medicine.

Oligoribonucleotides are short, single-stranded RNA molecules that consist of fewer than 200 nucleotides. Antisense oligoribonucleotides (ORNs) are a type of oligoribonucleotide that are designed to be complementary to a specific target RNA molecule. They work by binding to the target RNA through base-pairing, which can prevent the target RNA from being translated into protein or can trigger its degradation by cellular enzymes. Antisense ORNs have potential therapeutic applications in the treatment of various diseases, including viral infections and genetic disorders.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the genetic material present in the cells of organisms where it is responsible for the storage and transmission of hereditary information. DNA is a long molecule that consists of two strands coiled together to form a double helix. Each strand is made up of a series of four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - that are linked together by phosphate and sugar groups. The sequence of these bases along the length of the molecule encodes genetic information, with A always pairing with T and C always pairing with G. This base-pairing allows for the replication and transcription of DNA, which are essential processes in the functioning and reproduction of all living organisms.

Thionucleotides are chemical compounds that are analogs of nucleotides, which are the building blocks of DNA and RNA. In thionucleotides, one or more of the oxygen atoms in the nucleotide's chemical structure is replaced by a sulfur atom. This modification can affect the way the thionucleotide interacts with other molecules, including enzymes that work with nucleotides and nucleic acids.

Thionucleotides are sometimes used in research to study the biochemistry of nucleic acids and their interactions with other molecules. They can also be used as inhibitors of certain enzymes, such as reverse transcriptase, which is an important target for HIV/AIDS therapy. However, thionucleotides are not normally found in natural biological systems and are not themselves components of DNA or RNA.

In the context of medical research, "methods" refers to the specific procedures or techniques used in conducting a study or experiment. This includes details on how data was collected, what measurements were taken, and what statistical analyses were performed. The methods section of a medical paper allows other researchers to replicate the study if they choose to do so. It is considered one of the key components of a well-written research article, as it provides transparency and helps establish the validity of the findings.

Deoxyribonucleosides are chemical compounds that constitute the basic building blocks of DNA, one of the two nucleic acids found in cells. They consist of a sugar molecule called deoxyribose, a nitrogenous base (either adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine), and a phosphate group.

The nitrogenous base is attached to the 1' carbon atom of the deoxyribose sugar, forming a glycosidic bond. The phosphate group is linked to the 5' carbon atom of the deoxyribose sugar through an ester linkage, creating a phosphodiester bond with another deoxyribonucleoside.

When multiple deoxyribonucleosides are joined together through their phosphate groups, they form a polynucleotide chain, which is the backbone of DNA. The sequence of nitrogenous bases along this chain encodes genetic information that determines the characteristics and functions of living organisms.

Deoxyribonucleosides play a crucial role in various biological processes, including DNA replication, repair, and transcription. They are also used as therapeutic agents for the treatment of certain genetic disorders and cancer.

Organophosphorus compounds are a class of chemical substances that contain phosphorus bonded to organic compounds. They are used in various applications, including as plasticizers, flame retardants, pesticides (insecticides, herbicides, and nerve gases), and solvents. In medicine, they are also used in the treatment of certain conditions such as glaucoma. However, organophosphorus compounds can be toxic to humans and animals, particularly those that affect the nervous system by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme that breaks down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Exposure to these compounds can cause symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, muscle weakness, and in severe cases, respiratory failure and death.

Organophosphates are a group of chemicals that include insecticides, herbicides, and nerve gases. They work by inhibiting an enzyme called acetylcholinesterase, which normally breaks down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the synapse between nerves. This leads to an overaccumulation of acetylcholine, causing overstimulation of the nervous system and resulting in a wide range of symptoms such as muscle twitching, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, sweating, confusion, and potentially death due to respiratory failure. Organophosphates are highly toxic and their use is regulated due to the risks they pose to human health and the environment.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Ribonuclease H (RNase H) is an enzyme that specifically degrades the RNA portion of an RNA-DNA hybrid. It cleaves the phosphodiester bond between the ribose sugar and the phosphate group in the RNA strand, leaving the DNA strand intact. This enzyme plays a crucial role in several cellular processes, including DNA replication, repair, and transcription.

There are two main types of RNase H: type 1 and type 2. Type 1 RNase H is found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, while type 2 RNase H is primarily found in eukaryotes. The primary function of RNase H is to remove RNA primers that are synthesized during DNA replication. These RNA primers are replaced with DNA nucleotides by another enzyme called polymerase δ, leaving behind a gap in the DNA strand. RNase H then cleaves the RNA-DNA hybrid, allowing for the repair of the gap and the completion of DNA replication.

RNase H has also been implicated in the regulation of gene expression, as it can degrade RNA-DNA hybrids formed during transcription. This process, known as transcription-coupled RNA decay, helps to prevent the accumulation of aberrant RNA molecules and ensures proper gene expression.

In addition to its cellular functions, RNase H has been studied for its potential therapeutic applications. For example, inhibitors of RNase H have been shown to have antiviral activity against HIV-1, as they prevent the degradation of viral RNA during reverse transcription. On the other hand, activators of RNase H have been explored as a means to enhance the efficiency of RNA interference (RNAi) therapies by promoting the degradation of target RNA molecules.

Diatomaceous earth is not a medical term, but a natural product derived from the fossilized remains of diatoms, a type of algae. It is composed of silica and other minerals. While it has various industrial and agricultural uses, it is not typically used as a medication or treatment. However, some people may use food-grade diatomaceous earth for various health purposes, such as detoxification or improving digestive health, but these uses are not supported by scientific evidence and its safety and effectiveness for these purposes have not been established. As with any substance used for medicinal purposes, it is important to consult with a healthcare provider before using diatomaceous earth.

Nucleic acid hybridization is a process in molecular biology where two single-stranded nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) with complementary sequences pair together to form a double-stranded molecule through hydrogen bonding. The strands can be from the same type of nucleic acid or different types (i.e., DNA-RNA or DNA-cDNA). This process is commonly used in various laboratory techniques, such as Southern blotting, Northern blotting, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and microarray analysis, to detect, isolate, and analyze specific nucleic acid sequences. The hybridization temperature and conditions are critical to ensure the specificity of the interaction between the two strands.

Polynucleotide ligases are enzymes that catalyze the formation of phosphodiester bonds between the 3'-hydroxyl and 5'-phosphate ends of two adjacent nucleotides in a polynucleotide chain, such as DNA. These enzymes play a crucial role in the repair and replication of DNA, by sealing breaks or gaps in the sugar-phosphate backbone of the DNA molecule. They are essential for maintaining genomic integrity and stability, and have been widely used in molecular biology research and biotechnological applications, including DNA sequencing, cloning, and genetic engineering. Polynucleotide ligases can be found in various organisms, from bacteria to humans, and they typically require ATP or NAD+ as a cofactor for the ligation reaction.

Guanine is not a medical term per se, but it is a biological molecule that plays a crucial role in the body. Guanine is one of the four nucleobases found in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA, along with adenine, cytosine, and thymine (in DNA) or uracil (in RNA). Specifically, guanine pairs with cytosine via hydrogen bonds to form a base pair.

Guanine is a purine derivative, which means it has a double-ring structure. It is formed through the synthesis of simpler molecules in the body and is an essential component of genetic material. Guanine's chemical formula is C5H5N5O.

While guanine itself is not a medical term, abnormalities or mutations in genes that contain guanine nucleotides can lead to various medical conditions, including genetic disorders and cancer.

Californium is a synthetic actinide radioactive metallic element with the symbol Cf and atomic number 98. It was first synthesized in 1950 by Stanley G. Thompson, Kenneth Street, Jr., Albert Ghiorso, and Glenn T. Seaborg at the University of California, Berkeley. Californium is produced artificially in nuclear reactors and does not occur naturally.

Californium has several isotopes, with the most stable being californium-251, which has a half-life of 898 years. It is used in various applications, including as a power source for artificial heart pacemakers, as a neutron source for industrial radiography, and in cancer treatment.

It's important to note that due to its radioactive nature, californium must be handled with great care and precaution, and its use is regulated by governmental agencies such as the Nuclear Regulatory Commission in the United States.

Deoxyribonucleotides are the building blocks of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). They consist of a deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), or thymine (T). A deoxyribonucleotide is formed when a nucleotide loses a hydroxyl group from its sugar molecule. In DNA, deoxyribonucleotides link together to form a long, double-helix structure through phosphodiester bonds between the sugar of one deoxyribonucleotide and the phosphate group of another. The sequence of these nucleotides carries genetic information that is essential for the development and function of all known living organisms and many viruses.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. This information is used by the cell's machinery to construct proteins, a process known as translation. After being transcribed from DNA, mRNA travels out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Once the protein has been synthesized, the mRNA may be degraded and recycled. Post-transcriptional modifications can also occur to mRNA, such as alternative splicing and addition of a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail, which can affect its stability, localization, and translation efficiency.

Deoxyuridine is a chemical compound that is a component of DNA. It is a nucleoside, which means it consists of a sugar (deoxyribose) linked to a nitrogenous base (uracil). In the case of deoxyuridine, the uracil is not methylated, which differentiates it from thymidine.

Deoxyuridine can be converted into deoxyuridine monophosphate (dUMP) by the enzyme thymidine kinase. The dUMP can then be converted into deoxythymidine triphosphate (dTTP), which is a building block of DNA, through a series of reactions involving other enzymes.

Deoxyuridine has been used in research and medicine as a marker for DNA synthesis and repair. It can also be used to inhibit the growth of certain types of cells, such as cancer cells, by disrupting their DNA synthesis.

Organothiophosphorus compounds are a class of chemical compounds that contain carbon (organo-) and thiophosphorus bonds. Thiophosphorus refers to a phosphorus atom bonded to one or more sulfur atoms. These compounds have various applications, including use as plasticizers, flame retardants, insecticides (such as malathion and parathion), and nerve agents (such as sarin and VX). They can be synthesized through the reaction of organolithium or Grignard reagents with thiophosphoryl chloride. The general structure of these compounds is R-P(=S)Y, where R is an organic group, P is phosphorus, and Y is a group that determines the properties and reactivity of the compound.

Adenine is a purine nucleotide base that is a fundamental component of DNA and RNA, the genetic material of living organisms. In DNA, adenine pairs with thymine via double hydrogen bonds, while in RNA, it pairs with uracil. Adenine is essential for the structure and function of nucleic acids, as well as for energy transfer reactions in cells through its role in the formation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the primary energy currency of the cell.

Thymine is a pyrimidine nucleobase that is one of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid double helix of DNA (the other three being adenine, guanine, and cytosine). It is denoted by the letter T in DNA notation and pairs with adenine via two hydrogen bonds. Thymine is not typically found in RNA, where uracil takes its place pairing with adenine. The structure of thymine consists of a six-membered ring (pyrimidine) fused to a five-membered ring containing two nitrogen atoms and a ketone group.

Phosphoric acids are a group of mineral acids known chemically as orthophosphoric acid and its salts or esters. The chemical formula for orthophosphoric acid is H3PO4. It is a weak acid that partially dissociates in solution to release hydrogen ions (H+), making it acidic. Phosphoric acid has many uses in various industries, including food additives, fertilizers, and detergents.

In the context of medical definitions, phosphoric acids are not typically referred to directly. However, they can be relevant in certain medical contexts, such as:

* In dentistry, phosphoric acid is used as an etching agent to prepare tooth enamel for bonding with dental materials.
* In nutrition, phosphorus is an essential mineral that plays a crucial role in many bodily functions, including energy metabolism, bone and teeth formation, and nerve function. Phosphoric acid is one form of phosphorus found in some foods and beverages.
* In medical research, phosphoric acids can be used as buffers to maintain a stable pH in laboratory experiments or as reagents in various analytical techniques.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Glass" is not a medical term. Glass is a non-crystalline amorphous solid that is often transparent and has various uses in everyday life, including medical devices and equipment. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or concepts, please provide them, and I'll be happy to help.

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a type of chromatography that separates and analyzes compounds based on their interactions with a stationary phase and a mobile phase under high pressure. The mobile phase, which can be a gas or liquid, carries the sample mixture through a column containing the stationary phase.

In HPLC, the mobile phase is a liquid, and it is pumped through the column at high pressures (up to several hundred atmospheres) to achieve faster separation times and better resolution than other types of liquid chromatography. The stationary phase can be a solid or a liquid supported on a solid, and it interacts differently with each component in the sample mixture, causing them to separate as they travel through the column.

HPLC is widely used in analytical chemistry, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and other fields to separate, identify, and quantify compounds present in complex mixtures. It can be used to analyze a wide range of substances, including drugs, hormones, vitamins, pigments, flavors, and pollutants. HPLC is also used in the preparation of pure samples for further study or use.

An oligonucleotide probe is a short, single-stranded DNA or RNA molecule that contains a specific sequence of nucleotides designed to hybridize with a complementary sequence in a target nucleic acid (DNA or RNA). These probes are typically 15-50 nucleotides long and are used in various molecular biology techniques, such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), DNA sequencing, microarray analysis, and blotting methods.

Oligonucleotide probes can be labeled with various reporter molecules, like fluorescent dyes or radioactive isotopes, to enable the detection of hybridized targets. The high specificity of oligonucleotide probes allows for the precise identification and quantification of target nucleic acids in complex biological samples, making them valuable tools in diagnostic, research, and forensic applications.

Base pairing is a specific type of chemical bonding that occurs between complementary base pairs in the nucleic acid molecules DNA and RNA. In DNA, these bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C). Adenine always pairs with thymine via two hydrogen bonds, while guanine always pairs with cytosine via three hydrogen bonds. This precise base pairing is crucial for the stability of the double helix structure of DNA and for the accurate replication and transcription of genetic information. In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine and pairs with adenine.

Molecular structure, in the context of biochemistry and molecular biology, refers to the arrangement and organization of atoms and chemical bonds within a molecule. It describes the three-dimensional layout of the constituent elements, including their spatial relationships, bond lengths, and angles. Understanding molecular structure is crucial for elucidating the functions and reactivities of biological macromolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates. Various experimental techniques, like X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM), are employed to determine molecular structures at atomic resolution, providing valuable insights into their biological roles and potential therapeutic targets.

Synthetic genes are artificially created DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules that do not exist in nature. They are designed and constructed through genetic engineering techniques to encode specific functionalities or properties that do not occur in the original organism's genome. These synthetic genes can be used for various purposes, such as introducing new traits into organisms, producing novel enzymes or proteins, or developing new biotechnological applications.

The creation of synthetic genes involves designing and synthesizing DNA sequences that code for desired proteins or regulatory elements. This is achieved through chemical synthesis methods or using automated DNA synthesizers that can produce short DNA fragments, which are then assembled into longer sequences to form the complete synthetic gene. Once created, these synthetic genes can be introduced into living cells through various techniques like transfection or transformation, enabling the expression of the desired protein or functional trait.

DNA Polymerase I is a type of enzyme that plays a crucial role in DNA replication and repair in prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria. It is responsible for synthesizing new strands of DNA by adding nucleotides to the 3' end of an existing strand, using the complementary strand as a template.

DNA Polymerase I has several key functions during DNA replication:

1. **5' to 3' exonuclease activity:** It can remove nucleotides from the 5' end of a DNA strand in a process called excision repair, which helps to correct errors that may have occurred during DNA replication.
2. **3' to 5' exonuclease activity:** This enzyme can also proofread newly synthesized DNA by removing incorrect nucleotides from the 3' end of a strand, ensuring accurate replication.
3. **Polymerase activity:** DNA Polymerase I adds new nucleotides to the 3' end of an existing strand, extending the length of the DNA molecule during replication and repair processes.
4. **Pyrophosphorolysis:** It can reverse the polymerization reaction by removing a nucleotide from the 3' end of a DNA strand while releasing pyrophosphate, which is an important step in some DNA repair pathways.

In summary, DNA Polymerase I is a versatile enzyme involved in various aspects of DNA replication and repair, contributing to the maintenance of genetic information in prokaryotic cells.

I believe there might be a slight confusion in your question. T-phages are not a medical term, but rather a term used in the field of molecular biology and virology. T-phages refer to specific bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) that belong to the family of Podoviridae and have a tail structure with a contractile sheath.

To be more specific, T-even phages are a group of T-phages that include well-studied bacteriophages like T2, T4, and T6. These phages infect Escherichia coli bacteria and have been extensively researched to understand their life cycles, genetic material packaging, and molecular mechanisms of infection.

In summary, T-phages are not a medical term but rather refer to specific bacteriophages used in scientific research.

Oligoribonucleotides are short, synthetic chains of ribonucleotides, which are the building blocks of RNA (ribonucleic acid). These chains typically contain fewer than 20 ribonucleotide units, and can be composed of all four types of nucleotides found in RNA: adenine (A), uracil (U), guanine (G), and cytosine (C). They are often used in research for various purposes, such as studying RNA function, regulating gene expression, or serving as potential therapeutic agents.

Deoxyguanosine is a chemical compound that is a component of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), one of the nucleic acids. It is a nucleoside, which is a molecule consisting of a sugar (in this case, deoxyribose) and a nitrogenous base (in this case, guanine). Deoxyguanosine plays a crucial role in the structure and function of DNA, as it pairs with deoxycytidine through hydrogen bonding to form a rung in the DNA double helix. It is involved in the storage and transmission of genetic information.

Single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) is a form of DNA that consists of a single polynucleotide chain. In contrast, double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) consists of two complementary polynucleotide chains that are held together by hydrogen bonds.

In the double-helix structure of dsDNA, each nucleotide base on one strand pairs with a specific base on the other strand through hydrogen bonding: adenine (A) with thymine (T), and guanine (G) with cytosine (C). This base pairing provides stability to the double-stranded structure.

Single-stranded DNA, on the other hand, lacks this complementary base pairing and is therefore less stable than dsDNA. However, ssDNA can still form secondary structures through intrastrand base pairing, such as hairpin loops or cruciform structures.

Single-stranded DNA is found in various biological contexts, including viral genomes, transcription bubbles during gene expression, and in certain types of genetic recombination. It also plays a critical role in some laboratory techniques, such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing.

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."

1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.

2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.

3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.

4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).

Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.

'Escherichia coli' (E. coli) is a type of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium that commonly inhabits the intestinal tract of humans and warm-blooded animals. It is a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae and one of the most well-studied prokaryotic model organisms in molecular biology.

While most E. coli strains are harmless and even beneficial to their hosts, some serotypes can cause various forms of gastrointestinal and extraintestinal illnesses in humans and animals. These pathogenic strains possess virulence factors that enable them to colonize and damage host tissues, leading to diseases such as diarrhea, urinary tract infections, pneumonia, and sepsis.

E. coli is a versatile organism with remarkable genetic diversity, which allows it to adapt to various environmental niches. It can be found in water, soil, food, and various man-made environments, making it an essential indicator of fecal contamination and a common cause of foodborne illnesses. The study of E. coli has contributed significantly to our understanding of fundamental biological processes, including DNA replication, gene regulation, and protein synthesis.

A genetic template refers to the sequence of DNA or RNA that contains the instructions for the development and function of an organism or any of its components. These templates provide the code for the synthesis of proteins and other functional molecules, and determine many of the inherited traits and characteristics of an individual. In this sense, genetic templates serve as the blueprint for life and are passed down from one generation to the next through the process of reproduction.

In molecular biology, the term "template" is used to describe the strand of DNA or RNA that serves as a guide or pattern for the synthesis of a complementary strand during processes such as transcription and replication. During transcription, the template strand of DNA is transcribed into a complementary RNA molecule, while during replication, each parental DNA strand serves as a template for the synthesis of a new complementary strand.

In genetic engineering and synthetic biology, genetic templates can be manipulated and modified to introduce new functions or alter existing ones in organisms. This is achieved through techniques such as gene editing, where specific sequences in the genetic template are targeted and altered using tools like CRISPR-Cas9. Overall, genetic templates play a crucial role in shaping the structure, function, and evolution of all living organisms.

Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS) is a non-invasive diagnostic technique that provides information about the biochemical composition of tissues, including their metabolic state. It is often used in conjunction with Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) to analyze various metabolites within body tissues, such as the brain, heart, liver, and muscles.

During MRS, a strong magnetic field, radio waves, and a computer are used to produce detailed images and data about the concentration of specific metabolites in the targeted tissue or organ. This technique can help detect abnormalities related to energy metabolism, neurotransmitter levels, pH balance, and other biochemical processes, which can be useful for diagnosing and monitoring various medical conditions, including cancer, neurological disorders, and metabolic diseases.

There are different types of MRS, such as Proton (^1^H) MRS, Phosphorus-31 (^31^P) MRS, and Carbon-13 (^13^C) MRS, each focusing on specific elements or metabolites within the body. The choice of MRS technique depends on the clinical question being addressed and the type of information needed for diagnosis or monitoring purposes.

Cell division is the process by which a single eukaryotic cell (a cell with a true nucleus) divides into two identical daughter cells. This complex process involves several stages, including replication of DNA, separation of chromosomes, and division of the cytoplasm. There are two main types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.

Mitosis is the type of cell division that results in two genetically identical daughter cells. It is a fundamental process for growth, development, and tissue repair in multicellular organisms. The stages of mitosis include prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase, followed by cytokinesis, which divides the cytoplasm.

Meiosis, on the other hand, is a type of cell division that occurs in the gonads (ovaries and testes) during the production of gametes (sex cells). Meiosis results in four genetically unique daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. This process is essential for sexual reproduction and genetic diversity. The stages of meiosis include meiosis I and meiosis II, which are further divided into prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

In summary, cell division is the process by which a single cell divides into two daughter cells, either through mitosis or meiosis. This process is critical for growth, development, tissue repair, and sexual reproduction in multicellular organisms.

A nucleoside is a biochemical molecule that consists of a pentose sugar (a type of simple sugar with five carbon atoms) covalently linked to a nitrogenous base. The nitrogenous base can be one of several types, including adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, or uracil. Nucleosides are important components of nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA, which are the genetic materials found in cells. They play a crucial role in various biological processes, including cell division, protein synthesis, and gene expression.

In the context of medicine, "chemistry" often refers to the field of study concerned with the properties, composition, and structure of elements and compounds, as well as their reactions with one another. It is a fundamental science that underlies much of modern medicine, including pharmacology (the study of drugs), toxicology (the study of poisons), and biochemistry (the study of the chemical processes that occur within living organisms).

In addition to its role as a basic science, chemistry is also used in medical testing and diagnosis. For example, clinical chemistry involves the analysis of bodily fluids such as blood and urine to detect and measure various substances, such as glucose, cholesterol, and electrolytes, that can provide important information about a person's health status.

Overall, chemistry plays a critical role in understanding the mechanisms of diseases, developing new treatments, and improving diagnostic tests and techniques.

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) is a single-stranded, linear polymer of ribonucleotides. It is a nucleic acid present in the cells of all living organisms and some viruses. RNAs play crucial roles in various biological processes such as protein synthesis, gene regulation, and cellular signaling. There are several types of RNA including messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), small nuclear RNA (snRNA), microRNA (miRNA), and long non-coding RNA (lncRNA). These RNAs differ in their structure, function, and location within the cell.

Chemical phenomena refer to the changes and interactions that occur at the molecular or atomic level when chemicals are involved. These phenomena can include chemical reactions, in which one or more substances (reactants) are converted into different substances (products), as well as physical properties that change as a result of chemical interactions, such as color, state of matter, and solubility. Chemical phenomena can be studied through various scientific disciplines, including chemistry, biochemistry, and physics.

Spectrophotometry, Ultraviolet (UV-Vis) is a type of spectrophotometry that measures how much ultraviolet (UV) and visible light is absorbed or transmitted by a sample. It uses a device called a spectrophotometer to measure the intensity of light at different wavelengths as it passes through a sample. The resulting data can be used to determine the concentration of specific components within the sample, identify unknown substances, or evaluate the physical and chemical properties of materials.

UV-Vis spectroscopy is widely used in various fields such as chemistry, biology, pharmaceuticals, and environmental science. It can detect a wide range of substances including organic compounds, metal ions, proteins, nucleic acids, and dyes. The technique is non-destructive, meaning that the sample remains unchanged after the measurement.

In UV-Vis spectroscopy, the sample is placed in a cuvette or other container, and light from a source is directed through it. The light then passes through a monochromator, which separates it into its component wavelengths. The monochromatic light is then directed through the sample, and the intensity of the transmitted or absorbed light is measured by a detector.

The resulting absorption spectrum can provide information about the concentration and identity of the components in the sample. For example, if a compound has a known absorption maximum at a specific wavelength, its concentration can be determined by measuring the absorbance at that wavelength and comparing it to a standard curve.

Overall, UV-Vis spectrophotometry is a versatile and powerful analytical technique for quantitative and qualitative analysis of various samples in different fields.

Substrate specificity in the context of medical biochemistry and enzymology refers to the ability of an enzyme to selectively bind and catalyze a chemical reaction with a particular substrate (or a group of similar substrates) while discriminating against other molecules that are not substrates. This specificity arises from the three-dimensional structure of the enzyme, which has evolved to match the shape, charge distribution, and functional groups of its physiological substrate(s).

Substrate specificity is a fundamental property of enzymes that enables them to carry out highly selective chemical transformations in the complex cellular environment. The active site of an enzyme, where the catalysis takes place, has a unique conformation that complements the shape and charge distribution of its substrate(s). This ensures efficient recognition, binding, and conversion of the substrate into the desired product while minimizing unwanted side reactions with other molecules.

Substrate specificity can be categorized as:

1. Absolute specificity: An enzyme that can only act on a single substrate or a very narrow group of structurally related substrates, showing no activity towards any other molecule.
2. Group specificity: An enzyme that prefers to act on a particular functional group or class of compounds but can still accommodate minor structural variations within the substrate.
3. Broad or promiscuous specificity: An enzyme that can act on a wide range of structurally diverse substrates, albeit with varying catalytic efficiencies.

Understanding substrate specificity is crucial for elucidating enzymatic mechanisms, designing drugs that target specific enzymes or pathways, and developing biotechnological applications that rely on the controlled manipulation of enzyme activities.

Alkylation, in the context of medical chemistry and toxicology, refers to the process of introducing an alkyl group (a chemical moiety made up of a carbon atom bonded to one or more hydrogen atoms) into a molecule, typically a biomolecule such as a protein or DNA. This process can occur through various mechanisms, including chemical reactions with alkylating agents.

In the context of cancer therapy, alkylation is used to describe a class of chemotherapeutic drugs known as alkylating agents, which work by introducing alkyl groups onto DNA molecules in rapidly dividing cells. This can lead to cross-linking of DNA strands and other forms of DNA damage, ultimately inhibiting cell division and leading to the death of cancer cells. However, these agents can also affect normal cells, leading to side effects such as nausea, hair loss, and increased risk of infection.

It's worth noting that alkylation can also occur through non-chemical means, such as in certain types of radiation therapy where high-energy particles can transfer energy to electrons in biological molecules, leading to the formation of reactive radicals that can react with and alkylate DNA.

Thymidine is a pyrimidine nucleoside that consists of a thymine base linked to a deoxyribose sugar by a β-N1-glycosidic bond. It plays a crucial role in DNA replication and repair processes as one of the four nucleosides in DNA, along with adenosine, guanosine, and cytidine. Thymidine is also used in research and clinical settings for various purposes, such as studying DNA synthesis or as a component of antiviral and anticancer therapies.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "thermodynamics" is not a term that has a specific medical definition. It is a branch of physics that deals with the relationships between heat and other forms of energy. However, the principles of thermodynamics can be applied to biological systems, including those in the human body, such as in the study of metabolism or muscle function. But in a medical context, "thermodynamics" would not be a term used independently as a diagnosis, treatment, or any medical condition.

Base composition in genetics refers to the relative proportion of the four nucleotide bases (adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine) in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine, so the base composition is often expressed in terms of the ratio of adenine + thymine (A-T) to guanine + cytosine (G-C). This ratio can vary between species and even between different regions of the same genome. The base composition can provide important clues about the function, evolution, and structure of genetic material.

A Structure-Activity Relationship (SAR) in the context of medicinal chemistry and pharmacology refers to the relationship between the chemical structure of a drug or molecule and its biological activity or effect on a target protein, cell, or organism. SAR studies aim to identify patterns and correlations between structural features of a compound and its ability to interact with a specific biological target, leading to a desired therapeutic response or undesired side effects.

By analyzing the SAR, researchers can optimize the chemical structure of lead compounds to enhance their potency, selectivity, safety, and pharmacokinetic properties, ultimately guiding the design and development of novel drugs with improved efficacy and reduced toxicity.

'Tumor cells, cultured' refers to the process of removing cancerous cells from a tumor and growing them in controlled laboratory conditions. This is typically done by isolating the tumor cells from a patient's tissue sample, then placing them in a nutrient-rich environment that promotes their growth and multiplication.

The resulting cultured tumor cells can be used for various research purposes, including the study of cancer biology, drug development, and toxicity testing. They provide a valuable tool for researchers to better understand the behavior and characteristics of cancer cells outside of the human body, which can lead to the development of more effective cancer treatments.

It is important to note that cultured tumor cells may not always behave exactly the same way as they do in the human body, so findings from cell culture studies must be validated through further research, such as animal models or clinical trials.

Temperature, in a medical context, is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body or environment. It is usually measured using a thermometer and reported in degrees Celsius (°C), degrees Fahrenheit (°F), or kelvin (K). In the human body, normal core temperature ranges from about 36.5-37.5°C (97.7-99.5°F) when measured rectally, and can vary slightly depending on factors such as time of day, physical activity, and menstrual cycle. Elevated body temperature is a common sign of infection or inflammation, while abnormally low body temperature can indicate hypothermia or other medical conditions.

Cross-linking reagents are chemical agents that are used to create covalent bonds between two or more molecules, creating a network of interconnected molecules known as a cross-linked structure. In the context of medical and biological research, cross-linking reagents are often used to stabilize protein structures, study protein-protein interactions, and develop therapeutic agents.

Cross-linking reagents work by reacting with functional groups on adjacent molecules, such as amino groups (-NH2) or sulfhydryl groups (-SH), to form a covalent bond between them. This can help to stabilize protein structures and prevent them from unfolding or aggregating.

There are many different types of cross-linking reagents, each with its own specificity and reactivity. Some common examples include glutaraldehyde, formaldehyde, disuccinimidyl suberate (DSS), and bis(sulfosuccinimidyl) suberate (BS3). The choice of cross-linking reagent depends on the specific application and the properties of the molecules being cross-linked.

It is important to note that cross-linking reagents can also have unintended effects, such as modifying or disrupting the function of the proteins they are intended to stabilize. Therefore, it is essential to use them carefully and with appropriate controls to ensure accurate and reliable results.

Molecular cloning is a laboratory technique used to create multiple copies of a specific DNA sequence. This process involves several steps:

1. Isolation: The first step in molecular cloning is to isolate the DNA sequence of interest from the rest of the genomic DNA. This can be done using various methods such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction), restriction enzymes, or hybridization.
2. Vector construction: Once the DNA sequence of interest has been isolated, it must be inserted into a vector, which is a small circular DNA molecule that can replicate independently in a host cell. Common vectors used in molecular cloning include plasmids and phages.
3. Transformation: The constructed vector is then introduced into a host cell, usually a bacterial or yeast cell, through a process called transformation. This can be done using various methods such as electroporation or chemical transformation.
4. Selection: After transformation, the host cells are grown in selective media that allow only those cells containing the vector to grow. This ensures that the DNA sequence of interest has been successfully cloned into the vector.
5. Amplification: Once the host cells have been selected, they can be grown in large quantities to amplify the number of copies of the cloned DNA sequence.

Molecular cloning is a powerful tool in molecular biology and has numerous applications, including the production of recombinant proteins, gene therapy, functional analysis of genes, and genetic engineering.

According to the medical definition, ultraviolet (UV) rays are invisible radiations that fall in the range of the electromagnetic spectrum between 100-400 nanometers. UV rays are further divided into three categories: UVA (320-400 nm), UVB (280-320 nm), and UVC (100-280 nm).

UV rays have various sources, including the sun and artificial sources like tanning beds. Prolonged exposure to UV rays can cause damage to the skin, leading to premature aging, eye damage, and an increased risk of skin cancer. UVA rays penetrate deeper into the skin and are associated with skin aging, while UVB rays primarily affect the outer layer of the skin and are linked to sunburns and skin cancer. UVC rays are the most harmful but fortunately, they are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere and do not reach the surface.

Healthcare professionals recommend limiting exposure to UV rays, wearing protective clothing, using broad-spectrum sunscreen with an SPF of at least 30, and avoiding tanning beds to reduce the risk of UV-related health problems.

An amide is a functional group or a compound that contains a carbonyl group (a double-bonded carbon atom) and a nitrogen atom. The nitrogen atom is connected to the carbonyl carbon atom by a single bond, and it also has a lone pair of electrons. Amides are commonly found in proteins and peptides, where they form amide bonds (also known as peptide bonds) between individual amino acids.

The general structure of an amide is R-CO-NHR', where R and R' can be alkyl or aryl groups. Amides can be classified into several types based on the nature of R and R' substituents:

* Primary amides: R-CO-NH2
* Secondary amides: R-CO-NHR'
* Tertiary amides: R-CO-NR''R'''

Amides have several important chemical properties. They are generally stable and resistant to hydrolysis under neutral or basic conditions, but they can be hydrolyzed under acidic conditions or with strong bases. Amides also exhibit a characteristic infrared absorption band around 1650 cm-1 due to the carbonyl stretching vibration.

In addition to their prevalence in proteins and peptides, amides are also found in many natural and synthetic compounds, including pharmaceuticals, dyes, and polymers. They have a wide range of applications in chemistry, biology, and materials science.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

Transfection is a term used in molecular biology that refers to the process of deliberately introducing foreign genetic material (DNA, RNA or artificial gene constructs) into cells. This is typically done using chemical or physical methods, such as lipofection or electroporation. Transfection is widely used in research and medical settings for various purposes, including studying gene function, producing proteins, developing gene therapies, and creating genetically modified organisms. It's important to note that transfection is different from transduction, which is the process of introducing genetic material into cells using viruses as vectors.

A DNA probe is a single-stranded DNA molecule that contains a specific sequence of nucleotides, and is labeled with a detectable marker such as a radioisotope or a fluorescent dye. It is used in molecular biology to identify and locate a complementary sequence within a sample of DNA. The probe hybridizes (forms a stable double-stranded structure) with its complementary sequence through base pairing, allowing for the detection and analysis of the target DNA. This technique is widely used in various applications such as genetic testing, diagnosis of infectious diseases, and forensic science.

A plasmid is a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is separate from the chromosomal DNA of a bacterium or other organism. Plasmids are typically not essential for the survival of the organism, but they can confer beneficial traits such as antibiotic resistance or the ability to degrade certain types of pollutants.

Plasmids are capable of replicating independently of the chromosomal DNA and can be transferred between bacteria through a process called conjugation. They often contain genes that provide resistance to antibiotics, heavy metals, and other environmental stressors. Plasmids have also been engineered for use in molecular biology as cloning vectors, allowing scientists to replicate and manipulate specific DNA sequences.

Plasmids are important tools in genetic engineering and biotechnology because they can be easily manipulated and transferred between organisms. They have been used to produce vaccines, diagnostic tests, and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for various applications, including agriculture, medicine, and industry.

In the context of medical and biological sciences, a "binding site" refers to a specific location on a protein, molecule, or cell where another molecule can attach or bind. This binding interaction can lead to various functional changes in the original protein or molecule. The other molecule that binds to the binding site is often referred to as a ligand, which can be a small molecule, ion, or even another protein.

The binding between a ligand and its target binding site can be specific and selective, meaning that only certain ligands can bind to particular binding sites with high affinity. This specificity plays a crucial role in various biological processes, such as signal transduction, enzyme catalysis, or drug action.

In the case of drug development, understanding the location and properties of binding sites on target proteins is essential for designing drugs that can selectively bind to these sites and modulate protein function. This knowledge can help create more effective and safer therapeutic options for various diseases.

A chemical model is a simplified representation or description of a chemical system, based on the laws of chemistry and physics. It is used to explain and predict the behavior of chemicals and chemical reactions. Chemical models can take many forms, including mathematical equations, diagrams, and computer simulations. They are often used in research, education, and industry to understand complex chemical processes and develop new products and technologies.

For example, a chemical model might be used to describe the way that atoms and molecules interact in a particular reaction, or to predict the properties of a new material. Chemical models can also be used to study the behavior of chemicals at the molecular level, such as how they bind to each other or how they are affected by changes in temperature or pressure.

It is important to note that chemical models are simplifications of reality and may not always accurately represent every aspect of a chemical system. They should be used with caution and validated against experimental data whenever possible.

Pyrimidines are heterocyclic aromatic organic compounds similar to benzene and pyridine, containing two nitrogen atoms at positions 1 and 3 of the six-member ring. They are one of the two types of nucleobases found in nucleic acids, the other being purines. The pyrimidine bases include cytosine (C) and thymine (T) in DNA, and uracil (U) in RNA, which pair with guanine (G) and adenine (A), respectively, through hydrogen bonding to form the double helix structure of nucleic acids. Pyrimidines are also found in many other biomolecules and have various roles in cellular metabolism and genetic regulation.

Protein biosynthesis is the process by which cells generate new proteins. It involves two major steps: transcription and translation. Transcription is the process of creating a complementary RNA copy of a sequence of DNA. This RNA copy, or messenger RNA (mRNA), carries the genetic information to the site of protein synthesis, the ribosome. During translation, the mRNA is read by transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules, which bring specific amino acids to the ribosome based on the sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA. The ribosome then links these amino acids together in the correct order to form a polypeptide chain, which may then fold into a functional protein. Protein biosynthesis is essential for the growth and maintenance of all living organisms.

Genetic transcription is the process by which the information in a strand of DNA is used to create a complementary RNA molecule. This process is the first step in gene expression, where the genetic code in DNA is converted into a form that can be used to produce proteins or functional RNAs.

During transcription, an enzyme called RNA polymerase binds to the DNA template strand and reads the sequence of nucleotide bases. As it moves along the template, it adds complementary RNA nucleotides to the growing RNA chain, creating a single-stranded RNA molecule that is complementary to the DNA template strand. Once transcription is complete, the RNA molecule may undergo further processing before it can be translated into protein or perform its functional role in the cell.

Transcription can be either "constitutive" or "regulated." Constitutive transcription occurs at a relatively constant rate and produces essential proteins that are required for basic cellular functions. Regulated transcription, on the other hand, is subject to control by various intracellular and extracellular signals, allowing cells to respond to changing environmental conditions or developmental cues.

Circular dichroism (CD) is a technique used in physics and chemistry to study the structure of molecules, particularly large biological molecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. It measures the difference in absorption of left-handed and right-handed circularly polarized light by a sample. This difference in absorption can provide information about the three-dimensional structure of the molecule, including its chirality or "handedness."

In more technical terms, CD is a form of spectroscopy that measures the differential absorption of left and right circularly polarized light as a function of wavelength. The CD signal is measured in units of millidegrees (mdeg) and can be positive or negative, depending on the type of chromophore and its orientation within the molecule.

CD spectra can provide valuable information about the secondary and tertiary structure of proteins, as well as the conformation of nucleic acids. For example, alpha-helical proteins typically exhibit a strong positive band near 190 nm and two negative bands at around 208 nm and 222 nm, while beta-sheet proteins show a strong positive band near 195 nm and two negative bands at around 217 nm and 175 nm.

CD spectroscopy is a powerful tool for studying the structural changes that occur in biological molecules under different conditions, such as temperature, pH, or the presence of ligands or other molecules. It can also be used to monitor the folding and unfolding of proteins, as well as the binding of drugs or other small molecules to their targets.

Electrophoresis, polyacrylamide gel (EPG) is a laboratory technique used to separate and analyze complex mixtures of proteins or nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) based on their size and electrical charge. This technique utilizes a matrix made of cross-linked polyacrylamide, a type of gel, which provides a stable and uniform environment for the separation of molecules.

In this process:

1. The polyacrylamide gel is prepared by mixing acrylamide monomers with a cross-linking agent (bis-acrylamide) and a catalyst (ammonium persulfate) in the presence of a buffer solution.
2. The gel is then poured into a mold and allowed to polymerize, forming a solid matrix with uniform pore sizes that depend on the concentration of acrylamide used. Higher concentrations result in smaller pores, providing better resolution for separating smaller molecules.
3. Once the gel has set, it is placed in an electrophoresis apparatus containing a buffer solution. Samples containing the mixture of proteins or nucleic acids are loaded into wells on the top of the gel.
4. An electric field is applied across the gel, causing the negatively charged molecules to migrate towards the positive electrode (anode) while positively charged molecules move toward the negative electrode (cathode). The rate of migration depends on the size, charge, and shape of the molecules.
5. Smaller molecules move faster through the gel matrix and will migrate farther from the origin compared to larger molecules, resulting in separation based on size. Proteins and nucleic acids can be selectively stained after electrophoresis to visualize the separated bands.

EPG is widely used in various research fields, including molecular biology, genetics, proteomics, and forensic science, for applications such as protein characterization, DNA fragment analysis, cloning, mutation detection, and quality control of nucleic acid or protein samples.

Fluorescent dyes are substances that emit light upon excitation by absorbing light of a shorter wavelength. In a medical context, these dyes are often used in various diagnostic tests and procedures to highlight or mark certain structures or substances within the body. For example, fluorescent dyes may be used in imaging techniques such as fluorescence microscopy or fluorescence angiography to help visualize cells, tissues, or blood vessels. These dyes can also be used in flow cytometry to identify and sort specific types of cells. The choice of fluorescent dye depends on the specific application and the desired properties, such as excitation and emission spectra, quantum yield, and photostability.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

DNA restriction enzymes, also known as restriction endonucleases, are a type of enzyme that cut double-stranded DNA at specific recognition sites. These enzymes are produced by bacteria and archaea as a defense mechanism against foreign DNA, such as that found in bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria).

Restriction enzymes recognize specific sequences of nucleotides (the building blocks of DNA) and cleave the phosphodiester bonds between them. The recognition sites for these enzymes are usually palindromic, meaning that the sequence reads the same in both directions when facing the opposite strands of DNA.

Restriction enzymes are widely used in molecular biology research for various applications such as genetic engineering, genome mapping, and DNA fingerprinting. They allow scientists to cut DNA at specific sites, creating precise fragments that can be manipulated and analyzed. The use of restriction enzymes has been instrumental in the development of recombinant DNA technology and the Human Genome Project.

Molecular models are three-dimensional representations of molecular structures that are used in the field of molecular biology and chemistry to visualize and understand the spatial arrangement of atoms and bonds within a molecule. These models can be physical or computer-generated and allow researchers to study the shape, size, and behavior of molecules, which is crucial for understanding their function and interactions with other molecules.

Physical molecular models are often made up of balls (representing atoms) connected by rods or sticks (representing bonds). These models can be constructed manually using materials such as plastic or wooden balls and rods, or they can be created using 3D printing technology.

Computer-generated molecular models, on the other hand, are created using specialized software that allows researchers to visualize and manipulate molecular structures in three dimensions. These models can be used to simulate molecular interactions, predict molecular behavior, and design new drugs or chemicals with specific properties. Overall, molecular models play a critical role in advancing our understanding of molecular structures and their functions.

"Cattle" is a term used in the agricultural and veterinary fields to refer to domesticated animals of the genus *Bos*, primarily *Bos taurus* (European cattle) and *Bos indicus* (Zebu). These animals are often raised for meat, milk, leather, and labor. They are also known as bovines or cows (for females), bulls (intact males), and steers/bullocks (castrated males). However, in a strict medical definition, "cattle" does not apply to humans or other animals.

Morpholinos are synthetic oligonucleotides that contain morpholine rings in their backbone instead of the ribose or deoxyribose sugars found in DNA and RNA. They are often used as antisense agents to inhibit gene expression by binding to complementary RNA sequences, preventing translation or splicing. Morpholinos are resistant to nucleases and have a neutral charge, which makes them more stable and less likely to cause off-target effects compared to other antisense technologies. They have been widely used in research to study gene function and have also shown promise as therapeutic agents for various diseases, including neuromuscular disorders and viral infections.

Phosphorothioate oligonucleotides are a type of synthetic oligonucleotide (a short chain of nucleotides) in which one of the non-bridging oxygen atoms in the phosphate group is replaced by a sulfur atom. This modification, known as phosphorothioation, confers increased resistance to degradation by endonucleases and exonucleases, thereby increasing the stability and half-life of the oligonucleotide in biological systems.

Phosphorothioate oligonucleotides have been widely used as antisense molecules, which can bind to complementary RNA sequences and inhibit gene expression through various mechanisms, such as RNase H-mediated degradation or steric hindrance of translation. They have also been explored for use in other applications, including aptamer development, vaccine adjuvants, and drug delivery systems.

However, it is important to note that phosphorothioate oligonucleotides can exhibit off-target effects, such as binding to proteins and activating the immune system, which may lead to undesirable side effects. Therefore, their use must be carefully evaluated in preclinical and clinical studies to ensure safety and efficacy.

Peptide Nucleic Acids (PNAs) are synthetic, artificially produced molecules that have a structure similar to both peptides (short chains of amino acids) and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). They consist of repeating units called "monomers" made up of a pseudopeptide backbone with nucleobases attached. The backbone is composed of N-(2-aminoethyl)glycine units, which replace the sugar-phosphate backbone found in natural nucleic acids.

PNAs are known for their high binding affinity and sequence-specific recognition of DNA and RNA molecules. They can form stable complexes with complementary DNA or RNA strands through Watson-Crick base pairing, even under conditions where normal nucleic acid hybridization is poor. This property makes them valuable tools in molecular biology for various applications such as:

1. Gene regulation and silencing
2. Antisense and antigen technologies
3. Diagnostics and biosensors
4. Study of protein-DNA interactions
5. DNA repair and mutation analysis

However, it is important to note that Peptide Nucleic Acids are not naturally occurring molecules; they are entirely synthetic and must be produced in a laboratory setting.

Down-regulation is a process that occurs in response to various stimuli, where the number or sensitivity of cell surface receptors or the expression of specific genes is decreased. This process helps maintain homeostasis within cells and tissues by reducing the ability of cells to respond to certain signals or molecules.

In the context of cell surface receptors, down-regulation can occur through several mechanisms:

1. Receptor internalization: After binding to their ligands, receptors can be internalized into the cell through endocytosis. Once inside the cell, these receptors may be degraded or recycled back to the cell surface in smaller numbers.
2. Reduced receptor synthesis: Down-regulation can also occur at the transcriptional level, where the expression of genes encoding for specific receptors is decreased, leading to fewer receptors being produced.
3. Receptor desensitization: Prolonged exposure to a ligand can lead to a decrease in receptor sensitivity or affinity, making it more difficult for the cell to respond to the signal.

In the context of gene expression, down-regulation refers to the decreased transcription and/or stability of specific mRNAs, leading to reduced protein levels. This process can be induced by various factors, including microRNA (miRNA)-mediated regulation, histone modification, or DNA methylation.

Down-regulation is an essential mechanism in many physiological processes and can also contribute to the development of several diseases, such as cancer and neurodegenerative disorders.

Toulmé JJ, Hélène C (December 1988). "Antimessenger oligodeoxyribonucleotides: an alternative to antisense RNA for artificial ... Ecker JR, Davis RW (August 1986). "Inhibition of gene expression in plant cells by expression of antisense RNA". Proceedings of ... and antisense technologies. By the year 2000, RNA interference (RNAi) technology had emerged as a fast, simple, and inexpensive ...
"A single anti-microRNA antisense oligodeoxyribonucleotide (AMO) targeting multiple microRNAs offers an improved approach for ... "The concept of multiple-target anti-miRNA antisense oligonucleotide technology". MicroRNA and Cancer. Methods in Molecular ...
"A single anti-microRNA antisense oligodeoxyribonucleotide (AMO) targeting multiple microRNAs offers an improved approach for ... Davis, S.; Lollo, B; Freier, S; Esau, C (28 April 2006). "Improved targeting of miRNA with antisense oligonucleotides". Nucleic ... Wang, Zhiguo (28 August 2010). "The Concept of Multiple-Target Anti-miRNA Antisense Oligonucleotide Technology". MicroRNA and ...
1997). Antisense Oligodeoxynucleotides and Antisense RNA : Novel Pharmacological and Therapeutic Agents. Boca Raton, Florida: ... Oligonucleotides are composed of 2'-deoxyribonucleotides (oligodeoxyribonucleotides), which can be modified at the backbone or ... Antisense oligonucleotides (ASO) are single strands of DNA or RNA that are complementary to a chosen sequence. In the case of ... Antisense oligonucleotides can be used to target a specific, complementary (coding or non-coding) RNA. If binding takes place ...
Undoubtedly, progress on antisense biotechnology will also result in a direct benefit to the model of computational genes.[ ... and stereochemistry of phosphorothioate analogs of oligodeoxyribonucleotides". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 106 ( ... In vivo applications of antisense oligonucleotides showed that toxicity is largely due to impurities in the oligonucleotide ... Brysch, Wolfgang; Schlingensiepen, Karl-Hermann (1994). "Design and application of antisense oligonucleotides in cell culture, ...
... antisense MeSH D27.720.470.530.600.150.640.640 - oligodeoxyribonucleotides, antisense MeSH D27.720.470.530.600.150.640.645 - ... antisense MeSH D27.720.470.530.600.150.200.640 - oligodeoxyribonucleotides, antisense MeSH D27.720.470.530.600.150.640 - ... antisense MeSH D27.720.470.530.600.150.760.645 - oligoribonucleotides, antisense MeSH D27.720.470.530.600.223 - DNA probes MeSH ... antisense elements (genetics) MeSH D27.720.470.530.600.150.200 - DNA, ...
... is an antisense oligodeoxyribonucleotide being studied as a possible treatment for several types of cancer, including chronic ... The antisense oligonucleotide drug oblimersen was developed by Genta Incorporated to target Bcl-2. An antisense DNA or RNA ... Dias N, Stein CA (November 2002). "Potential roles of antisense oligonucleotides in cancer therapy. The example of Bcl-2 ... Oblimersen (INN, trade name Genasense; also known as Augmerosen and bcl-2 antisense oligodeoxynucleotide G3139) ...
MeSH D13.150.200.640 - oligodeoxyribonucleotides, antisense MeSH D13.150.480.640 - oligodeoxyribonucleotides, antisense MeSH ... antisense MeSH D13.444.308.150.640 - oligodeoxyribonucleotides, antisense MeSH D13.444.308.180 - DNA, archaeal MeSH D13.444. ... antisense MeSH D13.444.600.150.200.640 - oligodeoxyribonucleotides, antisense MeSH D13.444.600.150.640 - oligonucleotides, ... oligodeoxyribonucleotides, antisense MeSH D13.444.600.150.640.645 - oligoribonucleotides, antisense MeSH D13.444.600.150.760 - ...
This property determines the use of OPS as antisense oligonucleotides in in vitro and in vivo applications where the extensive ... Chemical synthesis of oligodeoxyribonucleotides by the hydrogenphosphonate approach". Tetrahedron Lett. 27 (34): 4051. doi: ... They are most commonly used as antisense oligonucleotides, small interfering RNA, primers for DNA sequencing and amplification ... Letsinger, R. L.; Mahadevan, V. (1966). "Stepwise synthesis of oligodeoxyribonucleotides on an insoluble polymer support". J. ...
Antisense drugs are based on the fact that antisense RNA hybridizes with and inactivates mRNA. These drugs are short sequences ... October 2003). "Innate immune responses induced by CpG oligodeoxyribonucleotide stimulation of ovine blood mononuclear cells". ... Antisense RNA is used for treating cancer and inhibition of metastasis and vectors for antisense sequestration. Particularly ... US 2017283805, Bonci D, De Maria R, "Antisense RNA for Treating Cancer and Inhibition of Metastasis and Vectors for Antisense ...
Cotten M, Schaffner G, Birnstiel ML (1989). "Ribozyme, antisense RNA, and antisense DNA inhibition of U7 small nuclear ... O-ethyl oligoribonucleotides and phosphorothioate oligodeoxyribonucleotides as inhibitors of the in vitro U7 snRNP-dependent ... Madocsai C, Lim SR, Geib T, Lam BJ, Hertel KJ (2005). "Correction of SMN2 Pre-mRNA splicing by antisense U7 small nuclear RNAs ... Liu S, Asparuhova M, Brondani V, Ziekau I, Klimkait T, Schümperli D (2004). "Inhibition of HIV-1 multiplication by antisense U7 ...
... anti-sense strand - antibiotic resistance - antibody - antisense - antisense strand - AP-1 site - apo-beta-carotenoid-14',13'- ... oligodeoxyribonucleotide - oligonucleotide - oligosaccharide-transporting ATPase - oncogene - oncovirus - open reading frame - ...
The oligonucleotides alternate between sense and antisense directions, and the overlapping segments determine the order of the ... "Single-step assembly of a gene and entire plasmid from large numbers of oligodeoxyribonucleotides". Gene. 164 (1): 49-53. doi: ... ends of each of the sense and anti-sense strands of the DNA target (DNA polymerase can only bind to and elongate from a double- ...
Oligodeoxyribonucleotides * Oligonucleotides, Antisense * Phosphodiesterase Inhibitors / pharmacology* * Pyridones / ... Preincubation of CF-T43 cells with CFTR anti-sense oligonucleotides prevented an increase in 36Cl- efflux in response to beta- ...
Antiviral activity and protection of cells against human immunodeficiency virus type-1 using an antisense ... oligodeoxyribonucleotide phosphorothioate complementary to the 5-LTR region of the viral genome. ... was used as a model for assessing the effectiveness of antisense (AS) constructs, A 20-mer oligodeoxyribonucleotide (oligo) ... activity and protection of cells against human immunodeficiency virus type-1 using an antisense oligodeoxyribonucleotide ...
Antisense Oligodeoxyribonucleotides (AS-ODNs) for Cancer Gene Therapy: A Clinical Perspective Page: 198-218 (21). Author: Maria ... which include Antisense Oligonucleotides (AS-ODNs). ASODNs utilize DNA sequence information from a disease gene to synthesize a ...
Toulmé JJ, Hélène C (December 1988). "Antimessenger oligodeoxyribonucleotides: an alternative to antisense RNA for artificial ... Ecker JR, Davis RW (August 1986). "Inhibition of gene expression in plant cells by expression of antisense RNA". Proceedings of ... and antisense technologies. By the year 2000, RNA interference (RNAi) technology had emerged as a fast, simple, and inexpensive ...
Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/therapeutic use. MESH. Oligonucleotides, Antisense/therapeutic use. MESH. Thionucleotides/therapeutic ... Antisense oligodeoxynucleotides (AS-ODNs) have been widely used to determine gene function, validate drug targets and as novel ... Antisense oligodeoxynucleotides (AS-ODNs) have been widely used to determine gene function, validate drug targets and as novel ...
OLIGODEOXYRIBONUCLEOTIDES, ANTISENSE. OLIGODESOXIRRIBONUCLEOTIDOS ANTISENTIDO. OLIGODESOXIRRIBONUCLEOTÍDIOS ANTI-SENSO. ... OLIGORIBONUCLEOTIDES, ANTISENSE. OLIGORRIBONUCLEOTIDOS ANTISENTIDO. OLIGORRIBONUCLEOTÍDIOS ANTI-SENSO. ONYGENALES. ONYGENALES. ...
OLIGODEOXYRIBONUCLEOTIDES, ANTISENSE. OLIGODESOXIRRIBONUCLEOTIDOS ANTISENTIDO. OLIGORRIBONUCLEOTÍDIOS ANTI-SENSO. ...
OLIGODEOXYRIBONUCLEOTIDES, ANTISENSE. OLIGODESOXIRRIBONUCLEOTÍDIOS ANTI-SENSO. OLIGORRIBONUCLEOTIDOS ANTISENTIDO. ...
OLIGODEOXYRIBONUCLEOTIDES, ANTISENSE. OLIGODESOXIRRIBONUCLEOTIDOS ANTISENTIDO. OLIGODESOXIRRIBONUCLEOTÍDIOS ANTI-SENSO. ... OLIGORIBONUCLEOTIDES, ANTISENSE. OLIGORRIBONUCLEOTIDOS ANTISENTIDO. OLIGORRIBONUCLEOTÍDIOS ANTI-SENSO. ONYGENALES. ONYGENALES. ...
OLIGODEOXYRIBONUCLEOTIDES, ANTISENSE. OLIGODESOXIRRIBONUCLEOTIDOS ANTISENTIDO. OLIGODESOXIRRIBONUCLEOTÍDIOS ANTI-SENSO. ... OLIGORIBONUCLEOTIDES, ANTISENSE. OLIGORRIBONUCLEOTIDOS ANTISENTIDO. OLIGORRIBONUCLEOTÍDIOS ANTI-SENSO. ONYGENALES. ONYGENALES. ...
OLIGODEOXYRIBONUCLEOTIDES, ANTISENSE. OLIGODESOXIRRIBONUCLEOTIDOS ANTISENTIDO. OLIGORRIBONUCLEOTÍDIOS ANTI-SENSO. ...
OLIGODEOXYRIBONUCLEOTIDES, ANTISENSE. OLIGODESOXIRRIBONUCLEOTIDOS ANTISENTIDO. OLIGODESOXIRRIBONUCLEOTÍDIOS ANTI-SENSO. ... OLIGORIBONUCLEOTIDES, ANTISENSE. OLIGORRIBONUCLEOTIDOS ANTISENTIDO. OLIGORRIBONUCLEOTÍDIOS ANTI-SENSO. ONYGENALES. ONYGENALES. ...
OLIGODEOXYRIBONUCLEOTIDES, ANTISENSE. OLIGODESOXIRRIBONUCLEOTÍDIOS ANTI-SENSO. OLIGORRIBONUCLEOTIDOS ANTISENTIDO. ...
OLIGODEOXYRIBONUCLEOTIDES, ANTISENSE. OLIGODESOXIRRIBONUCLEOTIDOS ANTISENTIDO. OLIGORRIBONUCLEOTÍDIOS ANTI-SENSO. ...
OLIGODEOXYRIBONUCLEOTIDES, ANTISENSE. OLIGODESOXIRRIBONUCLEOTÍDIOS ANTI-SENSO. OLIGORRIBONUCLEOTIDOS ANTISENTIDO. ...
OLIGODEOXYRIBONUCLEOTIDES, ANTISENSE. OLIGODESOXIRRIBONUCLEOTIDOS ANTISENTIDO. OLIGODESOXIRRIBONUCLEOTÍDIOS ANTI-SENSO. ... OLIGORIBONUCLEOTIDES, ANTISENSE. OLIGORRIBONUCLEOTIDOS ANTISENTIDO. OLIGORRIBONUCLEOTÍDIOS ANTI-SENSO. ONYGENALES. ONYGENALES. ...
OLIGODEOXYRIBONUCLEOTIDES, ANTISENSE. OLIGODESOXIRRIBONUCLEOTIDOS ANTISENTIDO. OLIGODESOXIRRIBONUCLEOTÍDIOS ANTI-SENSO. ... OLIGORIBONUCLEOTIDES, ANTISENSE. OLIGORRIBONUCLEOTIDOS ANTISENTIDO. OLIGORRIBONUCLEOTÍDIOS ANTI-SENSO. ONYGENALES. ONYGENALES. ...
Oligodeoxyribonucleotides, Antisense. 2. 2009. 8. 0.160. Why? Mutagenesis. 1. 2018. 182. 0.160 ...
Antisense DNA Medicine & Life Sciences 100% * Oligodeoxyribonucleotides Medicine & Life Sciences 75% * Methyltransferases ... Saikawa, Y, Kubota, T, Maeda, S, Otani, Y, Kumai, K & Kitajima, M 2004, Inhibition of DNA methyltransferase by antisense ... Saikawa Y, Kubota T, Maeda S, Otani Y, Kumai K, Kitajima M. Inhibition of DNA methyltransferase by antisense ... keywords = "Antisense oligonucleotide, DNA methyltransferase, Gastric cancer cell line, Peritoneal dissemination",. author = " ...
Oligodeoxyribonucleotides Medicine & Life Sciences 100% * Antimalarials Medicine & Life Sciences 91% * Succinate Dehydrogenase ... Antisense oligodeoxynucleotides: useful tool for search and assessment of new targets for anti-malarial drugs. Nucleic acids ... Antisense oligodeoxynucleotides: useful tool for search and assessment of new targets for anti-malarial drugs. / Ikemoto, N.; ... Antisense oligodeoxynucleotides : useful tool for search and assessment of new targets for anti-malarial drugs. In: Nucleic ...
Oligodeoxyribonucleotides, Antisense. *Oligonucleotides, Antisense. *Osteoblasts. *Palmitic Acid. *Pancreas. *Pancreatitis. * ...
Cross-Linking Antisense Oligodeoxyribonucleotides with a Photoresponsive alpha-Chloroaldehyde Moiety for RNA Point Mutations ... Naphthyridine-tethered oligodeoxyribonucleotides: Dye/DNA conjugates for homogeneous SNPs assays. 著者名 : Akio Kobori; Takashi ... Photoresponsive cross-linking oligodeoxyribonucleotides with a caged alpha-chloroaldehyde group. 著者名 : Akio Kobori; Yuta ... Novel psoralen-conjugated antisense oligonucleotides having high photocross-linking efficiency. 著者名 : Maiko Higuchi; Asako ...
A novel approach to tritium-labeled antisense oligonucleotides (ASO) was established by conjugating N-succinimidyl propionate, ... Stephenson ML, Zamecnik PC (1978) Inhibition of Rous sarcoma viral RNA translation by a specific oligodeoxyribonucleotide. Proc ... Tritium labeling of antisense oligonucleotides via different conjugation agents. *Martin R. Edelmann. ORCID: orcid.org/0000- ... Edelmann, M.R., Husser, C., Duschmalé, M.B. et al. Tritium labeling of antisense oligonucleotides via different conjugation ...
Oligodeoxyribonucleotides. *Oligonucleotides, Antisense. *Oligoribonucleotides. *Peptide Nucleic Acids. *Phosphorothioate ... "Oligodeoxyribonucleotides" is a descriptor in the National Library of Medicines controlled vocabulary thesaurus, MeSH (Medical ... This graph shows the total number of publications written about "Oligodeoxyribonucleotides" by people in this website by year, ... Below are the most recent publications written about "Oligodeoxyribonucleotides" by people in Profiles. ...
Incubation of PAEC with an antisense oligodeoxyribonucleotide of calpastatin prevented CSE-induced increases in calpastatin ... Incubation of PAEC with an antisense oligodeoxyribonucleotide of calpastatin prevented CSE-induced increases in calpastatin ... Incubation of PAEC with an antisense oligodeoxyribonucleotide of calpastatin prevented CSE-induced increases in calpastatin ... Incubation of PAEC with an antisense oligodeoxyribonucleotide of calpastatin prevented CSE-induced increases in calpastatin ...
... internucleotidic phosphodiester linkages as models for antisense oligodeoxyribonucleotides, M. Koga, M.F. Moore and S.L. ... An interesting addition to the protection of antisense oligonucleotides is to modify the terminal linkages from the natural 3- ... a) Antisense effect of oligodeoxynucleotides with inverted terminal internucleotidic linkages: a minimal modification ... Chem., 56, 3757-3759, 1991; (b) Synthesis and physicochemical properties of alternating α,β- oligodeoxyribonucleotides with ...
Congruous data are observed by treating donor hearts with a phosphorothioate antisense oligodeoxyribonucleotide directed ...
反義寡核苷酸(antisense oligonucleotide, ASO)的藥物原理是與靶標mRNA互補鹼基配對,也因此成為有吸引力的待開發潛力治療選擇。這個想法源自於1978年
Oligodeoxyribonucleotide Probes use Oligonucleotide Probes Oligodeoxyribonucleotides Oligodeoxyribonucleotides, Antisense ...
Oligodeoxyribonucleotides, Antisense. *Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-bcl-2. *Tumor Cells, Cultured. _. Top Journals ...
  • A novel approach to tritium-labeled antisense oligonucleotides (ASO) was established by conjugating N -succinimidyl propionate, as well as maleimide-derivatives, to the 3′-end of ASOs targeting metastasis-associated lung adenocarcinoma transcript 1 (Malat1) containing amino- or sulfhydryl-linkers. (springeropen.com)
  • Using viral RNA, Stephenson and Zamecnik ( 1978 ) demonstrated in 1978 that translation of proteins could be efficiently inhibited in vitro by competitive hybridization with antisense oligonucleotides (ASO). (springeropen.com)
  • An interesting addition to the protection of antisense oligonucleotides is to modify the terminal linkages from the natural 3'-5' to 3'-3' and/or 5'-5' linkages. (biosearchtech.com)
  • Steidl U, Haas R, Kronenwett R. Intercellular adhesion molecular 1 on monocytes mediates adhesion as well as trans-endothelial migration and can be downregulated using antisense oligonucleotides. (jamanetwork.com)
  • [1] Uhlmann E, Peyman A. Antisense oligonucleotides: a new therapeutic principle. (org.ua)
  • Antisense oligodeoxynucleotides (AS-ODNs) have been widely used to determine gene function, validate drug targets and as novel therapeutics for human diseases. (uni-regensburg.de)
  • Antisense oligodeoxynucleotides: useful tool for search and assessment of new targets for anti-malarial drugs. (elsevierpure.com)
  • We investigated about targeting for new antimalarial drugs using antisense (AS) oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs). (elsevierpure.com)
  • Dive into the research topics of 'Antisense oligodeoxynucleotides: useful tool for search and assessment of new targets for anti-malarial drugs. (elsevierpure.com)
  • a) Antisense effect of oligodeoxynucleotides with inverted terminal internucleotidic linkages: a minimal modification protecting against nucleolytic degradation, J.F.R. Ortigao, H. Rosch, H. Selter, A. Frohlich, A. Lorenz, M. Montenarh and H. Seliger, Antisense Res. (biosearchtech.com)
  • Decrease in TGF-β2 expression in LCC2 cells was achieved by treatment with antisense oligodeoxynucleotides and confirmed by TGF-β2 immunoblot analysis. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Antisense TGF-β2 oligodeoxynucleotides enhanced the NK sensitivity of LCC2 cells in the presence of tamoxifen. (elsevierpure.com)
  • To this goal we used Lyn and Raf-1 antisense (AS) oligodeoxynucleotides (ODN) to inhibit the expression of these proteins and tyrphostin AG490 to specifically block the activation of Jak2. (utmb.edu)
  • b) Oligonucleotide analogs with terminal 3'-3'-internucleotidic and 5'-5'-internucleotidic linkages as antisense inhibitors of viral gene-expression, H. Seliger, A. Frohlich, M. Montenarh, J.F.R. Ortigao and H. Rosch, Nucleosides & Nucleotides, 10, 469-477, 1991. (biosearchtech.com)
  • Oligodeoxyribonucleotides" is a descriptor in the National Library of Medicine's controlled vocabulary thesaurus, MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) . (umassmed.edu)
  • [11] Zuckermann R, Corey D, Schultz P. Efficient methods for attachment of thiol specific probes to the 3'-ends of synthetic oligodeoxyribonucleotides. (org.ua)
  • In the present study, we designed an antisense oligodeoxynucleotide of DNMT1 (AS/MT: 5′-CGGTAC GCGCCGGCATCT-3′) and demonstrated successful inhibition of DNMT1 expression by AS/MT at the protein level, using gastric cancer cell lines in vitro. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Incubation of PAEC with an antisense oligodeoxyribonucleotide of calpastatin prevented CSE-induced increases in calpastatin protein and CSE-induced decreases in calpain activity, eNOS gene transcription, activity and protein content of eNOS, and NO release. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Kronenwett R, Steidl U, Kirsch M, Sczakiel G, Haas R. Oligodeoxyribonucleotide uptake in primary human hematopoietic cells is enhanced by cationic lipids and depends on the hematopoietic cell subset. (jamanetwork.com)
  • This graph shows the total number of publications written about "Oligodeoxyribonucleotides" by people in this website by year, and whether "Oligodeoxyribonucleotides" was a major or minor topic of these publications. (umassmed.edu)
  • They found that silencing BrFER1 or BrANJ1 resulted in inhibition of the ROS increase, and compromised SI and UI pollen rejection, which was consistent with the phenotype observed in plants with BrRBOHF silenced by antisense technology (AS-BrRBOHF). (biomedcentral.com)
  • In conclusion, the inhibition of DNA methylation by DNMT1 by an antisense oligodeoxynucleotide influences cell morphology and adhesion, as well as cell growth in gastric cancer cells in vitro. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Objective: We investigated the association between zif268 and the extinction of conditioned fear by using antisense oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN) of zif268 and the fear-potentiated startle paradigm. (ntnu.edu.tw)
  • Targeted approaches for gene knockdown emerged in the 1980s with techniques such as homologous recombination, trans-cleaving ribozymes, and antisense technologies. (wikipedia.org)
  • Notably, siRNA suppress non-targeted genes due to (1) the partial complementarity to mRNA 3'-untranslated regions (3'-UTR), and (2) the antisense activity of the sense strand. (thno.org)
  • a) Antisense effect of oligodeoxynucleotides with inverted terminal internucleotidic linkages: a minimal modification protecting against nucleolytic degradation, J.F.R. Ortigao, H. Rosch, H. Selter, A. Frohlich, A. Lorenz, M. Montenarh and H. Seliger, Antisense Res. (biosearchtech.com)
  • Intra-amygdaloid injection of the antisense ODN of zif268 blocked the facilitation effect of DCS on the extinction of conditioned fear. (ntnu.edu.tw)
  • Subsequent control experiments indicated that administration of vehicle or zif268 sense ODN did not alter the facilitation of DCS and that the blockage effect of zif268 antisense ODN was not due to lasting damage to the amygdala. (ntnu.edu.tw)
  • Sato W, Takei Y, Yuzawa Y, Matsuo S, Kadomatsu K, Muramatsu T. Midkine antisense oligodeoxyribonucleotide inhibits renal damage induced by ischemic reperfusion. (ac.ir)
  • Methods: Male adult Wistar rats were injected DCS (15 mg/kg, IP) 15 min prior to the extinction training, administered with antisense or sense ODN (800 pmol) of zif268 and subjected for fear-potentiated startle paradigm (FPS) and Western blot. (ntnu.edu.tw)
  • Therefore, the reader who lacks familiarity with genetic techniques would do well to read the paper by Tao and Johns carefully because it provides an excellent description of rationale for use of antisense oligodeoxyribonucleotides and is an excellent example of the appropriate way to use them as research tools. (silverchair.com)
  • Chemical synthesis of oligodeoxyribonucleotides by the hydrogenphosphonate approach. (e-oligos.com)