Widely distributed enzymes that carry out oxidation-reduction reactions in which one atom of the oxygen molecule is incorporated into the organic substrate; the other oxygen atom is reduced and combined with hydrogen ions to form water. They are also known as monooxygenases or hydroxylases. These reactions require two substrates as reductants for each of the two oxygen atoms. There are different classes of monooxygenases depending on the type of hydrogen-providing cosubstrate (COENZYMES) required in the mixed-function oxidation.
Oxidases that specifically introduce DIOXYGEN-derived oxygen atoms into a variety of organic molecules.
An insecticide synergist, especially for pyrethroids and ROTENONE.
Aminopyrine N-Demethylase is an enzyme, specifically a cytochrome P450 isoform, involved in the metabolism of drugs and xenobiotics, responsible for catalyzing the N-demethylation reaction.
A drug-metabolizing enzyme found in the hepatic, placental and intestinal microsomes that metabolizes 7-alkoxycoumarin to 7-hydroxycoumarin. The enzyme is cytochrome P-450- dependent.
A drug-metabolizing, cytochrome P-448 (P-450) enzyme which catalyzes the hydroxylation of benzopyrene to 3-hydroxybenzopyrene in the presence of reduced flavoprotein and molecular oxygen. Also acts on certain anthracene derivatives. An aspect of EC 1.14.14.1.
An analgesic and antipyretic that has been given by mouth and as ear drops. Antipyrine is often used in testing the effects of other drugs or diseases on drug-metabolizing enzymes in the liver. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p29)
A barbituric acid derivative that acts as a nonselective central nervous system depressant. It potentiates GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID action on GABA-A RECEPTORS, and modulates chloride currents through receptor channels. It also inhibits glutamate induced depolarizations.
The class of all enzymes catalyzing oxidoreduction reactions. The substrate that is oxidized is regarded as a hydrogen donor. The systematic name is based on donor:acceptor oxidoreductase. The recommended name will be dehydrogenase, wherever this is possible; as an alternative, reductase can be used. Oxidase is only used in cases where O2 is the acceptor. (Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992, p9)
An allylic compound that acts as a suicide inactivator of CYTOCHROME P450 by covalently binding to its heme moiety or surrounding protein.
Closed vesicles of fragmented endoplasmic reticulum created when liver cells or tissue are disrupted by homogenization. They may be smooth or rough.
Skatole, also known as 3-methylindole, is a foul-smelling, crystalline compound that is a natural product of bacterial breakdown in the intestines and can be found in some plants, contributing to the characteristic odor of feces and certain flowers like jasmine.
A superfamily of hundreds of closely related HEMEPROTEINS found throughout the phylogenetic spectrum, from animals, plants, fungi, to bacteria. They include numerous complex monooxygenases (MIXED FUNCTION OXYGENASES). In animals, these P-450 enzymes serve two major functions: (1) biosynthesis of steroids, fatty acids, and bile acids; (2) metabolism of endogenous and a wide variety of exogenous substrates, such as toxins and drugs (BIOTRANSFORMATION). They are classified, according to their sequence similarities rather than functions, into CYP gene families (>40% homology) and subfamilies (>59% homology). For example, enzymes from the CYP1, CYP2, and CYP3 gene families are responsible for most drug metabolism.
A mixed function oxidase enzyme which during hemoglobin catabolism catalyzes the degradation of heme to ferrous iron, carbon monoxide and biliverdin in the presence of molecular oxygen and reduced NADPH. The enzyme is induced by metals, particularly cobalt. EC 1.14.99.3.
The chemical alteration of an exogenous substance by or in a biological system. The alteration may inactivate the compound or it may result in the production of an active metabolite of an inactive parent compound. The alterations may be divided into METABOLIC DETOXICATION, PHASE I and METABOLIC DETOXICATION, PHASE II.
An increase in the rate of synthesis of an enzyme due to the presence of an inducer which acts to derepress the gene responsible for enzyme synthesis.
A family of compounds containing an oxo group with the general structure of 1,5-pentanedioic acid. (From Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry, 1982, p442)
Non-heme iron-containing enzymes that incorporate two atoms of OXYGEN into the substrate. They are important in biosynthesis of FLAVONOIDS; GIBBERELLINS; and HYOSCYAMINE; and for degradation of AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS.
A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.
1,3,6,7-Tetramethyl-4,5-dicarboxyethyl-2,8-divinylbilenone. Biosynthesized from hemoglobin as a precursor of bilirubin. Occurs in the bile of AMPHIBIANS and of birds, but not in normal human bile or serum.
A large group of cytochrome P-450 (heme-thiolate) monooxygenases that complex with NAD(P)H-FLAVIN OXIDOREDUCTASE in numerous mixed-function oxidations of aromatic compounds. They catalyze hydroxylation of a broad spectrum of substrates and are important in the metabolism of steroids, drugs, and toxins such as PHENOBARBITAL, carcinogens, and insecticides.
Proteins, usually acting in oxidation-reduction reactions, containing iron but no porphyrin groups. (Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry, 1993, pG-10)
A genus in the family Trichocomaceae, order EUROTIALES. The anamorph is ASPERGILLUS.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate. A coenzyme composed of ribosylnicotinamide 5'-phosphate (NMN) coupled by pyrophosphate linkage to the 5'-phosphate adenosine 2',5'-bisphosphate. It serves as an electron carrier in a number of reactions, being alternately oxidized (NADP+) and reduced (NADPH). (Dorland, 27th ed)
The color-furnishing portion of hemoglobin. It is found free in tissues and as the prosthetic group in many hemeproteins.
A species of gram-positive, asporogenous bacteria in which three cultural types are recognized. These types (gravis, intermedius, and mitis) were originally given in accordance with the clinical severity of the cases from which the different strains were most frequently isolated. This species is the causative agent of DIPHTHERIA.
A monooxygenase that catalyzes the conversion of BETA-CAROTENE into two molecules of RETINAL. It was formerly characterized as EC 1.13.11.21 and EC 1.18.3.1.
Placing of a hydroxyl group on a compound in a position where one did not exist before. (Stedman, 26th ed)
A metallic element with atomic symbol Fe, atomic number 26, and atomic weight 55.85. It is an essential constituent of HEMOGLOBINS; CYTOCHROMES; and IRON-BINDING PROTEINS. It plays a role in cellular redox reactions and in the transport of OXYGEN.
Drug metabolizing enzymes which oxidize methyl ethers. Usually found in liver microsomes.
Carbon monoxide (CO). A poisonous colorless, odorless, tasteless gas. It combines with hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin, which has no oxygen carrying capacity. The resultant oxygen deprivation causes headache, dizziness, decreased pulse and respiratory rates, unconsciousness, and death. (From Merck Index, 11th ed)
A bacterial genus of the order ACTINOMYCETALES.
A species of gram-negative, aerobic bacteria isolated from soil and water as well as clinical specimens. Occasionally it is an opportunistic pathogen.
A group of 1,2-benzenediols that contain the general formula R-C6H5O2.
Elimination of ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS; PESTICIDES and other waste using living organisms, usually involving intervention of environmental or sanitation engineers.
A mixed-function oxygenase that catalyzes the hydroxylation of a prolyl-glycyl containing peptide, usually in PROTOCOLLAGEN, to a hydroxyprolylglycyl-containing-peptide. The enzyme utilizes molecular OXYGEN with a concomitant oxidative decarboxylation of 2-oxoglutarate to SUCCINATE. The enzyme occurs as a tetramer of two alpha and two beta subunits. The beta subunit of procollagen-proline dioxygenase is identical to the enzyme PROTEIN DISULFIDE-ISOMERASES.
A ubiquitous stress-responsive enzyme that catalyzes the oxidative cleavage of HEME to yield IRON; CARBON MONOXIDE; and BILIVERDIN.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Derivatives of BENZOIC ACID. Included under this heading are a broad variety of acid forms, salts, esters, and amides that contain the carboxybenzene structure.
A genus of gram-negative, aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria widely distributed in nature. Some species are pathogenic for humans, animals, and plants.
The facilitation of a chemical reaction by material (catalyst) that is not consumed by the reaction.
An element with atomic symbol O, atomic number 8, and atomic weight [15.99903; 15.99977]. It is the most abundant element on earth and essential for respiration.
The study of crystal structure using X-RAY DIFFRACTION techniques. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
Proteins found in any species of bacterium.
Chloro(7,12-diethenyl-3,8,13,17-tetramethyl-21H,23H-porphine-2,18-dipropanoato(4-)-N(21),N(22),N(23),N(24)) ferrate(2-) dihydrogen.
A chemical reaction in which an electron is transferred from one molecule to another. The electron-donating molecule is the reducing agent or reductant; the electron-accepting molecule is the oxidizing agent or oxidant. Reducing and oxidizing agents function as conjugate reductant-oxidant pairs or redox pairs (Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry, 1982, p471).
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
A genus of bacteria that form a nonfragmented aerial mycelium. Many species have been identified with some being pathogenic. This genus is responsible for producing a majority of the ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS of practical value.
The location of the atoms, groups or ions relative to one another in a molecule, as well as the number, type and location of covalent bonds.

Decreased liver and lung drug-metabolizing activity in mice treated with Corynebacterium parvum. (1/3676)

Injections of killed suspensions of Corynebacterium parvum (i.p.) in young male mice were followed by time- and dose-dependent decreases in the drug-metabolizing activity of liver microsomes and lung homogenates. In vitro assays with model substrates [aminopyrine, aniline, p-nitroanisole, and benzo(a)pyrene] were used to quantitate drug-metabolizing activity. It is likely that such decreases in mixed function oxidases activity will act to significantly alter the pharmacokinetics of concurrently or subsequently administered drugs. The results provide a possible mechanism to explain several previously reported immunochemotherapeutic interactions.  (+info)

Patterns of evolutionary rate variation among genes of the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway. (2/3676)

The anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway is responsible for the production of anthocyanin pigments in plant tissues and shares a number of enzymes with other biochemical pathways. The six core structural genes of this pathway have been cloned and characterized in two taxonomically diverse plant species (maize and snapdragon). We have recently cloned these genes for a third species, the common morning glory, Ipomoea purpurea. This additional information provides an opportunity to examine patterns of evolution among genes within a single biochemical pathway. We report here that upstream genes in the anthocyanin pathway have evolved substantially more slowly than downstream genes and suggest that this difference in evolutionary rates may be explained by upstream genes being more constrained because they participate in several different biochemical pathways. In addition, regulatory genes associated with the anthocyanin pathway tend to evolve more rapidly than the structural genes they regulate, suggesting that adaptive evolution of flower color may be mediated more by regulatory than by structural genes. Finally, for individual anthocyanin genes, we found an absence of rate heterogeneity among three major angiosperm lineages. This rate constancy contrasts with an accelerated rate of evolution of three CHS-like genes in the Ipomoea lineage, indicating that these three genes have diverged without coordinated adjustment by other pathway genes.  (+info)

The PalkBFGHJKL promoter is under carbon catabolite repression control in Pseudomonas oleovorans but not in Escherichia coli alk+ recombinants. (3/3676)

The alk genes are located on the OCT plasmid of Pseudomonas oleovorans and encode an inducible pathway for the utilization of n-alkanes as carbon and energy sources. We have investigated the influence of alternative carbon sources on the induction of this pathway in P. oleovorans and Escherichia coli alk+ recombinants. In doing so, we confirmed earlier reports that induction of alkane hydroxylase activity in pseudomonads is subject to carbon catabolite repression. Specifically, synthesis of the monooxygenase component AlkB is repressed at the transcriptional level. The alk genes have been cloned into plasmid pGEc47, which has a copy number of about 5 to 10 per cell in both E. coli and pseudomonads. Pseudomonas putida GPo12 is a P. oleovorans derivative cured of the OCT plasmid. Upon introduction of pGEc47 in this strain, carbon catabolite repression of alkane hydroxylase activity was reduced significantly. In cultures of recombinant E. coli HB101 and W3110 carrying pGEc47, induction of AlkB and transcription of the alkB gene were no longer subject to carbon catabolite repression. This suggests that carbon catabolite repression of alkane degradation is regulated differently in Pseudomonas and in E. coli strains. These results also indicate that PalkBFGHJKL, the Palk promoter, might be useful in attaining high expression levels of heterologous genes in E. coli grown on inexpensive carbon sources which normally trigger carbon catabolite repression of native expression systems in this host.  (+info)

Properties of 5-aminolaevulinate synthetase and its relationship to microsomal mixed-function oxidation in the southern armyworm (Spodoptera eridania). (4/3676)

1. Activity of 5-aminolaevulinate synthetase was measured in the midgut and other tissues of the last larval instar of the southern armyworm (Spodoptera eridania Cramer, formerly Prodenia eridania Cramer). 2. Optimum conditions for measuring the activity were established with respect to all variables involved and considerable differences from those reported for mammalian enzyme preparations were found. 3. Maximum activity (20 nmol/h per mg of protein) occurs 18-24 h after the fifth moult and thereafter decreases to trace amounts as the larvae age and approach pupation. 4. Synthetase activity was rapidly induced by oral administration (in the diet) of pentamethylbenzene, phenobarbital, diethyl 1,4-dihydro-2,4,6-trimethylpyridine-3, 5-dicarboxylate, and 2-allyl-2-isopropylacetamide. 5. Puromycin inhibited the induction of synthetase by pentamethylbenzene. 6. Induction of 5-aminolaevulinate synthetase correlated well with the induction of microsomal N-demethylation of p-chloro-N-methylaniline, except for phenobarbital, which induced the microsomal oxidase relatively more than the synthetase.  (+info)

Null mutation in IRE1 gene inhibits overproduction of microsomal cytochrome P450Alk1 (CYP 52A3) and proliferation of the endoplasmic reticulum in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. (5/3676)

Overproduction of microsomal cytochrome P450Alk1 (P450Alk1) of Candida maltosa in Saccharomyces cerevisiae resulted in an extensive proliferation of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and induction of Kar2p and Pdi1p. The ire1 null mutation severely suppressed ER proliferation, reduced the level of functional P450Alk1, and showed no induction of these ER chaperones, suggesting that the function of Ire1p is required for ER proliferation upon the overproduction of P450Alk1. Cerulenin, a potent inhibitor of lipid biosynthesis, also induced these chaperones in an Ire1p-dependent manner and limited the production of functional P450Alk1. These results imply that Ire1p may function to restore the balance between membrane proteins and lipids of the ER when the ER is relatively overcrowded by membrane proteins.  (+info)

Structure of a cytochrome P450-redox partner electron-transfer complex. (6/3676)

The crystal structure of the complex between the heme- and FMN-binding domains of bacterial cytochrome P450BM-3, a prototype for the complex between eukaryotic microsomal P450s and P450 reductase, has been determined at 2.03 A resolution. The flavodoxin-like flavin domain is positioned at the proximal face of the heme domain with the FMN 4.0 and 18.4 A from the peptide that precedes the heme-binding loop and the heme iron, respectively. The heme-binding peptide represents the most efficient and coupled through-bond electron pathway to the heme iron. Substantial differences between the FMN-binding domains of P450BM-3 and microsomal P450 reductase, observed around the flavin-binding sites, are responsible for different redox properties of the FMN, which, in turn, control electron flow to the P450.  (+info)

Immunophilins, Refsum disease, and lupus nephritis: the peroxisomal enzyme phytanoyl-COA alpha-hydroxylase is a new FKBP-associated protein. (7/3676)

FKBP52 (FKBP59, FKBP4) is a "macro" immunophilin that, although sharing high structural and functional homologies in its amino-terminal domain with FKBP12 (FKBP1), does not have immunosuppressant activity when complexed with FK506, unlike FKBP12. To investigate the physiological function of FKBP52, we used the yeast two-hybrid system as an approach to find its potential protein partners and, from that, its cellular role. This methodology, which already has allowed us to find the FK506-binding protein (FKBP)-associated protein FAP48, also led to the detection of another FKBP-associated protein. Determination of the sequence of this protein permitted its identification as phytanoyl-CoA alpha-hydroxylase (PAHX), a peroxisomal enzyme that so far was unknown as an FKBP-associated protein. Inactivation of this enzyme is responsible for Refsum disease in humans. The protein also corresponds to the mouse protein LN1, which could be involved in the progress of lupus nephritis. We show here that PAHX has the physical capacity to interact with the FKBP12-like domain of FKBP52, but not with FKBP12, suggesting that it is a particular and specific target of FKBP52. Whereas the binding of calcineurin to FKBP12 is potentiated by FK506, the specific association of PAHX and FKBP52 is maintained in the presence of FK506. This observation suggests that PAHX is a serious candidate for studying the cellular signaling pathway(s) involving FKBP52 in the presence of immunosuppressant drugs.  (+info)

Involvement of cytochromes P-450 2E1 and 3A4 in the 5-hydroxylation of salicylate in humans. (8/3676)

Hydroxylation of salicylate into 2,3 and 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acids (2,3-DHBA and 2,5-DHBA) by human liver microsomal preparations was investigated. Kinetic studies demonstrated that salicylate was 5-hydroxylated with two apparent Km: one high-affinity Km of 606 microM and one low-affinity Km greater than 2 mM. Liver microsomes prepared from 15 human samples catalyzed the formation of 2,5-DHBA at metabolic rate of 21.7 +/- 8.5 pmol/mg/min. The formation of 2, 3-DHBA was not P-450 dependent. Formation of 2,5-DHBA was inhibited by 36 +/- 14% following preincubation of microsomes with diethyldithiocarbamate, a mechanism-based selective inhibitor of P-450 2E1. Furthermore, the efficiency of inhibition was significantly correlated with four catalytic activities specific to P-450 2E1, whereas the residual activity was correlated with three P-450 3A4 catalytic activities. Troleandomycin, a mechanism-based inhibitor selective to P-450 3A4, inhibited by 30 +/- 12% the 5-hydroxylation of salicylate, and this inhibition was significantly correlated with nifedipine oxidation, specific to P-450 3A4. The capability of seven recombinant human P-450s to hydroxylate salicylate demonstrated that P-450 2E1 and 3A4 contributed to 2, 5-DHBA formation in approximately equal proportions. The Km values of recombinant P-450 2E1 and 3A4, 280 and 513 microM, respectively, are in the same range as the high-affinity Km measured with human liver microsomes. The plasmatic metabolic ratio 2,5-DHBA/salicylate, measured 2 h after ingestion of 1 g acetylsalicylate, was increased 3-fold in 12 alcoholic patients at the beginning of their withdrawal period versus 15 control subjects. These results confirm that P-450 2E1, inducible by ethanol, is involved in the 5-hydroxylation of salicylate in humans. Furthermore, this ratio was still increased by 2-fold 1 week after ethanol withdrawal. This finding suggests that P-450 3A4, known to be also inducible by alcoholic beverages, plays an important role in this increase, because P-450 2E1 returned to normal levels in less than 3 days after ethanol withdrawal. Finally, in vivo and in vitro data demonstrated that P-450 2E1 and P-450 3A4, both inducible by alcohols, catalyzed the 5-hydroxylation of salicylate.  (+info)

Mixed Function Oxygenases (MFOs) are a type of enzyme that catalyze the addition of one atom each from molecular oxygen (O2) to a substrate, while reducing the other oxygen atom to water. These enzymes play a crucial role in the metabolism of various endogenous and exogenous compounds, including drugs, carcinogens, and environmental pollutants.

MFOs are primarily located in the endoplasmic reticulum of cells and consist of two subunits: a flavoprotein component that contains FAD or FMN as a cofactor, and an iron-containing heme protein. The most well-known example of MFO is cytochrome P450, which is involved in the oxidation of xenobiotics and endogenous compounds such as steroids, fatty acids, and vitamins.

MFOs can catalyze a variety of reactions, including hydroxylation, epoxidation, dealkylation, and deamination, among others. These reactions often lead to the activation or detoxification of xenobiotics, making MFOs an important component of the body's defense system against foreign substances. However, in some cases, these reactions can also produce reactive intermediates that may cause toxicity or contribute to the development of diseases such as cancer.

Oxygenases are a class of enzymes that catalyze the incorporation of molecular oxygen (O2) into their substrates. They play crucial roles in various biological processes, including the biosynthesis of many natural products, as well as the detoxification and degradation of xenobiotics (foreign substances).

There are two main types of oxygenases: monooxygenases and dioxygenases. Monooxygenases introduce one atom of molecular oxygen into a substrate while reducing the other to water. An example of this type of enzyme is cytochrome P450, which is involved in drug metabolism and steroid hormone synthesis. Dioxygenases, on the other hand, incorporate both atoms of molecular oxygen into their substrates, often leading to the formation of new carbon-carbon bonds or the cleavage of existing ones.

It's important to note that while oxygenases are essential for many life-sustaining processes, they can also contribute to the production of harmful reactive oxygen species (ROS) during normal cellular metabolism. An imbalance in ROS levels can lead to oxidative stress and damage to cells and tissues, which has been linked to various diseases such as cancer, neurodegeneration, and cardiovascular disease.

Piperonyl Butoxide (PBO) is not a medication or a therapeutic agent, so it doesn't have a typical "medical definition" as such. However, it is a chemical compound with a specific use in the medical field, particularly in relation to pest control and public health.

Piperonyl Butoxide is an organic compound that is commonly used as a synergist in pesticides. A synergist is a substance that enhances the effectiveness of a primary active ingredient. In the case of PBO, it is often combined with pyrethrin or pyrethroid-based insecticides to increase their potency and duration of action.

PBO works by inhibiting certain enzymes in insects that would otherwise help them metabolize and detoxify the insecticide. This allows the insecticide to remain active for a longer period, thereby increasing its efficacy.

It's important to note that while PBO is used in pest control, it is not directly toxic to humans or other mammals in the concentrations typically used. However, exposure should still be minimized as much as possible due to potential respiratory and skin irritation, and long-term health effects are not fully understood.

Aminopyrine N-demethylase is an enzyme that plays a role in the metabolism of drugs and other xenobiotics. It is primarily found in the liver and is responsible for catalyzing the N-demethylation of aminopyrine, a compound with analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties.

The enzyme works by transferring a methyl group from the aminopyrine molecule to a cofactor called NADPH, resulting in the formation of formaldehyde and dimethylaniline as products. This reaction is an important step in the biotransformation of many drugs and other foreign substances, allowing them to be more easily excreted from the body.

Aminopyrine N-demethylase is classified as a cytochrome P450 enzyme, which is a group of heme-containing proteins that are involved in oxidative metabolism. The activity of this enzyme can be influenced by various factors, including genetic polymorphisms, age, sex, and exposure to certain drugs or chemicals.

In addition to its role in drug metabolism, aminopyrine N-demethylase has also been used as a marker of liver function and as a tool for studying the regulation of cytochrome P450 enzymes.

7-Alkoxycoumarin O-Dealkylase is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction to remove alkoxy groups (O-dealkylation) from xenobiotic compounds, particularly 7-alkoxycoumarins. This enzyme is involved in the metabolism and detoxification of these substances in the body. It is also known as CYP2B6, which is a member of the cytochrome P450 family of enzymes.

Benzopyrene hydroxylase is an enzyme that is involved in the metabolism and detoxification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are a group of environmental pollutants found in cigarette smoke, air pollution, and charred or overcooked foods. Benzopyrene hydroxylase is primarily found in the liver and is responsible for adding a hydroxyl group to benzopyrene, a type of PAH, making it more water-soluble and easier to excrete from the body. This enzyme plays an important role in the body's defense against the harmful effects of PAHs.

Antipyrine is a chemical compound that was commonly used as a fever reducer and pain reliever in the past. It is a type of phenylpyrazole antipyretic and analgesic. However, due to its potential for causing liver damage and other side effects, it has largely been replaced by other medications and is not widely used in modern medicine.

The medical definition of Antipyrine refers to this specific chemical compound with the formula C11H13N3O2, and not to any broader category of drugs or substances. It is a white crystalline powder that is soluble in alcohol, chloroform, and ether, but insoluble in water.

Antipyrine was first synthesized in 1883 and was widely used as a fever reducer and pain reliever until the mid-20th century. However, its use declined due to concerns about its safety profile, including the potential for liver damage, skin reactions, and other side effects.

Today, Antipyrine is still used in some medical applications, such as in the measurement of earwax conductivity as a way to assess hearing function. It may also be used in some topical creams and ointments for pain relief. However, its use as a systemic medication is generally not recommended due to its potential for causing harm.

Phenobarbital is a barbiturate medication that is primarily used for the treatment of seizures and convulsions. It works by suppressing the abnormal electrical activity in the brain that leads to seizures. In addition to its anticonvulsant properties, phenobarbital also has sedative and hypnotic effects, which can be useful for treating anxiety, insomnia, and agitation.

Phenobarbital is available in various forms, including tablets, capsules, and elixirs, and it is typically taken orally. The medication works by binding to specific receptors in the brain called gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors, which help to regulate nerve impulses in the brain. By increasing the activity of GABA, phenobarbital can help to reduce excessive neural activity and prevent seizures.

While phenobarbital is an effective medication for treating seizures and other conditions, it can also be habit-forming and carries a risk of dependence and addiction. Long-term use of the medication can lead to tolerance, meaning that higher doses may be needed to achieve the same effects. Abruptly stopping the medication can also lead to withdrawal symptoms, such as anxiety, restlessness, and seizures.

Like all medications, phenobarbital can have side effects, including dizziness, drowsiness, and impaired coordination. It can also interact with other medications, such as certain antidepressants and sedatives, so it is important to inform your healthcare provider of all medications you are taking before starting phenobarbital.

In summary, phenobarbital is a barbiturate medication used primarily for the treatment of seizures and convulsions. It works by binding to GABA receptors in the brain and increasing their activity, which helps to reduce excessive neural activity and prevent seizures. While phenobarbital can be effective, it carries a risk of dependence and addiction and can have side effects and drug interactions.

Oxidoreductases are a class of enzymes that catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions, which involve the transfer of electrons from one molecule (the reductant) to another (the oxidant). These enzymes play a crucial role in various biological processes, including energy production, metabolism, and detoxification.

The oxidoreductase-catalyzed reaction typically involves the donation of electrons from a reducing agent (donor) to an oxidizing agent (acceptor), often through the transfer of hydrogen atoms or hydride ions. The enzyme itself does not undergo any permanent chemical change during this process, but rather acts as a catalyst to lower the activation energy required for the reaction to occur.

Oxidoreductases are classified and named based on the type of electron donor or acceptor involved in the reaction. For example, oxidoreductases that act on the CH-OH group of donors are called dehydrogenases, while those that act on the aldehyde or ketone groups are called oxidases. Other examples include reductases, peroxidases, and catalases.

Understanding the function and regulation of oxidoreductases is important for understanding various physiological processes and developing therapeutic strategies for diseases associated with impaired redox homeostasis, such as cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and cardiovascular disease.

Allylisopropylacetamide is not a term that has a widely accepted or established medical definition. It is a chemical compound with the formula (CH₂CHCH₂)N(C=O)CH(CH₃)₂, and it may have various chemical or industrial uses, but it is not a term that is commonly used in medical contexts.

If you have any specific questions about this compound or its potential uses or effects, I would recommend consulting with a relevant expert, such as a chemist or toxicologist, who can provide more detailed and accurate information based on their expertise and knowledge of the subject.

Microsomes, liver refers to a subcellular fraction of liver cells (hepatocytes) that are obtained during tissue homogenization and subsequent centrifugation. These microsomal fractions are rich in membranous structures known as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), particularly the rough ER. They are involved in various important cellular processes, most notably the metabolism of xenobiotics (foreign substances) including drugs, toxins, and carcinogens.

The liver microsomes contain a variety of enzymes, such as cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, that are crucial for phase I drug metabolism. These enzymes help in the oxidation, reduction, or hydrolysis of xenobiotics, making them more water-soluble and facilitating their excretion from the body. Additionally, liver microsomes also host other enzymes involved in phase II conjugation reactions, where the metabolites from phase I are further modified by adding polar molecules like glucuronic acid, sulfate, or acetyl groups.

In summary, liver microsomes are a subcellular fraction of liver cells that play a significant role in the metabolism and detoxification of xenobiotics, contributing to the overall protection and maintenance of cellular homeostasis within the body.

Skatole is a medical term that refers to a chemical compound with the formula C9H9NO2. It is a crystalline substance with an extremely foul odor, resembling that of feces. Skatole is produced in the body as a byproduct of bacterial breakdown of tryptophan, an essential amino acid, in the intestines. Normally, skatole is excreted in the feces and does not cause any problems.

However, when there is an overgrowth of bacteria in the intestines or a problem with the normal flow of bile, which helps to eliminate skatole from the body, skatole can accumulate in the bloodstream and tissues. This can lead to a condition called "skatole poisoning," which can cause symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and neurological problems.

Skatole is also used in perfumes and other fragrances to create a fecal or animalistic odor, although it is typically used in very small amounts due to its strong smell.

The Cytochrome P-450 (CYP450) enzyme system is a group of enzymes found primarily in the liver, but also in other organs such as the intestines, lungs, and skin. These enzymes play a crucial role in the metabolism and biotransformation of various substances, including drugs, environmental toxins, and endogenous compounds like hormones and fatty acids.

The name "Cytochrome P-450" refers to the unique property of these enzymes to bind to carbon monoxide (CO) and form a complex that absorbs light at a wavelength of 450 nm, which can be detected spectrophotometrically.

The CYP450 enzyme system is involved in Phase I metabolism of xenobiotics, where it catalyzes oxidation reactions such as hydroxylation, dealkylation, and epoxidation. These reactions introduce functional groups into the substrate molecule, which can then undergo further modifications by other enzymes during Phase II metabolism.

There are several families and subfamilies of CYP450 enzymes, each with distinct substrate specificities and functions. Some of the most important CYP450 enzymes include:

1. CYP3A4: This is the most abundant CYP450 enzyme in the human liver and is involved in the metabolism of approximately 50% of all drugs. It also metabolizes various endogenous compounds like steroids, bile acids, and vitamin D.
2. CYP2D6: This enzyme is responsible for the metabolism of many psychotropic drugs, including antidepressants, antipsychotics, and beta-blockers. It also metabolizes some endogenous compounds like dopamine and serotonin.
3. CYP2C9: This enzyme plays a significant role in the metabolism of warfarin, phenytoin, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).
4. CYP2C19: This enzyme is involved in the metabolism of proton pump inhibitors, antidepressants, and clopidogrel.
5. CYP2E1: This enzyme metabolizes various xenobiotics like alcohol, acetaminophen, and carbon tetrachloride, as well as some endogenous compounds like fatty acids and prostaglandins.

Genetic polymorphisms in CYP450 enzymes can significantly affect drug metabolism and response, leading to interindividual variability in drug efficacy and toxicity. Understanding the role of CYP450 enzymes in drug metabolism is crucial for optimizing pharmacotherapy and minimizing adverse effects.

Biotransformation is the metabolic modification of a chemical compound, typically a xenobiotic (a foreign chemical substance found within an living organism), by a biological system. This process often involves enzymatic conversion of the parent compound to one or more metabolites, which may be more or less active, toxic, or mutagenic than the original substance.

In the context of pharmacology and toxicology, biotransformation is an important aspect of drug metabolism and elimination from the body. The liver is the primary site of biotransformation, but other organs such as the kidneys, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract can also play a role.

Biotransformation can occur in two phases: phase I reactions involve functionalization of the parent compound through oxidation, reduction, or hydrolysis, while phase II reactions involve conjugation of the metabolite with endogenous molecules such as glucuronic acid, sulfate, or acetate to increase its water solubility and facilitate excretion.

Enzyme induction is a process by which the activity or expression of an enzyme is increased in response to some stimulus, such as a drug, hormone, or other environmental factor. This can occur through several mechanisms, including increasing the transcription of the enzyme's gene, stabilizing the mRNA that encodes the enzyme, or increasing the translation of the mRNA into protein.

In some cases, enzyme induction can be a beneficial process, such as when it helps the body to metabolize and clear drugs more quickly. However, in other cases, enzyme induction can have negative consequences, such as when it leads to the increased metabolism of important endogenous compounds or the activation of harmful procarcinogens.

Enzyme induction is an important concept in pharmacology and toxicology, as it can affect the efficacy and safety of drugs and other xenobiotics. It is also relevant to the study of drug interactions, as the induction of one enzyme by a drug can lead to altered metabolism and effects of another drug that is metabolized by the same enzyme.

Alpha-ketoglutaric acid, also known as 2-oxoglutarate, is not an acid in the traditional sense but is instead a key molecule in the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle), which is a central metabolic pathway involved in cellular respiration. Alpha-ketoglutaric acid is a crucial intermediate in the process of converting carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into energy through oxidation. It plays a vital role in amino acid synthesis and the breakdown of certain amino acids. Additionally, it serves as an essential cofactor for various enzymes involved in numerous biochemical reactions within the body. Any medical conditions or disorders related to alpha-ketoglutaric acid would typically be linked to metabolic dysfunctions or genetic defects affecting the Krebs cycle.

Dioxygenases are a class of enzymes that catalyze the incorporation of both atoms of molecular oxygen (O2) into their substrates. They are classified based on the type of reaction they catalyze and the number of iron atoms in their active site. The two main types of dioxygenases are:

1. Intradiol dioxygenases: These enzymes cleave an aromatic ring by inserting both atoms of O2 into a single bond between two carbon atoms, leading to the formation of an unsaturated diol (catechol) intermediate and the release of CO2. They contain a non-heme iron(III) center in their active site.

An example of intradiol dioxygenase is catechol 1,2-dioxygenase, which catalyzes the conversion of catechol to muconic acid.

2. Extradiol dioxygenases: These enzymes cleave an aromatic ring by inserting one atom of O2 at a position adjacent to the hydroxyl group and the other atom at a more distant position, leading to the formation of an unsaturated lactone or cyclic ether intermediate. They contain a non-heme iron(II) center in their active site.

An example of extradiol dioxygenase is homogentisate 1,2-dioxygenase, which catalyzes the conversion of homogentisate to maleylacetoacetate in the tyrosine degradation pathway.

Dioxygenases play important roles in various biological processes, including the metabolism of aromatic compounds, the biosynthesis of hormones and signaling molecules, and the detoxification of xenobiotics.

The liver is a large, solid organ located in the upper right portion of the abdomen, beneath the diaphragm and above the stomach. It plays a vital role in several bodily functions, including:

1. Metabolism: The liver helps to metabolize carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from the food we eat into energy and nutrients that our bodies can use.
2. Detoxification: The liver detoxifies harmful substances in the body by breaking them down into less toxic forms or excreting them through bile.
3. Synthesis: The liver synthesizes important proteins, such as albumin and clotting factors, that are necessary for proper bodily function.
4. Storage: The liver stores glucose, vitamins, and minerals that can be released when the body needs them.
5. Bile production: The liver produces bile, a digestive juice that helps to break down fats in the small intestine.
6. Immune function: The liver plays a role in the immune system by filtering out bacteria and other harmful substances from the blood.

Overall, the liver is an essential organ that plays a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being.

Biliverdine is a greenish pigment that is a byproduct of the breakdown of heme, which is a component of hemoglobin in red blood cells. It is formed when bilirubin, another byproduct of heme degradation, is reduced in the liver. Biliverdine is then converted back to bilirubin and excreted from the body as part of bile.

Elevated levels of biliverdine in the blood can indicate liver dysfunction or other medical conditions that affect the breakdown of heme. It may also be present in high concentrations in certain types of hemolytic anemia, where there is excessive destruction of red blood cells and subsequent release of large amounts of heme into the circulation.

Aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylases (AHH) are a group of enzymes that play a crucial role in the metabolism of various aromatic and heterocyclic compounds, including potentially harmful substances such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and dioxins. These enzymes are primarily located in the endoplasmic reticulum of cells, particularly in the liver, but can also be found in other tissues.

The AHH enzymes catalyze the addition of a hydroxyl group (-OH) to the aromatic ring structure of these compounds, which is the first step in their biotransformation and eventual elimination from the body. This process can sometimes lead to the formation of metabolites that are more reactive and potentially toxic than the original compound. Therefore, the overall impact of AHH enzymes on human health is complex and depends on various factors, including the specific compounds being metabolized and individual genetic differences in enzyme activity.

Non-heme iron proteins are a type of iron-containing protein that do not contain heme as their prosthetic group. Heme is a complex molecule consisting of an iron atom contained in the center of a porphyrin ring, which is a large organic molecule made up of four pyrrole rings joined together. In contrast, non-heme iron proteins contain iron that is bound to the protein in other ways, such as through coordination with amino acid side chains or through association with an iron-sulfur cluster.

Examples of non-heme iron proteins include ferritin and transferrin, which are involved in the storage and transport of iron in the body, respectively. Ferritin is a protein that stores iron in a form that is safe and bioavailable for use by the body. Transferrin, on the other hand, binds to iron in the intestines and transports it to cells throughout the body.

Non-heme iron proteins are important for many biological processes, including oxygen transport, electron transfer, and enzyme catalysis. They play a crucial role in energy metabolism, DNA synthesis, and other essential functions.

'Emericella' is a genus of filamentous fungi that belongs to the family Trichocomaceae. These fungi are commonly found in soil, decaying vegetation, and air. Some species of Emericella are capable of producing various secondary metabolites with potential medicinal or industrial applications.

One notable species of Emericella is Emericella nidulans, which has been widely studied as a model organism for molecular genetics and cell biology research. This fungus undergoes a sexual reproductive cycle that produces characteristic fruiting bodies called cleistothecia, which contain asci (sac-like structures) filled with ascospores (sexual spores).

It is worth noting that in 2008, the genus Emericella was merged with the genus Aspergillus based on molecular evidence and phylogenetic analysis. Therefore, many species of Emericella are now classified under the genus Aspergillus, including E. nidulans, which is now known as Aspergillus nidulans.

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."

1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.

2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.

3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.

4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).

Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.

NADP (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate) is a coenzyme that plays a crucial role as an electron carrier in various redox reactions in the human body. It exists in two forms: NADP+, which functions as an oxidizing agent and accepts electrons, and NADPH, which serves as a reducing agent and donates electrons.

NADPH is particularly important in anabolic processes, such as lipid and nucleotide synthesis, where it provides the necessary reducing equivalents to drive these reactions forward. It also plays a critical role in maintaining the cellular redox balance by participating in antioxidant defense mechanisms that neutralize harmful reactive oxygen species (ROS).

In addition, NADP is involved in various metabolic pathways, including the pentose phosphate pathway and the Calvin cycle in photosynthesis. Overall, NADP and its reduced form, NADPH, are essential molecules for maintaining proper cellular function and energy homeostasis.

Heme is not a medical term per se, but it is a term used in the field of medicine and biology. Heme is a prosthetic group found in hemoproteins, which are proteins that contain a heme iron complex. This complex plays a crucial role in various biological processes, including oxygen transport (in hemoglobin), electron transfer (in cytochromes), and chemical catalysis (in peroxidases and catalases).

The heme group consists of an organic component called a porphyrin ring, which binds to a central iron atom. The iron atom can bind or release electrons, making it essential for redox reactions in the body. Heme is also vital for the formation of hemoglobin and myoglobin, proteins responsible for oxygen transport and storage in the blood and muscles, respectively.

In summary, heme is a complex organic-inorganic structure that plays a critical role in several biological processes, particularly in electron transfer and oxygen transport.

'Corynebacterium diphtheriae' is a gram-positive, rod-shaped, aerobic bacteria that can cause the disease diphtheria. It is commonly found in the upper respiratory tract and skin of humans and can be transmitted through respiratory droplets or direct contact with contaminated objects. The bacterium produces a potent exotoxin that can cause severe inflammation and formation of a pseudomembrane in the throat, leading to difficulty breathing and swallowing. In severe cases, the toxin can spread to other organs, causing serious complications such as myocarditis (inflammation of the heart muscle) and peripheral neuropathy (damage to nerves outside the brain and spinal cord). The disease is preventable through vaccination with the diphtheria toxoid-containing vaccine.

Beta-Carotene 15,15'-Monooxygenase is an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of beta-carotene to retinal, which is a form of vitamin A. This enzyme adds a single oxygen atom to the beta-carotene molecule at the 15,15' position, creating two molecules of retinal.

Retinal is an essential nutrient that plays a critical role in vision, immune function, and cell growth and differentiation. Deficiency in vitamin A can lead to various health issues, including night blindness, impaired immunity, and growth retardation.

Beta-Carotene 15,15'-Monooxygenase is primarily found in the intestinal mucosa of humans and other mammals, where it helps convert dietary beta-carotene into a usable form of vitamin A. This enzyme is also present in some bacteria and fungi, where it plays a similar role in their metabolism of carotenoids.

Hydroxylation is a biochemical process that involves the addition of a hydroxyl group (-OH) to a molecule, typically a steroid or xenobiotic compound. This process is primarily catalyzed by enzymes called hydroxylases, which are found in various tissues throughout the body.

In the context of medicine and biochemistry, hydroxylation can have several important functions:

1. Drug metabolism: Hydroxylation is a common way that the liver metabolizes drugs and other xenobiotic compounds. By adding a hydroxyl group to a drug molecule, it becomes more polar and water-soluble, which facilitates its excretion from the body.
2. Steroid hormone biosynthesis: Hydroxylation is an essential step in the biosynthesis of many steroid hormones, including cortisol, aldosterone, and the sex hormones estrogen and testosterone. These hormones are synthesized from cholesterol through a series of enzymatic reactions that involve hydroxylation at various steps.
3. Vitamin D activation: Hydroxylation is also necessary for the activation of vitamin D in the body. In order to become biologically active, vitamin D must undergo two successive hydroxylations, first in the liver and then in the kidneys.
4. Toxin degradation: Some toxic compounds can be rendered less harmful through hydroxylation. For example, phenol, a toxic compound found in cigarette smoke and some industrial chemicals, can be converted to a less toxic form through hydroxylation by enzymes in the liver.

Overall, hydroxylation is an important biochemical process that plays a critical role in various physiological functions, including drug metabolism, hormone biosynthesis, and toxin degradation.

In the context of medicine, iron is an essential micromineral and key component of various proteins and enzymes. It plays a crucial role in oxygen transport, DNA synthesis, and energy production within the body. Iron exists in two main forms: heme and non-heme. Heme iron is derived from hemoglobin and myoglobin in animal products, while non-heme iron comes from plant sources and supplements.

The recommended daily allowance (RDA) for iron varies depending on age, sex, and life stage:

* For men aged 19-50 years, the RDA is 8 mg/day
* For women aged 19-50 years, the RDA is 18 mg/day
* During pregnancy, the RDA increases to 27 mg/day
* During lactation, the RDA for breastfeeding mothers is 9 mg/day

Iron deficiency can lead to anemia, characterized by fatigue, weakness, and shortness of breath. Excessive iron intake may result in iron overload, causing damage to organs such as the liver and heart. Balanced iron levels are essential for maintaining optimal health.

Oxidoreductases, O-demethylating are enzymes that belong to the larger family of oxidoreductases. Specifically, they are involved in catalyzing the removal of methyl groups (-CH3) from various substrates through oxidation reactions. This process is known as O-demethylation.

These enzymes play a crucial role in the metabolism of xenobiotics (foreign substances) such as drugs, toxins, and carcinogens. They help convert these substances into more water-soluble forms, which can then be easily excreted from the body. O-demethylating oxidoreductases are often found in the liver, where they contribute to the detoxification of xenobiotics.

The reaction catalyzed by these enzymes involves the transfer of a hydrogen atom and the addition of an oxygen atom to the methyl group, resulting in the formation of formaldehyde (-CH2O) and a demethylated product. The cytochrome P450 family of enzymes is one example of O-demethylating oxidoreductases.

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air. It is toxic to hemoglobic animals when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm. This compound is a product of incomplete combustion of organic matter, and is a major component of automobile exhaust.

Carbon monoxide is poisonous because it binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells much more strongly than oxygen does, forming carboxyhemoglobin. This prevents the transport of oxygen throughout the body, which can lead to suffocation and death. Symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning include headache, dizziness, weakness, nausea, vomiting, confusion, and disorientation. Prolonged exposure can lead to unconsciousness and death.

Carbon monoxide detectors are commonly used in homes and other buildings to alert occupants to the presence of this dangerous gas. It is important to ensure that these devices are functioning properly and that they are placed in appropriate locations throughout the building. Additionally, it is essential to maintain appliances and heating systems to prevent the release of carbon monoxide into living spaces.

Rhodococcus is a genus of gram-positive, aerobic, actinomycete bacteria that are widely distributed in the environment, including soil and water. Some species of Rhodococcus can cause opportunistic infections in humans and animals, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems. These infections can affect various organs and tissues, such as the lungs, skin, and brain, and can range from mild to severe.

Rhodococcus species are known for their ability to degrade a wide variety of organic compounds, including hydrocarbons, making them important players in bioremediation processes. They also have complex cell walls that make them resistant to many antibiotics and disinfectants, which can complicate treatment of Rhodococcus infections.

"Pseudomonas putida" is a species of gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria that is commonly found in soil and water environments. It is a non-pathogenic, opportunistic microorganism that is known for its versatile metabolism and ability to degrade various organic compounds. This bacterium has been widely studied for its potential applications in bioremediation and industrial biotechnology due to its ability to break down pollutants such as toluene, xylene, and other aromatic hydrocarbons. It is also known for its resistance to heavy metals and antibiotics, making it a valuable tool in the study of bacterial survival mechanisms and potential applications in bioremediation and waste treatment.

Catechols are a type of chemical compound that contain a benzene ring with two hydroxyl groups (-OH) attached to it in the ortho position. The term "catechol" is often used interchangeably with "ortho-dihydroxybenzene." Catechols are important in biology because they are produced through the metabolism of certain amino acids, such as phenylalanine and tyrosine, and are involved in the synthesis of various neurotransmitters and hormones. They also have antioxidant properties and can act as reducing agents. In chemistry, catechols can undergo various reactions, such as oxidation and polymerization, to form other classes of compounds.

Environmental biodegradation is the breakdown of materials, especially man-made substances such as plastics and industrial chemicals, by microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi in order to use them as a source of energy or nutrients. This process occurs naturally in the environment and helps to break down organic matter into simpler compounds that can be more easily absorbed and assimilated by living organisms.

Biodegradation in the environment is influenced by various factors, including the chemical composition of the substance being degraded, the environmental conditions (such as temperature, moisture, and pH), and the type and abundance of microorganisms present. Some substances are more easily biodegraded than others, and some may even be resistant to biodegradation altogether.

Biodegradation is an important process for maintaining the health and balance of ecosystems, as it helps to prevent the accumulation of harmful substances in the environment. However, some man-made substances, such as certain types of plastics and industrial chemicals, may persist in the environment for long periods of time due to their resistance to biodegradation, leading to negative impacts on wildlife and ecosystems.

In recent years, there has been increasing interest in developing biodegradable materials that can break down more easily in the environment as a way to reduce waste and minimize environmental harm. These efforts have led to the development of various biodegradable plastics, coatings, and other materials that are designed to degrade under specific environmental conditions.

Procollagen-proline dioxygenase is an enzyme that belongs to the family of oxidoreductases, specifically those acting on the CH-NH group of donors with oxygen as an acceptor. This enzyme is involved in the post-translational modification of procollagens, which are the precursors of collagen, a crucial protein found in connective tissues such as tendons, ligaments, and skin.

Procollagen-proline dioxygenase catalyzes the reaction that adds two hydroxyl groups to specific proline residues in the procollagen molecule, converting them into hydroxyprolines. This modification is essential for the proper folding and stabilization of the collagen triple helix structure, which provides strength and resilience to connective tissues.

The enzyme requires iron as a cofactor and molecular oxygen as a substrate, with vitamin C (ascorbic acid) acting as an essential cofactor in the reaction cycle. The proper functioning of procollagen-proline dioxygenase is critical for maintaining the integrity and health of connective tissues, and deficiencies or mutations in this enzyme can lead to various connective tissue disorders, such as scurvy (caused by vitamin C deficiency) or certain forms of osteogenesis imperfecta (a genetic disorder characterized by fragile bones).

Heme Oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is an inducible enzyme that catalyzes the degradation of heme into biliverdin, iron, and carbon monoxide. It is a rate-limiting enzyme in the oxidative degradation of heme. HO-1 is known to play a crucial role in cellular defense against oxidative stress and inflammation. It is primarily located in the microsomes of many tissues, including the spleen, liver, and brain. Induction of HO-1 has been shown to have cytoprotective effects, while deficiency in HO-1 has been associated with several pathological conditions, such as vascular diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, and cancer.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Benzoates are the salts and esters of benzoic acid. They are widely used as preservatives in foods, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals to prevent the growth of microorganisms. The chemical formula for benzoic acid is C6H5COOH, and when it is combined with a base (like sodium or potassium), it forms a benzoate salt (e.g., sodium benzoate or potassium benzoate). When benzoic acid reacts with an alcohol, it forms a benzoate ester (e.g., methyl benzoate or ethyl benzoate).

Benzoates are generally considered safe for use in food and cosmetics in small quantities. However, some people may have allergies or sensitivities to benzoates, which can cause reactions such as hives, itching, or asthma symptoms. In addition, there is ongoing research into the potential health effects of consuming high levels of benzoates over time, particularly in relation to gut health and the development of certain diseases.

In a medical context, benzoates may also be used as a treatment for certain conditions. For example, sodium benzoate is sometimes given to people with elevated levels of ammonia in their blood (hyperammonemia) to help reduce those levels and prevent brain damage. This is because benzoates can bind with excess ammonia in the body and convert it into a form that can be excreted in urine.

"Pseudomonas" is a genus of Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria that are widely found in soil, water, and plants. Some species of Pseudomonas can cause disease in animals and humans, with P. aeruginosa being the most clinically relevant as it's an opportunistic pathogen capable of causing various types of infections, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems.

P. aeruginosa is known for its remarkable ability to resist many antibiotics and disinfectants, making infections caused by this bacterium difficult to treat. It can cause a range of healthcare-associated infections, such as pneumonia, bloodstream infections, urinary tract infections, and surgical site infections. In addition, it can also cause external ear infections and eye infections.

Prompt identification and appropriate antimicrobial therapy are crucial for managing Pseudomonas infections, although the increasing antibiotic resistance poses a significant challenge in treatment.

Catalysis is the process of increasing the rate of a chemical reaction by adding a substance known as a catalyst, which remains unchanged at the end of the reaction. A catalyst lowers the activation energy required for the reaction to occur, thereby allowing the reaction to proceed more quickly and efficiently. This can be particularly important in biological systems, where enzymes act as catalysts to speed up metabolic reactions that are essential for life.

Oxygen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas that constitutes about 21% of the earth's atmosphere. It is a crucial element for human and most living organisms as it is vital for respiration. Inhaled oxygen enters the lungs and binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells, which carries it to tissues throughout the body where it is used to convert nutrients into energy and carbon dioxide, a waste product that is exhaled.

Medically, supplemental oxygen therapy may be provided to patients with conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pneumonia, heart failure, or other medical conditions that impair the body's ability to extract sufficient oxygen from the air. Oxygen can be administered through various devices, including nasal cannulas, face masks, and ventilators.

X-ray crystallography is a technique used in structural biology to determine the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a crystal lattice. In this method, a beam of X-rays is directed at a crystal and diffracts, or spreads out, into a pattern of spots called reflections. The intensity and angle of each reflection are measured and used to create an electron density map, which reveals the position and type of atoms in the crystal. This information can be used to determine the molecular structure of a compound, including its shape, size, and chemical bonds. X-ray crystallography is a powerful tool for understanding the structure and function of biological macromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids.

Bacterial proteins are a type of protein that are produced by bacteria as part of their structural or functional components. These proteins can be involved in various cellular processes, such as metabolism, DNA replication, transcription, and translation. They can also play a role in bacterial pathogenesis, helping the bacteria to evade the host's immune system, acquire nutrients, and multiply within the host.

Bacterial proteins can be classified into different categories based on their function, such as:

1. Enzymes: Proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the bacterial cell.
2. Structural proteins: Proteins that provide structural support and maintain the shape of the bacterial cell.
3. Signaling proteins: Proteins that help bacteria to communicate with each other and coordinate their behavior.
4. Transport proteins: Proteins that facilitate the movement of molecules across the bacterial cell membrane.
5. Toxins: Proteins that are produced by pathogenic bacteria to damage host cells and promote infection.
6. Surface proteins: Proteins that are located on the surface of the bacterial cell and interact with the environment or host cells.

Understanding the structure and function of bacterial proteins is important for developing new antibiotics, vaccines, and other therapeutic strategies to combat bacterial infections.

Hemin is defined as the iron(III) complex of protoporphyrin IX, which is a porphyrin derivative. It is a naturally occurring substance that is involved in various biological processes, most notably in the form of heme, which is a component of hemoglobin and other hemoproteins. Hemin is also used in medical research and therapy, such as in the treatment of methemoglobinemia and lead poisoning.

Oxidation-Reduction (redox) reactions are a type of chemical reaction involving a transfer of electrons between two species. The substance that loses electrons in the reaction is oxidized, and the substance that gains electrons is reduced. Oxidation and reduction always occur together in a redox reaction, hence the term "oxidation-reduction."

In biological systems, redox reactions play a crucial role in many cellular processes, including energy production, metabolism, and signaling. The transfer of electrons in these reactions is often facilitated by specialized molecules called electron carriers, such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+/NADH) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD/FADH2).

The oxidation state of an element in a compound is a measure of the number of electrons that have been gained or lost relative to its neutral state. In redox reactions, the oxidation state of one or more elements changes as they gain or lose electrons. The substance that is oxidized has a higher oxidation state, while the substance that is reduced has a lower oxidation state.

Overall, oxidation-reduction reactions are fundamental to the functioning of living organisms and are involved in many important biological processes.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

Streptomyces is a genus of Gram-positive, aerobic, saprophytic bacteria that are widely distributed in soil, water, and decaying organic matter. They are known for their complex morphology, forming branching filaments called hyphae that can differentiate into long chains of spores.

Streptomyces species are particularly notable for their ability to produce a wide variety of bioactive secondary metabolites, including antibiotics, antifungals, and other therapeutic compounds. In fact, many important antibiotics such as streptomycin, neomycin, tetracycline, and erythromycin are derived from Streptomyces species.

Because of their industrial importance in the production of antibiotics and other bioactive compounds, Streptomyces have been extensively studied and are considered model organisms for the study of bacterial genetics, biochemistry, and ecology.

Molecular structure, in the context of biochemistry and molecular biology, refers to the arrangement and organization of atoms and chemical bonds within a molecule. It describes the three-dimensional layout of the constituent elements, including their spatial relationships, bond lengths, and angles. Understanding molecular structure is crucial for elucidating the functions and reactivities of biological macromolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates. Various experimental techniques, like X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM), are employed to determine molecular structures at atomic resolution, providing valuable insights into their biological roles and potential therapeutic targets.

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... internal monooxygenases o internal mixed-function oxidases). The systematic name of this enzyme class is L-lysine:oxygen 2- ... Takeda H, Hayaishi O (1966). "Crystalline L-lysine oxygenase". J. Biol. Chem. 241 (11): 2733-6. PMID 5911646. Takeda H, ... oxygenases). The oxygen incorporated need not be derived from O with incorporation of one atom of oxygen ( ... oxidoreductase (decarboxylating). Other names in common use include lysine oxygenase, lysine monooxygenase, and L-lysine-2- ...
... internal monooxygenases o internal mixed-function oxidases). The systematic name of this enzyme class is L-arginine:oxygen 2- ... Olomucki A, Pho DB, Lebar R, Delcambe L, Thoai NV (1968). "[Arginine oxygenase (decarboxylating). V. Purification and flavin ... oxygenases). The oxygen incorporated need not be derived from O with incorporation of one atom of oxygen ( ... arginine oxygenase (decarboxylating), and arginine decarboxy-oxidase. This enzyme participates in urea cycle and metabolism of ...
Measuring the potency of pulp mill effluents for induction of hepatic mixed-function oxygenase activity in fish. Journal of ...
... is a membrane-bound mixed-function oxidase and harbours a fatty acid hydroxylase motif. The iron is ... Other names in use are glyceryl-ether monooxygenase, glyceryl-ether cleaving enzyme, glyceryl ether oxygenase, glyceryl ...
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... internal monooxygenases o internal mixed-function oxidases). The systematic name of this enzyme class is (S)-lactate:oxygen 2- ... lactic oxygenase, lactate oxygenase, lactic oxidase, L-lactate monooxygenase, lactate monooxygenase, and L-lactate-2- ... oxygenases). The oxygen incorporated need not be derived from O with incorporation of one atom of oxygen ( ...
... internal monooxygenases o internal mixed-function oxidases). The systematic name of this enzyme class is Cypridina-luciferin: ... oxygenases). The oxygen incorporated need not be derived from O with incorporation of one atom of oxygen ( ...
... internal monooxygenases o internal mixed-function oxidases). The systematic name of this enzyme class is L-tryptophan:oxygen 2- ... oxygenases). The oxygen incorporated need not be derived from O with incorporation of one atom of oxygen ( ...
... internal monooxygenases o internal mixed-function oxidases). The systematic name of this enzyme class is L-phenylalanine:oxygen ... oxygenases). The oxygen incorporated need not be derived from O with incorporation of one atom of oxygen ( ...
... internal monooxygenases o internal mixed-function oxidases). The systematic name of this enzyme class is 8'-apo-beta-carotenol: ... oxygenases). The oxygen incorporated need not be derived from O with incorporation of one atom of oxygen ( ...
... internal monooxygenases o internal mixed-function oxidases). The systematic name of this enzyme class is Watasenia-luciferin: ... oxygenases). The oxygen incorporated need not be derived from O with the incorporation of one atom of oxygen ( ...
Conrad HE, Dubus R, Namtvedt MJ, Gunslaus IC (1965). "Mixed Function Oxidation. II. Separation and Properties of the Enzymes ... oxygenase, camphor 1,2-mono, and ketolactonase I. It employs one cofactor, iron. ... Trudgill PW, DuBus R, Gunsalus IC (1966). "Mixed function oxidation. VI. Purification of a tightly coupled electron transport ...
These enzymes are mixed-function oxygenases, i.e. oxygenation is coupled with production of water and NAD+: CH4 + O2 + NADPH + ... Similarly, the alcohol can be gelled to reduce risk of leaking or spilling, as with the brand "Sterno". Methanol is mixed with ...
... tryptophan oxygenase MeSH D08.811.682.690.562 - inositol oxygenase MeSH D08.811.682.690.708 - mixed function oxygenases MeSH ... heme oxygenase (decyclizing) MeSH D08.811.682.690.708.410.500 - heme oxygenase-1 MeSH D08.811.682.690.708.425 - 4- ...
Mixed+Function+Oxygenases at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) Moskwa PS, Vadi H, and ... Mixed-function oxidase is the name of a family of oxidase enzymes that catalyze a reaction in which each of the two atoms of ... The mixed-function oxidase reaction proceeds as follows: AH + BH2 + O2 --> AOH + B + H2O (H2O as catalyst.) High levels of ... The name "mixed-function oxidase" indicates that the enzyme oxidizes two different substrate simultaneously. Desaturation of ...
It has been shown that treatment of mice with carbon tetrachloride, which acts on the mixed function oxygenase system, results ...
... internal monooxygenases or internal mixed-function oxidases). Dinoflagellate luciferase is a single protein with three ... oxygenases) that are not necessarily derived from O2, with incorporation of one atom of oxygen ( ...
... impact on plasma cholesterol homeostasis and the function and regulation of microsomal cytochrome P450 and heme oxygenase". The ... who dissected the P450-containing mixed function oxidase system into three constituent components: POR, cytochrome P450, and ... The reduction of cytochrome P450 is not the only physiological function of POR. The final step of heme oxidation by mammalian ... Pandey AV, Flück CE (May 2013). "NADPH P450 oxidoreductase: structure, function, and pathology of diseases". Pharmacology & ...
The function of this hydrophobic tunnel is unknown, though two hypotheses have been postulated concerning its utility. The ... Hayaishi O, Lardy H, Myrbäck K (1963). "Direct oxygenation by O2, oxygenases". In Boyer PD (ed.). The Enzymes. Vol. 8 (2nd ed ... Each catalytic domain is composed of two stacked, mixed topology β sheets and several random coils. These sheets and coils ... Hayaishi S, Katagiri M, Rothberg S (1957). "Pioneering the Field of Oxygenases through the Study of Tryptophan Metabolism: the ...
Both groups were given Vitamin C (ascorbyl palmitate) and Vitamin E (mixed tocopherol) supplements. Wasternack C (2007). " ... to modify adipocyte formation and function. Most oxylipins in the body are derived from linoleic acid or alpha-linolenic acid. ... heme-dependent fatty acid oxygenases (plants, fungi), and cyclooxygenases (animals). Fatty acid hydroperoxides or endoperoxides ...
Its main function is to regenerate RuBP, which is the initial substrate and CO2-acceptor molecule of the Calvin Cycle. PRK ... In Rhodobacter sphaeroides, PRK (or RsPRK) exists as a homooctomer with protomers composed of seven-stranded mixed β-sheets, ... Along with ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCo), phosphoribulokinase is unique to the Calvin Cycle. ... Miziorko HM (2000). "Phosphoribulokinase: Current Perspectives on the Structure/Function Basis for Regulation and Catalysis". ...
In addition to these functions, prokaryotic membranes also function in energy conservation as the location about which a proton ... Deep lakes that experience winter mixing expose the cells to the hydrostatic pressure generated by the full water column. This ... especially ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase, RuBisCO, and carbonic anhydrase). It is thought that the high local ... Fimbriae usually function to facilitate the attachment of a bacterium to a surface (e.g. to form a biofilm) or to other cells ( ...
Binding of an inhibitory peptide to the oxygenase domain blocks uncoupled NADPH oxidation". J. Biol. Chem. 275 (8): 5291-6. doi ... 1993). "Cloned murine bradykinin receptor exhibits a mixed B1 and B2 pharmacological selectivity". Mol. Pharmacol. 44 (2): 346- ... motif in the first extracellular loop with other human G-protein coupled receptors implications for HIV-1 coreceptor function ...
Once iron enters the ocean, it can be distributed throughout the water column through ocean mixing and through recycling on the ... ISBN 0-935702-73-3. Kikuchi, G.; Yoshida, T.; Noguchi, M. (2005). "Heme oxygenase and heme degradation". Biochemical and ... Neilands, J.B. (1995). "Siderophores: structure and function of microbial iron transport compounds". The Journal of Biological ... but there the major effect is by far its interference with the proper functioning of the electron transport protein cytochrome ...
"The Function of Biotin". www.chem.uwec.edu. Retrieved 10 June 2022. Edwards, Katie A. "Thiamine Biochemistry". thiamine.dnr. ... Elemental sulfur (ES) is sometimes mixed with bentonite to amend depleted soils for crops with high requirement in organo- ... They depend on enzymes such as sulfur oxygenase and sulfite oxidase to oxidize sulfur to sulfate. Some lithotrophs can even use ... Sulfur is one of the core chemical elements needed for biochemical functioning and is an elemental macronutrient for all living ...
Each subtype has functions driven by the types of cytokines secreted and organs to which the cells preferentially migrate, also ... For malaria, clinical trial results are mixed, either showing that vitamin A treatment did not reduce the incidence of probable ... oxygenase 2 in carotenoid metabolism and diseases". Exp Biol Med (Maywood). 241 (17): 1879-87. doi:10.1177/1535370216657900. ... It functions as a retinoic acid receptor (RAR)-γ agonist. Non-prescription topical products that have health claims for ...
However, as shown below, not all species can use each of the mentioned electron donors (Table 2). Sulfur Oxygenase Reductase ( ... This enriched layer moves down and mixes with underlying sediment. Oxygen that is taken from the water penetrates this ... The researchers found that Type VI SQR functioning in high sulfide environments, and hypothesized that S. 'denitrificans ... Janosch, Claudia (2015). "Sulfur Oxygenase Reductase (Sor) in the Moderately Thermoacidophilic Leaching Bacteria: Studies in ...
Sydenham's 1669 recipe for laudanum mixed opium with wine, saffron, clove and cinnamon. Sydenham's laudanum was used widely in ... Brennan MJ (March 2013). "The effect of opioid therapy on endocrine function". The American Journal of Medicine. 126 (3 Suppl 1 ... It also decreases cyclo-oxygenase activity. It has recently been discovered that most or all of the therapeutic efficacy of ... Patients with chronic pain using opioids had small improvements in pain and physically functioning and increased risk of ...
Mixed Function Oxygenases - Aromatase PubMed MeSh Term *Overview. Overview. subject area of * Estrogens Mediate Cardiac ...
Mixed Function Oxygenases / genetics* * Mixed Function Oxygenases / metabolism* * Phenotype * Polymorphism, Genetic * ...
Mixed Function Oxygenases / physiology* * Recombinant Proteins / metabolism Substances * Anti-Anxiety Agents * Recombinant ...
It suggests that the original purpose of luciferases was as mixed-function oxygenases. As the early ancestors of many species ... Bioluminescence has several functions in different taxa. Steven Haddock et al. (2010) list as more or less definite functions ... The main function of this is to alert the fish to the presence of its prey. The additional pigment is thought to be assimilated ... The following functions are reasonably well established in the named organisms. In many animals of the deep sea, including ...
Oxygenases [D08.811.682.690]. *Mixed Function Oxygenases [D08.811.682.690.708]. *Tryptophan Hydroxylase [D08.811.682.690. ...
Oxygenases [D08.811.682.690]. *Mixed Function Oxygenases [D08.811.682.690.708]. *Cytochrome P-450 Enzyme System [D08.811. ...
... in biosolubilization and/or bioconversion of coal that deserve further study include cytochrome P450 mixed-function oxygenases ... All ecosystems function optimally as a set of processes that depend on nutrient recycling, which is the balance between the ... Badri, D.V.; Vivanco, J.M. Regulation and function of root exudates. Plant Cell. Environ. 2009, 32, 666-681. [Google Scholar] [ ... Such conformational properties of humic substances appear to be a function of pH, and the concentration of organic acids which ...
In vitro studies (Ahmed et al., 1977; Hogan et al., 1976) suggest that the mixed function oxygenase system of microsomes is ... Photochemical action spectrum of the terminal oxidase of mixed function oxidase systems. Science, 147: 400-402. CORYA, B. C., ... The function of myoglobin, in vivo, may be to act as a reservoir for oxygen within the muscle fibre. The carbon monoxide and ... It can also be calculated that, at 5% carboxyhaemoglobin, there will be only a slight drop in the mixed venous pO2. Even more ...
Oxygenases [D08.811.682.690]. *Mixed Function Oxygenases [D08.811.682.690.708]. *Heme Oxygenase (Decyclizing) [D08.811.682.690. ... "Heme Oxygenase-1" is a descriptor in the National Library of Medicines controlled vocabulary thesaurus, MeSH (Medical Subject ... This graph shows the total number of publications written about "Heme Oxygenase-1" by people in UAMS Profiles by year, and ... Leal EC, Carvalho E. Heme Oxygenase-1 as Therapeutic Target for Diabetic Foot Ulcers. Int J Mol Sci. 2022 Oct 10; 23(19). ...
Hepatic microsomal cytochrome-P-450 mixed function oxygenase system catalyzes conversion of methylene-chloride to carbon- ... NIOSH-Contract; Safety-research; Industrial-safety; Poisons; Chlorides; Pulmonary-function-tests; Carcinogens; Mutation; Skin- ...
Oxygenases [D08.811.682.690]. *Mixed Function Oxygenases [D08.811.682.690.708]. *Cytochrome P-450 Enzyme System [D08.811. ...
ii) Mono-oxygenase (Mixed function oxidases, Hydroxylases): (a) They catalyze the incorporation of only one atom of the oxygen ... This dual fate of the oxygen is responsi-ble for naming of mono-oxygenases as "mixed-function oxidases". ... b) Enzymes containing iron as a prosthetic group e.g., homogentisate di-oxygenase, 3-hydro-xyxanthranilate di-oxygenase and ... The enzymes are: 1. Oxidases 2. Aerobic Dehydrogenases 3. Anaerobic Dehydrogenases 4. Hydro-peroxidases 5. Oxygenases. ...
Mixed Function Oxygenases 8% * Isoenzymes 7% * High Pressure Liquid Chromatography 6% * Erythrocytes 5% ...
Mixed Function Oxygenases 6% * Pseudomonas 6% * Lecithins 6% * Protein Aggregates 6% * Citric Acid 6% ...
Mixed Function Oxygenases 78% * Solvent isotope effects in the catalytic cycle of P450 CYP17A1: Computational modeling of the ... Influence of Transmembrane Helix Mutations on Cytochrome P450-Membrane Interactions and Function. Mustafa, G., Nandekar, P. P. ...
Mixed Function Oxygenases Medicine & Life Sciences 49% * Prostaglandins Medicine & Life Sciences 41% ...
... lipoxygenases and cytochrome P450 mixed function oxygenases, which release ARA upon hydrolysis. The aging brain has impaired ...
1980 Mixed-Function Oxygenases And Xenobiotic Detoxication-Toxication Systems In Bivalve Mollusks. Helgoland Marine Research, ... Components of a xenobiotic detoxication/toxication system involving mixed function oxygenases are present inMytilus edulis. Our ... associated with mixed function oxygenases) and the NADPH generating enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase are considered to ... aldrin epoxidation and other reports of the presence of mixed function oxygenases. New experimental data are presented which ...
Biochemical assays were performed to compare the level of activities of mixed function oxidases (MFOs), non-specific esterases ... Mono-oxygenase (a) and glutathione-S-transferase (b) activities in field populations of Anopheles gambiae (s.l.). *Population ... the involvement of mono-oxygenases in pyrethroids resistance in our study sites has also been noted since the level of vector ...
MIXED FUNCTION OXYGENASES). In animals, these P-450 enzymes serve two major functions: (1) biosynthesis of steroids, fatty ... MIXED FUNCTION OXYGENASES). In animals, these P-450 enzymes serve two major functions: (1) biosynthesis of steroids, fatty ... MIXED FUNCTION OXYGENASES). In animals, these P-450 enzymes serve two major functions: (1) biosynthesis of steroids, fatty ... MIXED FUNCTION OXYGENASES). In animals, these P-450 enzymes serve two major functions: (1) biosynthesis of steroids, fatty ...
Prolyl hydroxylase (proline,2-oxoglutarate dioxygenase, EC 1.14.11.2) is a mixed-function oxygenase that hydroxylates peptidyl ... This fraction also inhibited two other alpha-ketoglutarate requiring mixed function oxidases, lysyl hydroxylase [EC 1.14.11.4] ... The structure and function of the 2-oxoglutarate binding site of prolyl 4-hydroxylase was studied by assaying the inhibitory ... This indicates that the function of the PDI-beta subunit in the prolyl 4-hydroxylase tetramer is not only that of keeping the ...
MIXED FUNCTION OXIDASES. Mixed Function Oxygenases. NAD(P)(+)-ARGININE ADP-RIBOSYLTRANSFERASE. ADP Ribose Transferases. ...
Mixed Function Oxygenases. NUCLEOSIDASES. N-glycosyl Hydrolases. NAD+ ADP-RIBOSYLTRANSFERASE. Poly(ADP-ribose) Polymerases. ...
MIXED FUNCTION OXIDASES. Mixed Function Oxygenases. NAD(P)(+)-ARGININE ADP-RIBOSYLTRANSFERASE. ADP Ribose Transferases. ...
Mixed Function Oxygenases. NUCLEOSIDASES. N-glycosyl Hydrolases. NAD+ ADP-RIBOSYLTRANSFERASE. Poly(ADP-ribose) Polymerases. ...
Mixed Function Oxygenases. NUCLEOSIDASES. N-glycosyl Hydrolases. NAD+ ADP-RIBOSYLTRANSFERASE. Poly(ADP-ribose) Polymerases. ...
MIXED FUNCTION OXIDASES. Mixed Function Oxygenases. NAD(P)(+)-ARGININE ADP-RIBOSYLTRANSFERASE. ADP Ribose Transferases. ...
MIXED FUNCTION OXIDASES. Mixed Function Oxygenases. NAD(P)(+)-ARGININE ADP-RIBOSYLTRANSFERASE. ADP Ribose Transferases. ...
  • 2-archidonoylglycerol (2-AG) and anandamide (AEA) are the primary agonists of cannabinoid receptors in the brain, substrate for enzymes such as cyclooxygenases, lipoxygenases and cytochrome P450 mixed function oxygenases, which release ARA upon hydrolysis. (bournemouth.ac.uk)
  • In addition, induction in the blood cells of microsomal NADPH neotetrazolium reductase (associated with mixed function oxygenases) and the NADPH generating enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase are considered to be specific biological responses to the presence of aromatic hydrocarbons. (plymsea.ac.uk)
  • mixed function oxidase An enzyme complex found in animals that oxidizes toxic compounds to render them more susceptible to metabolism and excretion. (encyclopedia.com)
  • Hepatic microsomal cytochrome-P-450 mixed function oxygenase system catalyzes conversion of methylene-chloride to carbon-monoxide and chloride and a second metabolic pathway yields formaldehyde (50000) and inorganic halide. (cdc.gov)
  • Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the role of RVLM-C1 neurons in cardiac autonomic control and deterioration of cardiac function in HF rats. (nebraska.edu)
  • RVLM-C1 neurons were selectively ablated using cell-specific immunotoxin (dopamine-β hydroxylase saporin [DβH-SAP]) and measures of cardiac autonomic tone, function, and arrhythmia incidence were evaluated. (nebraska.edu)
  • Components of a xenobiotic detoxication/toxication system involving mixed function oxygenases are present inMytilus edulis. (plymsea.ac.uk)
  • Our paper critically reviews the recent literature on this topic which reported the apparent absence of such a system in bivalve molluscs and attempts to reconcile this viewpoint with our own findings on NADPH neotetrazolium reductase, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, aldrin epoxidation and other reports of the presence of mixed function oxygenases. (plymsea.ac.uk)
  • They include numerous complex monooxygenases (MIXED FUNCTION OXYGENASES). (edu.au)
  • This graph shows the total number of publications written about "Heme Oxygenase-1" by people in UAMS Profiles by year, and whether "Heme Oxygenase-1" was a major or minor topic of these publications. (uams.edu)
  • Renal intramedullary infusion of tempol normalizes the blood pressure?response to intrarenal blockade of heme oxygenase-1 in?angiotensin II-dependent hypertension. (uams.edu)
  • Mul-treated mice had an attenuated cardiac injured response and improved cardiac function after DOX injection. (hindawi.com)
  • Oxygenase-catalyzed ribosome hydroxylation occurs in prokaryotes and humans. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Moreover, AA metabolites produced in different locations by cyclo-oxygenase can have opposing effects. (medscape.com)
  • Nonsteroidal inflammatory drugs with a mode of action that inhibits cyclo-oxygenase have mixed effects on CVD risk. (medscape.com)
  • As a class, cyclo-oxygenase inhibitory NSAIDs may be associated with gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic toxicity. (nih.gov)
  • Oxygenase and peroxygenase enzymes generate intermediates at their active sites which bring about the controlled functionalization of inert C-H bonds in substrates, such as in the enzymatic conversion of methane to methanol. (ebsco.com)
  • A cytochrome P450 enzyme family whose members function as steroid 7-alpha hydroxylases. (musc.edu)
  • Hepatic microsomal cytochrome-P-450 mixed function oxygenase system catalyzes conversion of methylene-chloride to carbon-monoxide and chloride and a second metabolic pathway yields formaldehyde (50000) and inorganic halide. (cdc.gov)
  • RANITIDINE does not inhibit the hepatic cytochrome P450 linked mixed function oxygenase enzyme system. (cathaydrug.com)
  • They include numerous complex monooxygenases ( MIXED FUNCTION OXYGENASES ). (online-medical-dictionary.org)
  • There are different classes of monooxygenases depending on the type of hydrogen-providing cosubstrate ( COENZYMES ) required in the mixed-function oxidation. (nih.gov)
  • The finding that oxygenase-catalyzed protein hydroxylation regulates animal transcription raises questions as to whether the translation machinery and prokaryotic proteins are analogously modified. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Escherichia coli ycfD is a growth-regulating 2-oxoglutarate oxygenase catalyzing arginyl hydroxylation of the ribosomal protein Rpl16. (ox.ac.uk)
  • BIMs appear to be suitable for classification of metal centres at any level, from groups of unrelated proteins with similar function to different functional states of the same protein, and for description of possible evolutionary relationships of metalloproteins. (lookformedical.com)
  • Alanine transaminase has an important function in the delivery of skeletal muscle carbon and nitrogen (in the form of alanine) to the liver. (tdmuv.com)
  • abstract = "It is well known that ascorbic acid (Asc) is highly concentrated in the adrenal gland, but its function in the gland is not thoroughly elucidated. (elsevierpure.com)
  • The following HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) , we looked into the function of the enzyme using mammalian mobile or portable knockdowns in the mixed transcriptomics and also metabolomics investigation. (micrornalibrary.com)
  • NSAIDs may inhibit the prostaglandins that maintain normal homeostatic function. (nih.gov)
  • Transient and reversible changes in liver function tests can occur. (cathaydrug.com)
  • The epub cracked putting broken is AFB1 in that it too especially is recombinant clear pathways( improper investors near varnishes that completed fast buried for function) but fatty concerns of Nx1 province, always. (opticasoftware.com)
  • Life Cycle nations requirements boost Underinsured derivatives or people hard to metals of major Oxygenases and in military demands of the epub cracked putting broken lives together again a doctors story reclamation. (opticasoftware.com)
  • Both secreted and also cell floor human EGFDs are generally at the mercy of substantial selleck chemicals llc adjustments, such as aspartate and also asparagine residue C3-hydroxylations catalyzed with the 2-oxoglutarate oxygenase aspartate/asparagine-β-hydroxylase (AspH). (micrornalibrary.com)
  • to be present when characteristic pathological abnormalities in the lung result in deterioration of normal lung function, and ARDS to be a specific form of lung injury with diverse causes, characterized pathologically by diffuse alveolar damage and a breakdown in both the barrier and gas exchange functions of the lung, resulting in proteinaceous alveolar edema and hypoxem ia. (org.pk)