Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor C
Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor-3
Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor D
Endothelium, Lymphatic
Corneal Neovascularization
Lymphatic Metastasis
Neovascularization, Pathologic
Neuropilin-2
Endothelial Cells
Mycoplasma pulmonis
Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A
Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor-2
Lymph Nodes
Cornea
Antigens, CD31
Lymphangioma
Neovascularization, Physiologic
Receptors, Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor
Corneal Transplantation
Endothelial Growth Factors
Receptors, Growth Factor
Immunohistochemistry
Vesicular Transport Proteins
Lymphography
Blood Vessels
Cell Movement
Mice, Inbred C57BL
Mice, Transgenic
Inflammation
Glycoproteins
Etodolac
Antigens, CD11b
Mice, Inbred BALB C
Skin
Morpholinos
Neoplasm Metastasis
Keratoplasty, Penetrating
Tail
Granulation Tissue
Neoplasms
Signal Transduction
Mice, Nude
Receptors, Prostaglandin E, EP1 Subtype
Saussurea
Melanoma
Insights into the mechanisms of lymph node metastasis. (1/587)
The mechanisms by which malignant tumors leave the primary tumor site, invade lymphatics, and metastasize to regional lymph nodes (RLNs) are complex and interrelated. Although the phenomenon of lymph node metastasis has been recognized for over 200 years, the exact mechanisms have only recently been the subject of intense interest and sophisticated experimentation. Sentinel lymph node biopsy has rapidly entered the clinical mainstream for melanoma and breast carcinoma, and this technique has provided confirmation of the orderly anatomic progression of tumor cells from primary site to the RLNs through lymphatic capillaries and trunks. Exciting studies involving the pathophysiology of interstitial fluid pressure in tumors and the peritumoral extracellular matrix have focused on lymphatic flow and tumor microenvironment and microcirculation. Molecular techniques have led to the definition of unique markers found on lymphatic endothelial cells. These markers have enabled scientists to identify peritumoral and intratumoral lymphatics and to visualize the ingrowth of tumor cells into the lumena of lymphatic capillaries. Tumor-secreted cytokines, such as vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGF)-C and -D, bind to VEGF receptors on lymphatic endothelial cells and induce proliferation and growth of new lymphatic capillaries; this process is similar to the well-known mechanism of angiogenesis, which results from the proliferation of new blood vessel capillaries. Lymphangiogenesis is associated with an increased incidence of RLN metastasis, and it is possible that this step is essential to the metastatic process. Directional movement toward lymphatics and lymph nodes appears to follow a chemokine gradient, and it is likely that some tumor cells that express certain types of chemokine receptors are more likely to metastasize to the RLNs. In contrast, tumor cells that do not express specific receptors that are responsive to lymphatic chemokines may not metastasize. New knowledge regarding the molecules involved in these processes should enable improvements in prognostic and possibly therapeutic approaches to the management of malignant tumors. (+info)B lymphocyte-specific c-Myc expression stimulates early and functional expansion of the vasculature and lymphatics during lymphomagenesis. (2/587)
Expression of the c-myc proto-oncogene is deregulated in many human cancers. We examined the role of c-Myc in stimulating angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis in a highly metastatic murine model of Burkitt's lymphoma (E micro -c-myc), where c-Myc is expressed exclusively in B lymphocytes. Immunohistochemical analysis of bone marrow and lymph nodes from young (preneoplastic) E micro -c-myc transgenic mice revealed increased growth of blood vessels, which are functional by dye flow assay. Lymphatic sinuses also increased in size and number within the lymph nodes, as demonstrated by immunostaining for with a lymphatic endothelial marker 10.1.1. The 10.1.1 antibody recognizes VEGFR-2- and VEGFR-3-positive lymphatic sinuses and vessels within lymph nodes, and also recognizes lymphatic vessels in other tissues. Subcutaneously injected dye traveled more efficiently through draining lymph nodes in E micro -c-myc mice, indicating that these hypertrophic lymphatic sinuses increase lymph flow. Purified B lymphocytes and lymphoid tissues from E micro -c-myc mice expressed increased levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) by immunohistochemical or immunoblot assays, which could promote blood and lymphatic vessel growth through interaction with VEGFR-2, which is expressed on the endothelium of both vessel types. These results indicate that constitutive c-Myc expression stimulates angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis, which may promote the rapid growth and metastasis of c-Myc-expressing cancer cells, respectively. (+info)Comparative evaluation of FGF-2-, VEGF-A-, and VEGF-C-induced angiogenesis, lymphangiogenesis, vascular fenestrations, and permeability. (3/587)
Several endothelial growth factors induce both blood and lymphatic angiogenesis. However, a systematic comparative study of the impact of these factors on vascular morphology and function has been lacking. In this study, we report a quantitative analysis of the structure and macromolecular permeability of FGF-2-, VEGF-A-, and VEGF-C-induced blood and lymphatic vessels. Our results show that VEGF-A stimulated formation of disorganized, nascent vasculatures as a result of fusion of blood capillaries into premature plexuses with only a few lymphatic vessels. Ultrastructural analysis revealed that VEGF-A-induced blood vessels contained high numbers of endothelial fenestrations that mediated high permeability to ferritin, whereas the FGF-2-induced blood vessels lacked vascular fenestrations and showed only little leakage of ferritin. VEGF-C induced approximately equal amounts of blood and lymphatic capillaries with endothelial fenestrations present only on blood capillaries, mediating a medium level of ferritin leakage into the perivascular space. No endothelial fenestrations were found in FGF-2-, VEGF-A-, or VEGF-C-induced lymphatic vessels. These findings highlight the structural and functional differences between blood and lymphatic vessels induced by FGF-2, VEGF-A, and VEGF-C. Such information is important to consider in development of novel therapeutic strategies using these angiogenic factors. (+info)Cyclooxygenase-2 induces EP1- and HER-2/Neu-dependent vascular endothelial growth factor-C up-regulation: a novel mechanism of lymphangiogenesis in lung adenocarcinoma. (4/587)
Cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, the inducible isoform of prostaglandin H synthase, has been implicated in the progression of human lung adenocarcinoma. However, the mechanism underlying COX-2's effect on tumor progression remains largely unknown. Lymphangiogenesis, the formation of new lymphatic vessels, has recently received considerable attention and become a new frontier of tumor metastasis research. Here, we study the interaction between COX-2 and the lymphangiogenic factor, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-C, in human lung cancer cells and their implication in patient outcomes. We developed an isopropyl-beta-D-thiogalactopyranoside-inducible COX-2 gene expression system in human lung adenocarcinoma CL1.0 cells. We found that VEGF-C gene expression but not VEGF-D was significantly elevated in cells overexpressing COX-2. COX-2-mediated VEGF-C up-regulation was commonly observed in a broad array of non-small cell lung cancer cell lines. The use of pharmacological inhibitors or activators and genetic inhibition by EP receptor-antisense oligonucleotides revealed that prostaglandin EP(1) receptor but not other prostaglandin receptors is involved in COX-2-mediated VEGF-C up-regulation. At the mechanistic level, we found that COX-2 expression or prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) treatment could activate the HER-2/Neu tyrosine kinase receptor through the EP(1) receptor-dependent pathway and that this activation was essential for VEGF-C induction. The transactivation of HER-2/Neu by PGE(2) was inhibited by way of blocking the Src kinase signaling using the specific Src family inhibitor, PP1, or transfection with the mutant dominant negative src plasmid. Src kinase was involved in not only the HER-2/Neu transactivation but also the following VEGF-C up-regulation by PGE(2) treatment. In addition, immunohistochemical staining of 59 lung adenocarcinoma specimens showed that COX-2 level was highly correlated with VEGF-C, lymphatic vessels density, and other clinicopathological parameters. Taken together, our results provided evidence that COX-2 up-regulated VEGF-C and promotes lymphangiogenesis in human lung adenocarcinoma via the EP(1)/Src/HER-2/Neu signaling pathway. (+info)The role of p53 in suppression of KSHV cyclin-induced lymphomagenesis. (5/587)
Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) encodes a cyclin D homolog, K cyclin, that is thought to promote viral oncogenesis. However, expression of K cyclin in cultured cells not only triggers cell cycle progression but also engages the p53 tumor suppressor pathway, which probably restricts the oncogenic potential of K cyclin. Therefore, to assess the tumorigenic properties of K cyclin in vivo, we transgenically targeted expression of K cyclin to the B and T lymphocyte compartments via the E micro promoter/enhancer. Around 17% of E micro -K cyclin animals develop lymphoma by 9 months of age, and all such lymphomas exhibit loss of p53. A critical role of p53 in suppressing K cyclin-induced lymphomagenesis was confirmed by the greatly accelerated onset of B and T lymphomagenesis in all E micro -K cyclin/p53(-/-) mice. However, absence of p53 did not appear to accelerate K cyclin-induced lymphomagenesis by averting apoptosis: E micro -K cyclin/p53(-/-) end-stage lymphomas contained abundant apoptotic cells, and transgenic E micro -K cyclin/p53(-/-) lymphocytes in vitro were not measurably protected from DNA damage-induced apoptosis compared with E micro -K cyclin/p53(wt) cells. Notably, whereas aneuploidy was frequently evident in pre-lymphomatous tissues, end-stage E micro -K cyclin/p53(-/-) tumors showed a near-diploid DNA content with no aberrant centrosome numbers. Nonetheless, such tumor cells did harbor more restricted genomic alterations, such as single-copy chromosome losses or gains or high-level amplifications. Together, our data support a model in which K cyclin-induced genome instability arises early in the pre-tumorigenic lymphocyte population and that loss of p53 licenses subsequent expansion of tumorigenic clones. (+info)Prognostic significance of intratumoral lymphangiogenesis in squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity. (6/587)
BACKGROUND: Clinicopathologic data demonstrated that the lymphatic system is the main route for solid tumor metastasis. However, the effect of intratumoral lymphangiogenesis (IL) on prognosis in oral carcinoma is still unknown because, until recently, no reliable markers for lymphatic endothelium were available. The current study analyzed the lymphatic vessels in tumor tissue specimens of patients with primary oral carcinoma using the new marker, PA2.26. METHODS: The authors investigated IL in surgical tissue samples of 61 patients with early-stage (Stages I-II) oral carcinoma. The tissue specimens were stained for PA2.26 and the correlation between IL and relevant parameters was analyzed by the Pearson chi-square test. In a univariate analysis using the Kaplan-Meier method, IL was analyzed against survival and disease-free period. Statistical significance of differences between distributions was studied by the log-rank test. Clinicopathologic parameters, including IL, were entered in a multivariate analysis to determine independent prognostic significance. RESULTS: Thirty-three patients had IL. In the follow-up, a strong association was found between IL and locoregional recurrence (30.3 % of the patients with IL and 7.1% of the patients without IL). The presence of IL did not correlate significantly with the pT classification, primary location, or tumor differentiation. IL was found to have no influence on overall survival in univariate analysis, but there was significant association between IL and disease-free survival (P=0.03). Multivariate analysis revealed IL to be the sole independent factor influencing disease-free interval (P=0.02). CONCLUSIONS: These results suggested that IL is associated with locoregional disease recurrence in early-stage oral carcinoma. The presence of IL was a useful discriminator in predicting the outcome of patients with absence of lymph node metastasis. (+info)Lymphatic density and metastatic spread in human malignant melanoma. (7/587)
Malignant melanoma (MM), the most common cause of skin cancer deaths, metastasises to regional lymph nodes. In animal models of other cancers, lymphatic growth is associated with metastasis. To assess if lymphatic density (LD) was increased in human MM, and its association with metastasis, we measured LD inside and around archival MM samples (MM, n=21), and compared them with normal dermis (n=11), basal cell carcinoma (BCC, n=6) and Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC), a skin tumour thought to metastasise through a vascular route (MCC, n=6). Lymphatic capillary density (mm(-2)), as determined by immunohistochemical staining with the lymphatic specific marker LYVE-1, was significantly increased around MM (10.0+/-2.5 mm(-2)) compared with normal dermis (2.4+/-0.9 mm(-2)), BCC (3.0+/-0.9 mm(-2)) and MCC (2.4+/-1.4 mm(-2)) (P<0.0001). There was a small decrease in LD inside MM (1.1+/-0.7 mm(-2)) compared with normal dermis, but a highly significant decrease in BCC (0.14+/-0.13) and MCC (0.12+/-2.4) (P<0.01 Kruskal-Wallis). Astonishingly, LD discriminated between melanomas that subsequently metastasised (12.8+/-1.6 mm(-2)) and those that did not (5.4+/-1.1 mm(-2), P<0.01, Mann-Whitney). Lymphatic invasion by tumour cells was seen mainly in MM that metastasised (70% compared with 12% not metastasising, P<0.05 Fisher's Exact test). The results show that LD was increased around MMs, and that LD and tumour cell invasion of lymphatics may help to predict metastasis. To this end, a prognostic index was calculated using LD, lymphatic invasion and thickness that clearly discriminated metastatic from nonmetastatic tumours. (+info)VEGF-A stimulates lymphangiogenesis and hemangiogenesis in inflammatory neovascularization via macrophage recruitment. (8/587)
Lymphangiogenesis, an important initial step in tumor metastasis and transplant sensitization, is mediated by the action of VEGF-C and -D on VEGFR3. In contrast, VEGF-A binds VEGFR1 and VEGFR2 and is an essential hemangiogenic factor. We re-evaluated the potential role of VEGF-A in lymphangiogenesis using a novel model in which both lymphangiogenesis and hemangiogenesis are induced in the normally avascular cornea. Administration of VEGF Trap, a receptor-based fusion protein that binds and neutralizes VEGF-A but not VEGF-C or -D, completely inhibited both hemangiogenesis and the outgrowth of LYVE-1(+) lymphatic vessels following injury. Furthermore, both lymphangiogenesis and hemangiogenesis were significantly reduced in mice transgenic for VEGF-A(164/164) or VEGF-A(188/188) (each of which expresses only one of the three principle VEGF-A isoforms). Because VEGF-A is chemotactic for macrophages and we demonstrate here that macrophages in inflamed corneas release lymphangiogenic VEGF-C/VEGF-D, we evaluated the possibility that macrophage recruitment plays a role in VEGF-A-mediated lymphangiogenesis. Either systemic depletion of all bone marrow-derived cells (by irradiation) or local depletion of macrophages in the cornea (using clodronate liposomes) prior to injury significantly inhibited both hemangiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis. We conclude that VEGF-A recruitment of monocytes/macrophages plays a crucial role in inducing inflammatory neovascularization by supplying/amplifying signals essential for pathological hemangiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis. (+info)Lymphangiogenesis is the formation of new lymphatic vessels from pre-existing ones. It is a complex biological process that involves the growth, differentiation, and remodeling of lymphatic endothelial cells, which line the interior surface of lymphatic vessels. Lymphangiogenesis plays crucial roles in various physiological processes, including tissue drainage, immune surveillance, and lipid absorption. However, it can also contribute to pathological conditions such as cancer metastasis, inflammation, and fibrosis when it is dysregulated.
The process of lymphangiogenesis is regulated by a variety of growth factors, receptors, and signaling molecules, including vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-C, VEGF-D, and their receptor VEGFR-3, as well as other factors such as angiopoietins, integrins, and matrix metalloproteinases. Understanding the mechanisms of lymphangiogenesis has important implications for developing novel therapies for a range of diseases associated with abnormal lymphatic vessel growth and function.
Lymphatic vessels are thin-walled, valved structures that collect and transport lymph, a fluid derived from the interstitial fluid surrounding the cells, throughout the lymphatic system. They play a crucial role in immune function and maintaining fluid balance in the body. The primary function of lymphatic vessels is to return excess interstitial fluid, proteins, waste products, and immune cells to the bloodstream via the subclavian veins near the heart.
There are two types of lymphatic vessels:
1. Lymphatic capillaries: These are the smallest lymphatic vessels, found in most body tissues except for the central nervous system (CNS). They have blind ends and are highly permeable to allow the entry of interstitial fluid, proteins, and other large molecules.
2. Larger lymphatic vessels: These include precollecting vessels, collecting vessels, and lymphatic trunks. Precollecting vessels have valves that prevent backflow of lymph and merge to form larger collecting vessels. Collecting vessels contain smooth muscle in their walls, which helps to propel the lymph forward. They also have valves at regular intervals to ensure unidirectional flow towards the heart. Lymphatic trunks are large vessels that collect lymph from various regions of the body and eventually drain into the two main lymphatic ducts: the thoracic duct and the right lymphatic duct.
Overall, lymphatic vessels play a vital role in maintaining fluid balance, immune surveillance, and waste removal in the human body.
Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor C (VEGF-C) is a protein that belongs to the family of vascular endothelial growth factors. It plays a crucial role in angiogenesis, which is the formation of new blood vessels from pre-existing ones. Specifically, VEGF-C is a key regulator of lymphangiogenesis, which is the development of new lymphatic vessels.
VEGF-C stimulates the growth and proliferation of lymphatic endothelial cells, leading to an increase in the number and size of lymphatic vessels. This process is important for maintaining fluid balance in tissues and for the immune system's response to infection and inflammation.
Abnormal regulation of VEGF-C has been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, where it can promote tumor growth and metastasis by enhancing the formation of new blood vessels that supply nutrients and oxygen to the tumor. Inhibitors of VEGF-C have been developed as potential therapeutic agents for cancer treatment.
Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor-3 (VEGFR-3) is a type of receptor tyrosine kinase that is primarily expressed in lymphatic endothelial cells. It is a crucial regulator of lymphangiogenesis, which is the formation of new lymphatic vessels from pre-existing ones. VEGFR-3 binds to its ligands, including VEGF-C and VEGF-D, leading to the activation of downstream signaling pathways that promote cell survival, proliferation, migration, and differentiation of lymphatic endothelial cells.
VEGFR-3 also plays a role in angiogenesis, which is the formation of new blood vessels from pre-existing ones. However, its functions in angiogenesis are less well understood compared to its roles in lymphangiogenesis. Dysregulation of VEGFR-3 signaling has been implicated in various pathological conditions, including cancer, inflammation, and lymphatic disorders.
Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor D (VEGFD) is a protein that belongs to the family of vascular endothelial growth factors. It plays an essential role in the process of angiogenesis, which is the formation of new blood vessels from pre-existing ones. Specifically, VEGFD stimulates the growth and proliferation of lymphatic endothelial cells, thereby promoting the development and maintenance of the lymphatic system.
VEGFD binds to its specific receptor, VEGFR-3, which is primarily expressed on the surface of lymphatic endothelial cells. This binding triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling events that ultimately lead to the activation of various genes involved in cell proliferation, migration, and survival.
Dysregulation of VEGFD and its receptor has been implicated in several pathological conditions, including lymphatic malformations, cancer, and inflammatory diseases. In these contexts, the overexpression or aberrant activation of VEGFD can contribute to excessive angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis, leading to tissue edema, tumor growth, and metastasis. Therefore, targeting the VEGFD signaling pathway has emerged as a promising therapeutic strategy for various diseases.
The lymphatic system is a complex network of organs, tissues, vessels, and cells that work together to defend the body against infectious diseases and also play a crucial role in the immune system. It is made up of:
1. Lymphoid Organs: These include the spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, tonsils, adenoids, and Peyer's patches (in the intestines). They produce and mature immune cells.
2. Lymphatic Vessels: These are thin tubes that carry clear fluid called lymph towards the heart.
3. Lymph: This is a clear-to-white fluid that contains white blood cells, mainly lymphocytes, which help fight infections.
4. Other tissues and cells: These include bone marrow where immune cells are produced, and lymphocytes (T cells and B cells) which are types of white blood cells that help protect the body from infection and disease.
The primary function of the lymphatic system is to transport lymph throughout the body, collecting waste products, bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances from the tissues, and filtering them out through the lymph nodes. The lymphatic system also helps in the absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins from food in the digestive tract.
The endothelium is a thin layer of cells that lines the interior surface of blood vessels and lymphatic vessels. The lymphatic endothelium, specifically, is the type of endothelial cell that forms the walls of lymphatic vessels. These vessels are an important part of the immune system and play a crucial role in transporting fluid, waste products, and immune cells throughout the body.
The lymphatic endothelium helps to regulate the movement of fluids and cells between the tissues and the bloodstream. It also contains specialized structures called valves that help to ensure the unidirectional flow of lymph fluid towards the heart. Dysfunction of the lymphatic endothelium has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including lymphedema, inflammation, and cancer metastasis.
Corneal neovascularization is a medical condition that refers to the growth of new, abnormal blood vessels in the cornea, which is the clear, dome-shaped surface at the front of the eye. The cornea typically receives its nutrients from tears and oxygen in the air, so it does not have its own blood vessels. However, when the cornea is damaged or inflamed, it may trigger the growth of new blood vessels from the surrounding tissue into the cornea to promote healing.
Corneal neovascularization can occur due to various eye conditions such as infection, injury, inflammation, degenerative diseases, or contact lens wear. Excessive growth of blood vessels in the cornea can interfere with vision, cause scarring, and increase the risk of corneal transplant rejection. Treatment for corneal neovascularization depends on the underlying cause and may include topical medications, surgery, or other therapies to reduce inflammation, prevent further growth of blood vessels, and preserve vision.
Lymphedema is a chronic condition characterized by swelling in one or more parts of the body, usually an arm or leg, due to the accumulation of lymph fluid. This occurs when the lymphatic system is unable to properly drain the fluid, often as a result of damage or removal of lymph nodes, or because of a genetic abnormality that affects lymphatic vessel development.
The swelling can range from mild to severe and may cause discomfort, tightness, or a feeling of heaviness in the affected limb. In some cases, lymphedema can also lead to skin changes, recurrent infections, and reduced mobility. The condition is currently not curable but can be managed effectively with various treatments such as compression garments, manual lymphatic drainage, exercise, and skincare routines.
Lymphatic metastasis is the spread of cancer cells from a primary tumor to distant lymph nodes through the lymphatic system. It occurs when malignant cells break away from the original tumor, enter the lymphatic vessels, and travel to nearby or remote lymph nodes. Once there, these cancer cells can multiply and form new tumors, leading to further progression of the disease. Lymphatic metastasis is a common way for many types of cancer to spread and can have significant implications for prognosis and treatment strategies.
Pathologic neovascularization is the abnormal growth of new blood vessels in previously avascular tissue or excessive growth within existing vasculature, which occurs as a result of hypoxia, inflammation, or angiogenic stimuli. These newly formed vessels are often disorganized, fragile, and lack proper vessel hierarchy, leading to impaired blood flow and increased vascular permeability. Pathologic neovascularization can be observed in various diseases such as cancer, diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, and chronic inflammation. This process contributes to disease progression by promoting tumor growth, metastasis, and edema formation, ultimately leading to tissue damage and organ dysfunction.
Neuropilin-2 is a protein in humans that is encoded by the NRP2 gene. It is a transmembrane glycoprotein receptor that is widely expressed in various tissues, including the nervous system, endothelium, and certain types of cancer cells. Neuropilin-2 plays important roles in the development and function of the nervous system, such as axon guidance and neuronal migration. It also functions as a co-receptor for semaphorins, a family of proteins that are involved in the regulation of cell growth, differentiation, and migration. In addition to its role in the nervous system, Neuropilin-2 has been implicated in the regulation of immune responses, angiogenesis, and tumorigenesis.
Endothelial cells are the type of cells that line the inner surface of blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and heart chambers. They play a crucial role in maintaining vascular homeostasis by controlling vasomotor tone, coagulation, platelet activation, and inflammation. Endothelial cells also regulate the transport of molecules between the blood and surrounding tissues, and contribute to the maintenance of the structural integrity of the vasculature. They are flat, elongated cells with a unique morphology that allows them to form a continuous, nonthrombogenic lining inside the vessels. Endothelial cells can be isolated from various tissues and cultured in vitro for research purposes.
"Mycoplasma pulmonis" is a species of bacteria that belongs to the genus Mycoplasma, which are characterized as the smallest free-living organisms. "M. pulmonis" is known to primarily infect rodents, particularly mice and rats, causing respiratory diseases. It colonizes the upper and lower respiratory tract, leading to conditions such as murine respiratory mycoplasmosis (MRM).
The bacteria lack a cell wall, which makes them resistant to many antibiotics that target cell wall synthesis. They can cause chronic inflammation and damage to the respiratory system, including airway obstruction, bronchiolitis, and alveolitis. Transmission of "M. pulmonis" typically occurs through direct contact with infected animals or their aerosolized secretions.
It is important to note that "Mycoplasma pulmonis" does not infect humans and is primarily a research model for studying bacterial respiratory infections and host immune responses.
Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A (VEGFA) is a specific isoform of the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) family. It is a well-characterized signaling protein that plays a crucial role in angiogenesis, the process of new blood vessel formation from pre-existing vessels. VEGFA stimulates the proliferation and migration of endothelial cells, which line the interior surface of blood vessels, thereby contributing to the growth and development of new vasculature. This protein is essential for physiological processes such as embryonic development and wound healing, but it has also been implicated in various pathological conditions, including cancer, age-related macular degeneration, and diabetic retinopathy. The regulation of VEGFA expression and activity is critical to maintaining proper vascular function and homeostasis.
Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor-2 (VEGFR-2) is a tyrosine kinase receptor that is primarily expressed on vascular endothelial cells. It is a crucial regulator of angiogenesis, the process of new blood vessel formation from pre-existing vessels. VEGFR-2 is activated by binding to its ligand, Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor-A (VEGF-A), leading to receptor dimerization and autophosphorylation. This activation triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling events that promote endothelial cell proliferation, migration, survival, and vascular permeability, all essential steps in the angiogenic process.
VEGFR-2 plays a significant role in physiological and pathological conditions associated with angiogenesis, such as embryonic development, wound healing, tumor growth, and retinopathies. Inhibition of VEGFR-2 signaling has been an attractive target for anti-angiogenic therapies in various diseases, including cancer and age-related macular degeneration.
Lymph nodes are small, bean-shaped organs that are part of the immune system. They are found throughout the body, especially in the neck, armpits, groin, and abdomen. Lymph nodes filter lymph fluid, which carries waste and unwanted substances such as bacteria, viruses, and cancer cells. They contain white blood cells called lymphocytes that help fight infections and diseases by attacking and destroying the harmful substances found in the lymph fluid. When an infection or disease is present, lymph nodes may swell due to the increased number of immune cells and fluid accumulation as they work to fight off the invaders.
The cornea is the clear, dome-shaped surface at the front of the eye. It plays a crucial role in focusing vision. The cornea protects the eye from harmful particles and microorganisms, and it also serves as a barrier against UV light. Its transparency allows light to pass through and get focused onto the retina. The cornea does not contain blood vessels, so it relies on tears and the fluid inside the eye (aqueous humor) for nutrition and oxygen. Any damage or disease that affects its clarity and shape can significantly impact vision and potentially lead to blindness if left untreated.
CD31 (also known as PECAM-1 or Platelet Endothelial Cell Adhesion Molecule-1) is a type of protein that is found on the surface of certain cells in the body, including platelets, endothelial cells (which line the blood vessels), and some immune cells.
CD31 functions as a cell adhesion molecule, meaning it helps cells stick together and interact with each other. It plays important roles in various physiological processes, such as the regulation of leukocyte migration, angiogenesis (the formation of new blood vessels), hemostasis (the process that stops bleeding), and thrombosis (the formation of a blood clot inside a blood vessel).
As an antigen, CD31 is used in immunological techniques to identify and characterize cells expressing this protein. Antigens are substances that can be recognized by the immune system and stimulate an immune response. In the case of CD31, antibodies specific to this protein can be used to detect its presence on the surface of cells, providing valuable information for research and diagnostic purposes.
Lymphangioma is a benign (noncancerous) tumor or malformation that occurs due to the abnormal development of the lymphatic system, a part of the immune system that helps fight infection and eliminate waste products. Lymphangiomas are typically composed of dilated lymphatic vessels filled with clear fluid called lymph. These masses can occur in various parts of the body but are most commonly found in the head, neck, and axilla (armpit) regions.
There are three main types of lymphangiomas:
1. Capillary lymphangioma: Also known as "lymphangiectasia" or "lymphangiomatosis," this is the most superficial and least aggressive type, often presenting as small vesicles or blisters on the skin.
2. Cavernous lymphangioma: This type consists of larger, more dilated lymphatic spaces and can involve deeper tissues. It usually appears as a soft, compressible mass beneath the skin.
3. Cystic hygroma: A subtype of cavernous lymphangioma, cystic hygromas are typically found in the neck or axilla regions and present as large, fluid-filled sacs or cysts.
Lymphangiomas can cause various symptoms depending on their size and location, including swelling, pain, infection, difficulty swallowing, or breathing problems if they compress vital structures such as airways or blood vessels. Treatment options may include surgical excision, sclerotherapy (injection of a substance to shrink the lesion), or observation, depending on the individual case and patient's preferences.
Physiologic neovascularization is the natural and controlled formation of new blood vessels in the body, which occurs as a part of normal growth and development, as well as in response to tissue repair and wound healing. This process involves the activation of endothelial cells, which line the interior surface of blood vessels, and their migration, proliferation, and tube formation to create new capillaries. Physiologic neovascularization is tightly regulated by a balance of pro-angiogenic and anti-angiogenic factors, ensuring that it occurs only when and where it is needed. It plays crucial roles in various physiological processes, such as embryonic development, tissue regeneration, and wound healing.
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) receptors are a type of cell surface receptor that play crucial roles in the process of angiogenesis, which is the formation of new blood vessels from pre-existing ones. These receptors bind to VEGF proteins, leading to a cascade of intracellular signaling events that ultimately result in the proliferation, migration, and survival of endothelial cells, which line the interior surface of blood vessels. There are three main types of VEGF receptors: VEGFR-1, VEGFR-2, and VEGFR-3. These receptors have distinct roles in angiogenesis, with VEGFR-2 being the primary mediator of this process. Dysregulation of VEGF signaling has been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, age-related macular degeneration, and diabetic retinopathy, making VEGF receptors important targets for therapeutic intervention.
Corneal transplantation, also known as keratoplasty, is a surgical procedure in which all or part of a damaged or diseased cornea is replaced with healthy corneal tissue from a deceased donor. The cornea is the clear, dome-shaped surface at the front of the eye that plays an important role in focusing vision. When it becomes cloudy or misshapen due to injury, infection, or inherited conditions, vision can become significantly impaired.
During the procedure, the surgeon carefully removes a circular section of the damaged cornea and replaces it with a similarly sized piece of donor tissue. The new cornea is then stitched into place using very fine sutures that are typically removed several months after surgery.
Corneal transplantation has a high success rate, with more than 90% of procedures resulting in improved vision. However, as with any surgical procedure, there are risks involved, including infection, rejection of the donor tissue, and bleeding. Regular follow-up care is essential to monitor for any signs of complications and ensure proper healing.
Endothelial growth factors (ECGFs or EGFs) are a group of signaling proteins that stimulate the growth, proliferation, and survival of endothelial cells, which line the interior surface of blood vessels. These growth factors play crucial roles in various physiological processes, including angiogenesis (the formation of new blood vessels), wound healing, and vascular development during embryogenesis.
One of the most well-studied EGFs is the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) family, which consists of several members like VEGFA, VEGFB, VEGFC, VEGFD, and placental growth factor (PlGF). These factors bind to specific receptors on the surface of endothelial cells, leading to a cascade of intracellular signaling events that ultimately result in cell proliferation, migration, and survival.
Other EGFs include fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β). Dysregulation of endothelial growth factors has been implicated in various pathological conditions, such as cancer, diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, and cardiovascular diseases. Therefore, understanding the functions and regulation of EGFs is essential for developing novel therapeutic strategies to treat these disorders.
Growth factor receptors are a type of cell surface receptor that bind to specific growth factors, which are signaling molecules that play crucial roles in regulating various cellular processes such as growth, differentiation, and survival. These receptors have an extracellular domain that can recognize and bind to the growth factor and an intracellular domain that can transduce the signal into the cell through a series of biochemical reactions.
There are several types of growth factors, including fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), epidermal growth factors (EGFs), vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGFs), and transforming growth factors (TGFs). Each type of growth factor has its own specific receptor or family of receptors.
Once a growth factor binds to its receptor, it triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling events that ultimately lead to changes in gene expression, protein synthesis, and other cellular responses. These responses can include the activation of enzymes, the regulation of ion channels, and the modulation of cytoskeletal dynamics.
Abnormalities in growth factor receptor signaling have been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, developmental disorders, and autoimmune diseases. For example, mutations in growth factor receptors can lead to uncontrolled cell growth and division, which is a hallmark of cancer. Therefore, understanding the structure and function of growth factor receptors has important implications for the development of new therapies for these diseases.
Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a technique used in pathology and laboratory medicine to identify specific proteins or antigens in tissue sections. It combines the principles of immunology and histology to detect the presence and location of these target molecules within cells and tissues. This technique utilizes antibodies that are specific to the protein or antigen of interest, which are then tagged with a detection system such as a chromogen or fluorophore. The stained tissue sections can be examined under a microscope, allowing for the visualization and analysis of the distribution and expression patterns of the target molecule in the context of the tissue architecture. Immunohistochemistry is widely used in diagnostic pathology to help identify various diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, and immune-mediated disorders.
Vesicular transport proteins are specialized proteins that play a crucial role in the intracellular trafficking and transportation of various biomolecules, such as proteins and lipids, within eukaryotic cells. These proteins facilitate the formation, movement, and fusion of membrane-bound vesicles, which are small, spherical structures that carry cargo between different cellular compartments or organelles.
There are several types of vesicular transport proteins involved in this process:
1. Coat Proteins (COPs): These proteins form a coat around the vesicle membrane and help shape it into its spherical form during the budding process. They also participate in selecting and sorting cargo for transportation. Two main types of COPs exist: COPI, which is involved in transport between the Golgi apparatus and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and COPII, which mediates transport from the ER to the Golgi apparatus.
2. SNARE Proteins: These proteins are responsible for the specific recognition and docking of vesicles with their target membranes. They form complexes that bring the vesicle and target membranes close together, allowing for fusion and the release of cargo into the target organelle. There are two types of SNARE proteins: v-SNAREs (vesicle SNAREs) and t-SNAREs (target SNAREs), which interact to form a stable complex during membrane fusion.
3. Rab GTPases: These proteins act as molecular switches that regulate the recruitment of coat proteins, motor proteins, and SNAREs during vesicle transport. They cycle between an active GTP-bound state and an inactive GDP-bound state, controlling the various stages of vesicular trafficking, such as budding, transport, tethering, and fusion.
4. Tethering Proteins: These proteins help to bridge the gap between vesicles and their target membranes before SNARE-mediated fusion occurs. They play a role in ensuring specificity during vesicle docking and may also contribute to regulating the timing of membrane fusion events.
5. Soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor Attachment Protein Receptors (SNAREs): These proteins are involved in intracellular transport, particularly in the trafficking of vesicles between organelles. They consist of a family of coiled-coil domain-containing proteins that form complexes to mediate membrane fusion events.
Overall, these various classes of proteins work together to ensure the specificity and efficiency of vesicular transport in eukaryotic cells. Dysregulation or mutation of these proteins can lead to various diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders and cancer.
Lymphography is not a commonly used term in current medical practice. However, historically, it referred to a radiographic imaging technique that involved the injection of a contrast material into the lymphatic system to visualize the lymph nodes and lymph vessels. This procedure was used primarily for diagnostic purposes, particularly in the evaluation of cancerous conditions like lymphoma or melanoma.
The process typically involved injecting a radiopaque substance into the interstitial tissue, which would then be taken up by the lymphatic vessels and transported to the regional lymph nodes. X-ray imaging was used to track the progression of the contrast material, creating detailed images of the lymphatic system.
Due to advancements in medical imaging technology, lymphography has largely been replaced by other non-invasive imaging techniques such as computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and positron emission tomography (PET) scans. These modern methods provide high-resolution images of the body's internal structures without requiring invasive procedures or the use of contrast materials.
Blood vessels are the part of the circulatory system that transport blood throughout the body. They form a network of tubes that carry blood to and from the heart, lungs, and other organs. The main types of blood vessels are arteries, veins, and capillaries. Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the rest of the body, while veins return deoxygenated blood back to the heart. Capillaries connect arteries and veins and facilitate the exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste materials between the blood and the body's tissues.
Cell movement, also known as cell motility, refers to the ability of cells to move independently and change their location within tissue or inside the body. This process is essential for various biological functions, including embryonic development, wound healing, immune responses, and cancer metastasis.
There are several types of cell movement, including:
1. **Crawling or mesenchymal migration:** Cells move by extending and retracting protrusions called pseudopodia or filopodia, which contain actin filaments. This type of movement is common in fibroblasts, immune cells, and cancer cells during tissue invasion and metastasis.
2. **Amoeboid migration:** Cells move by changing their shape and squeezing through tight spaces without forming protrusions. This type of movement is often observed in white blood cells (leukocytes) as they migrate through the body to fight infections.
3. **Pseudopodial extension:** Cells extend pseudopodia, which are temporary cytoplasmic projections containing actin filaments. These protrusions help the cell explore its environment and move forward.
4. **Bacterial flagellar motion:** Bacteria use a whip-like structure called a flagellum to propel themselves through their environment. The rotation of the flagellum is driven by a molecular motor in the bacterial cell membrane.
5. **Ciliary and ependymal movement:** Ciliated cells, such as those lining the respiratory tract and fallopian tubes, have hair-like structures called cilia that beat in coordinated waves to move fluids or mucus across the cell surface.
Cell movement is regulated by a complex interplay of signaling pathways, cytoskeletal rearrangements, and adhesion molecules, which enable cells to respond to environmental cues and navigate through tissues.
C57BL/6 (C57 Black 6) is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The term "inbred" refers to a strain of animals where matings have been carried out between siblings or other closely related individuals for many generations, resulting in a population that is highly homozygous at most genetic loci.
The C57BL/6 strain was established in 1920 by crossing a female mouse from the dilute brown (DBA) strain with a male mouse from the black strain. The resulting offspring were then interbred for many generations to create the inbred C57BL/6 strain.
C57BL/6 mice are known for their robust health, longevity, and ease of handling, making them a popular choice for researchers. They have been used in a wide range of biomedical research areas, including studies of cancer, immunology, neuroscience, cardiovascular disease, and metabolism.
One of the most notable features of the C57BL/6 strain is its sensitivity to certain genetic modifications, such as the introduction of mutations that lead to obesity or impaired glucose tolerance. This has made it a valuable tool for studying the genetic basis of complex diseases and traits.
Overall, the C57BL/6 inbred mouse strain is an important model organism in biomedical research, providing a valuable resource for understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying human health and disease.
Transgenic mice are genetically modified rodents that have incorporated foreign DNA (exogenous DNA) into their own genome. This is typically done through the use of recombinant DNA technology, where a specific gene or genetic sequence of interest is isolated and then introduced into the mouse embryo. The resulting transgenic mice can then express the protein encoded by the foreign gene, allowing researchers to study its function in a living organism.
The process of creating transgenic mice usually involves microinjecting the exogenous DNA into the pronucleus of a fertilized egg, which is then implanted into a surrogate mother. The offspring that result from this procedure are screened for the presence of the foreign DNA, and those that carry the desired genetic modification are used to establish a transgenic mouse line.
Transgenic mice have been widely used in biomedical research to model human diseases, study gene function, and test new therapies. They provide a valuable tool for understanding complex biological processes and developing new treatments for a variety of medical conditions.
Inflammation is a complex biological response of tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. It is characterized by the following signs: rubor (redness), tumor (swelling), calor (heat), dolor (pain), and functio laesa (loss of function). The process involves the activation of the immune system, recruitment of white blood cells, and release of inflammatory mediators, which contribute to the elimination of the injurious stimuli and initiation of the healing process. However, uncontrolled or chronic inflammation can also lead to tissue damage and diseases.
Glycoproteins are complex proteins that contain oligosaccharide chains (glycans) covalently attached to their polypeptide backbone. These glycans are linked to the protein through asparagine residues (N-linked) or serine/threonine residues (O-linked). Glycoproteins play crucial roles in various biological processes, including cell recognition, cell-cell interactions, cell adhesion, and signal transduction. They are widely distributed in nature and can be found on the outer surface of cell membranes, in extracellular fluids, and as components of the extracellular matrix. The structure and composition of glycoproteins can vary significantly depending on their function and location within an organism.
Etodolac is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that is used to relieve pain, reduce inflammation, and decrease fever. It works by inhibiting the production of prostaglandins, which are hormone-like substances that cause pain and inflammation in the body.
Etodolac is available in immediate-release and extended-release forms, and it can be taken orally as a tablet or capsule. It is typically used to treat conditions such as osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and other types of joint pain and inflammation.
As with all medications, etodolac can have side effects, including stomach ulcers, bleeding, and kidney or liver problems. It should be used under the guidance of a healthcare provider, who can monitor for potential adverse effects and adjust the dosage as necessary. It is important to follow the instructions provided by the healthcare provider carefully when taking etodolac.
Cell proliferation is the process by which cells increase in number, typically through the process of cell division. In the context of biology and medicine, it refers to the reproduction of cells that makes up living tissue, allowing growth, maintenance, and repair. It involves several stages including the transition from a phase of quiescence (G0 phase) to an active phase (G1 phase), DNA replication in the S phase, and mitosis or M phase, where the cell divides into two daughter cells.
Abnormal or uncontrolled cell proliferation is a characteristic feature of many diseases, including cancer, where deregulated cell cycle control leads to excessive and unregulated growth of cells, forming tumors that can invade surrounding tissues and metastasize to distant sites in the body.
CD11b, also known as integrin αM or Mac-1, is not an antigen itself but a protein that forms part of a family of cell surface receptors called integrins. These integrins play a crucial role in various biological processes, including cell adhesion, migration, and signaling.
CD11b combines with CD18 (integrin β2) to form the heterodimeric integrin αMβ2, also known as Mac-1 or CR3 (complement receptor 3). This integrin is primarily expressed on the surface of myeloid cells, such as monocytes, macrophages, and neutrophils.
As an integral part of the immune system, CD11b/CD18 recognizes and binds to various ligands, including:
1. Icosahedral bacterial components like lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and peptidoglycans
2. Fragments of complement component C3b (iC3b)
3. Fibrinogen and other extracellular matrix proteins
4. Certain immune cell receptors, such as ICAM-1 (intercellular adhesion molecule 1)
The binding of CD11b/CD18 to these ligands triggers various intracellular signaling pathways that regulate the immune response and inflammation. In this context, antigens are substances (usually proteins or polysaccharides) found on the surface of cells, viruses, or bacteria that can be recognized by the immune system. CD11b/CD18 plays a role in recognizing and responding to these antigens during an immune response.
BALB/c is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The strain was developed at the Institute of Cancer Research in London by Henry Baldwin and his colleagues in the 1920s, and it has since become one of the most commonly used inbred strains in the world.
BALB/c mice are characterized by their black coat color, which is determined by a recessive allele at the tyrosinase locus. They are also known for their docile and friendly temperament, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory.
One of the key features of BALB/c mice that makes them useful for research is their susceptibility to certain types of tumors and immune responses. For example, they are highly susceptible to developing mammary tumors, which can be induced by chemical carcinogens or viral infection. They also have a strong Th2-biased immune response, which makes them useful models for studying allergic diseases and asthma.
BALB/c mice are also commonly used in studies of genetics, neuroscience, behavior, and infectious diseases. Because they are an inbred strain, they have a uniform genetic background, which makes it easier to control for genetic factors in experiments. Additionally, because they have been bred in the laboratory for many generations, they are highly standardized and reproducible, making them ideal subjects for scientific research.
In medical terms, the skin is the largest organ of the human body. It consists of two main layers: the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (inner layer), as well as accessory structures like hair follicles, sweat glands, and oil glands. The skin plays a crucial role in protecting us from external factors such as bacteria, viruses, and environmental hazards, while also regulating body temperature and enabling the sense of touch.
Psoralea is a genus of plants in the legume family, Fabaceae. However, in a medical context, Psoralea seeds or fruits are sometimes referred to as a traditional herbal remedy in certain cultures. The seeds contain compounds with potential medicinal properties, such as psoralen, which can increase skin sensitivity to sunlight and have been used in the treatment of vitiligo, a condition that causes depigmentation of the skin.
It's important to note that the use of Psoralea seeds as a medical treatment is not widely accepted or studied in modern medicine, and they can have side effects, including nausea, vomiting, and increased risk of skin cancer with excessive sun exposure. Therefore, it should only be used under the guidance of a healthcare professional.
Morpholinos are synthetic oligonucleotides that contain morpholine rings in their backbone instead of the ribose or deoxyribose sugars found in DNA and RNA. They are often used as antisense agents to inhibit gene expression by binding to complementary RNA sequences, preventing translation or splicing. Morpholinos are resistant to nucleases and have a neutral charge, which makes them more stable and less likely to cause off-target effects compared to other antisense technologies. They have been widely used in research to study gene function and have also shown promise as therapeutic agents for various diseases, including neuromuscular disorders and viral infections.
Neoplasm metastasis is the spread of cancer cells from the primary site (where the original or primary tumor formed) to other places in the body. This happens when cancer cells break away from the original (primary) tumor and enter the bloodstream or lymphatic system. The cancer cells can then travel to other parts of the body and form new tumors, called secondary tumors or metastases.
Metastasis is a key feature of malignant neoplasms (cancers), and it is one of the main ways that cancer can cause harm in the body. The metastatic tumors may continue to grow and may cause damage to the organs and tissues where they are located. They can also release additional cancer cells into the bloodstream or lymphatic system, leading to further spread of the cancer.
The metastatic tumors are named based on the location where they are found, as well as the type of primary cancer. For example, if a patient has a primary lung cancer that has metastasized to the liver, the metastatic tumor would be called a liver metastasis from lung cancer.
It is important to note that the presence of metastases can significantly affect a person's prognosis and treatment options. In general, metastatic cancer is more difficult to treat than cancer that has not spread beyond its original site. However, there are many factors that can influence a person's prognosis and response to treatment, so it is important for each individual to discuss their specific situation with their healthcare team.
Penetrating keratoplasty (PK) is a type of corneal transplant surgery where the entire thickness of the host's damaged or diseased cornea is removed and replaced with a similar full-thickness portion of a healthy donor's cornea. The procedure aims to restore visual function, alleviate pain, and improve the structural integrity of the eye. It is typically performed for conditions such as severe keratoconus, corneal scarring, or corneal ulcers that cannot be treated with other, less invasive methods. Following the surgery, patients may require extended recovery time and rigorous postoperative care to minimize the risk of complications and ensure optimal visual outcomes.
In the context of human anatomy, the term "tail" is not used to describe any part of the body. Humans are considered tailless primates, and there is no structure or feature that corresponds directly to the tails found in many other animals.
However, there are some medical terms related to the lower end of the spine that might be confused with a tail:
1. Coccyx (Tailbone): The coccyx is a small triangular bone at the very bottom of the spinal column, formed by the fusion of several rudimentary vertebrae. It's also known as the tailbone because it resembles the end of an animal's tail in its location and appearance.
2. Cauda Equina (Horse's Tail): The cauda equina is a bundle of nerve roots at the lower end of the spinal cord, just above the coccyx. It got its name because it looks like a horse's tail due to the numerous rootlets radiating from the conus medullaris (the tapering end of the spinal cord).
These two structures are not tails in the traditional sense but rather medical terms related to the lower end of the human spine.
Granulation tissue is the pinkish, bumpy material that forms on the surface of a healing wound. It's composed of tiny blood vessels (capillaries), white blood cells, and fibroblasts - cells that produce collagen, which is a protein that helps to strengthen and support the tissue.
Granulation tissue plays a crucial role in the wound healing process by filling in the wound space, contracting the wound, and providing a foundation for the growth of new skin cells (epithelialization). It's typically formed within 3-5 days after an injury and continues to develop until the wound is fully healed.
It's important to note that while granulation tissue is a normal part of the healing process, excessive or overgrowth of granulation tissue can lead to complications such as delayed healing, infection, or the formation of hypertrophic scars or keloids. In these cases, medical intervention may be necessary to manage the excess tissue and promote proper healing.
Neoplasms are abnormal growths of cells or tissues in the body that serve no physiological function. They can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Benign neoplasms are typically slow growing and do not spread to other parts of the body, while malignant neoplasms are aggressive, invasive, and can metastasize to distant sites.
Neoplasms occur when there is a dysregulation in the normal process of cell division and differentiation, leading to uncontrolled growth and accumulation of cells. This can result from genetic mutations or other factors such as viral infections, environmental exposures, or hormonal imbalances.
Neoplasms can develop in any organ or tissue of the body and can cause various symptoms depending on their size, location, and type. Treatment options for neoplasms include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and targeted therapy, among others.
Signal transduction is the process by which a cell converts an extracellular signal, such as a hormone or neurotransmitter, into an intracellular response. This involves a series of molecular events that transmit the signal from the cell surface to the interior of the cell, ultimately resulting in changes in gene expression, protein activity, or metabolism.
The process typically begins with the binding of the extracellular signal to a receptor located on the cell membrane. This binding event activates the receptor, which then triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling molecules, such as second messengers, protein kinases, and ion channels. These molecules amplify and propagate the signal, ultimately leading to the activation or inhibition of specific cellular responses.
Signal transduction pathways are highly regulated and can be modulated by various factors, including other signaling molecules, post-translational modifications, and feedback mechanisms. Dysregulation of these pathways has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.
"Nude mice" is a term used in the field of laboratory research to describe a strain of mice that have been genetically engineered to lack a functional immune system. Specifically, nude mice lack a thymus gland and have a mutation in the FOXN1 gene, which results in a failure to develop a mature T-cell population. This means that they are unable to mount an effective immune response against foreign substances or organisms.
The name "nude" refers to the fact that these mice also have a lack of functional hair follicles, resulting in a hairless or partially hairless phenotype. This feature is actually a secondary consequence of the same genetic mutation that causes their immune deficiency.
Nude mice are commonly used in research because their weakened immune system makes them an ideal host for transplanted tumors, tissues, and cells from other species, including humans. This allows researchers to study the behavior of these foreign substances in a living organism without the complication of an immune response. However, it's important to note that because nude mice lack a functional immune system, they must be kept in sterile conditions and are more susceptible to infection than normal mice.
Prostaglandin E (PGE) receptors are a subfamily of G protein-coupled receptors that are involved in various physiological and pathophysiological processes. The EP1 subtype of PGE receptors is one of four subtypes, along with EP2, EP3, and EP4.
EP1 receptors are widely expressed in various tissues, including the brain, heart, kidney, lung, and gastrointestinal tract. They are coupled to Gq proteins, which activate phospholipase C (PLC) and increase intracellular calcium levels upon activation.
EP1 receptor activation has been implicated in a variety of physiological responses, including vasoconstriction, increased heart rate and contractility, and inflammation. In the central nervous system, EP1 receptors have been shown to play a role in pain perception, thermoregulation, and neuroprotection.
Pharmacologically, selective EP1 receptor antagonists have been developed and are being investigated for their potential therapeutic benefits in various conditions, such as hypertension, myocardial ischemia, and inflammatory diseases.
A cell line that is derived from tumor cells and has been adapted to grow in culture. These cell lines are often used in research to study the characteristics of cancer cells, including their growth patterns, genetic changes, and responses to various treatments. They can be established from many different types of tumors, such as carcinomas, sarcomas, and leukemias. Once established, these cell lines can be grown and maintained indefinitely in the laboratory, allowing researchers to conduct experiments and studies that would not be feasible using primary tumor cells. It is important to note that tumor cell lines may not always accurately represent the behavior of the original tumor, as they can undergo genetic changes during their time in culture.
"Saussurea" is a genus of flowering plants in the family Asteraceae, also known as the daisy family. These plants are native to the mountainous regions of the Northern Hemisphere, particularly in Asia and North America. The genus includes over 300 species, many of which have medicinal properties.
In traditional medicine, some Saussurea species have been used for their anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic effects. For example, Saussurea costus (also known as "costus root" or "kuth") has been used in Ayurvedic and Unani medicine to treat a variety of conditions such as respiratory disorders, digestive issues, and skin diseases.
However, it's important to note that while some Saussurea species have medicinal uses, they should only be used under the guidance of a qualified healthcare practitioner, as improper use or dosage can lead to adverse effects. Additionally, further research is needed to fully understand the pharmacological properties and safety profiles of these plants.
Lymph is a colorless, transparent fluid that circulates throughout the lymphatic system, which is a part of the immune and circulatory systems. It consists of white blood cells called lymphocytes, proteins, lipids, glucose, electrolytes, hormones, and waste products. Lymph plays an essential role in maintaining fluid balance, absorbing fats from the digestive tract, and defending the body against infection by transporting immune cells to various tissues and organs. It is collected from tissues through lymph capillaries and flows through increasingly larger lymphatic vessels, ultimately returning to the bloodstream via the subclavian veins in the chest region.
Melanoma is defined as a type of cancer that develops from the pigment-containing cells known as melanocytes. It typically occurs in the skin but can rarely occur in other parts of the body, including the eyes and internal organs. Melanoma is characterized by the uncontrolled growth and multiplication of melanocytes, which can form malignant tumors that invade and destroy surrounding tissue.
Melanoma is often caused by exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun or tanning beds, but it can also occur in areas of the body not exposed to the sun. It is more likely to develop in people with fair skin, light hair, and blue or green eyes, but it can affect anyone, regardless of their skin type.
Melanoma can be treated effectively if detected early, but if left untreated, it can spread to other parts of the body and become life-threatening. Treatment options for melanoma include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and targeted therapy, depending on the stage and location of the cancer. Regular skin examinations and self-checks are recommended to detect any changes or abnormalities in moles or other pigmented lesions that may indicate melanoma.
Corneal surgery, laser refers to a type of surgical procedure performed on the cornea (the clear, dome-shaped surface at the front of the eye) using a laser. The most common type of laser used in corneal surgery is an excimer laser, which can be used to reshape the cornea and correct refractive errors such as nearsightedness, farsightedness, and astigmatism. This procedure is commonly known as LASIK (Laser-Assisted In Situ Keratomileusis).
Another type of laser corneal surgery is PRK (Photorefractive Keratectomy) which uses a laser to reshape the surface of the cornea. This procedure is typically used for patients who have thin corneas or other conditions that make them ineligible for LASIK.
Additionally, there are other types of laser corneal surgeries such as LASEK (Laser Epithelial Keratomileusis), Epi-LASIK (Epithelial Laser-Assisted Keratomileusis) and SBK (Sub Bowman's Keratomileusis) which are variations of the above procedures.
It is important to note that, as with any surgical procedure, laser corneal surgery has risks and potential complications, including dry eye, infection, and visual symptoms such as glare or halos around lights. It is essential for patients to have a thorough examination and consultation with an ophthalmologist before deciding if laser corneal surgery is the right choice for them.
Lymphangiogenesis
Right lymphatic duct
Prostaglandin EP3 receptor
Plexin
Tyrosine-protein kinase SYK
Tumor-associated macrophage
Ephrin
Yihai Cao
Adipose tissue macrophages
Vascular endothelial growth factor C
Vascular endothelial growth factor
CCBE1
Michael Jeltsch
Lymphovascular invasion
Lymphatic endothelium
LYVE1
Gwendalyn J. Randolph
Chemical genetics
Angiogenesis
Sergio A. Lira
PROX1
PDPN
Lymph sacs
Tumor microenvironment
Xenopus
Sarah Spiegel (biologist)
Prostaglandin E2 receptor
ADAMTS3
MMP2
Hennekam syndrome
Lymphangiogenesis - Wikipedia
Google+ | Lymphangiogenesis Research and Antibody Development | University of Helsinki
Jeltsch & Alitalo labs win the best paper award! | Lymphangiogenesis Research and Antibody Development | University of Helsinki
Lymphangiogenesis as a Prognostic Marker in Breast Cancer Using D2-40 as Lymphatic Endothelial Marker-A Preliminary Study
Evaluating tumor angiogenesis, lymphangiogenesis helpful
KAKEN - Research Projects | Roles of prostanoids in facilitation of lymphangiogenesis and lymph node metastasis (KAKENHI...
In Vivo Angiogenesis and Lymphangiogenesis Models | Bentham Science
ΔNp63 isoform-mediated β-defensin family up-regulation is associated with (lymph)angiogenesis and poor prognosis in patients...
VEGFR-3 Ligands and Lymphangiogenesis | Michael's Domain
VEGFR-3 Ligands and Lymphangiogenesis | Michaels Domäne
The effect of podoplanin inhibition on lymphangiogenesis under pathological conditions<...
Intratumoral lymphangiogenesis and lymph node metastasis in head and neck cancer. - Immunology
Effects of levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system on lymphangiogenesis of adenomyosis<...
Yamamoto | POSSIBILITY OF NEW LYMPHATIC PATHWAY CREATION THROUGH NEO-LYMPHANGIOGENESIS INDUCED BY SUBDERMAL DISSECTION ...
Regulation of Lymphangiogenesis by Paneth Cells in Normal Physiology and Experimental Portal Hypertension - European Medical...
153 Pediatric Hematology/Oncology Grand Rounds: "Molecular Regulation of Developmental and Tumor Lymphangiogenesis" (041415) |...
Anti-tumour and anti-metastatic actions of wogonin isolated from Scutellaria baicalensis roots through anti-lymphangiogenesis
VEGF-A stimulates lymphangiogenesis and hemangiogenesis in inflammatory neovascularization via macrophage recruitment. -...
Most Emailed Articles : Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
It's all about quality: Effect of dietary fat composition on liver angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis - Top Personal Health
Spreds are essential for embryonic lymphangiogenesis by regulating vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 3 signaling<...
Didier Trono - People - EPFL
Suri | LYMPHANGIOGENESIS REVIEWS: THE EMERGENCE OF MOLECULAR AND TRANSGENIC LYMPHOLOGY: WHAT DO WE (REALLY) KNOW SO FAR? | ...
Small Extracellular Vesicles Derived from Helicobacter Pylori-Infected Gastric Cancer Cells Induce Lymphangiogenesis and...
Critical role of CD11b+ macrophages and VEGF in inflammatory lymphangiogenesis, antigen clearance, and inflammation resolution ...
Inhibition of hemangiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis after normal-risk corneal transplantation by neutralizing VEGF promotes...
Supplemental Figure S6 from Sunitinib Stimulates Expression of VEGFC by Tumor Cells and Promotes Lymphangiogenesis in Clear...
JCI - Notch alters VEGF responsiveness in human and murine endothelial cells by direct regulation of VEGFR-3 expression
LETR1 is a lymphatic endothelial-specific lncRNA governing cell proliferation and migration through KLF4 and SEMA3C | Nature...
Metastasis12
- Lymphangiogenesis in Cancer Metastasis. (wikipedia.org)
- Suppression of Tumour Lymphangiogenesis and Lymph Node Metastasis by Blocking Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor 3 Signaling," Journal of the National Cancer Institute, Vol. 94, No. 11, 2002, pp. 819-825. (scirp.org)
- Melanoma researchers have therefore been concentrating their efforts on learning more about angiogenesis, lymphangiogenesis and the nature of metastasis in order to better understand which types of melanomas have a tendency to metastasize. (dermatologytimes.com)
- Dr. Detmar set out to investigate whether the extent of tumor lymphangiogenesis can predict melanoma metastasis to sentinel lymph nodes. (dermatologytimes.com)
- Dr. Detmar postulates that metastatic melanomas can therefore be characterized by increased lymphangiogenesis, as compared to non-metastatic tumors, and that the degree of tumor lymphangiogenesis can serve as a novel predictor of lymph node metastasis and overall patient survival, independent of tumor thickness. (dermatologytimes.com)
- He explains that the extent of tumor lymphangiogenesis is a highly sensitive (83 percent) and specific (89 percent) prognostic marker of lymph node metastasis. (dermatologytimes.com)
- Intratumoral lymphangiogenesis and lymph node metastasis in head and neck cancer. (ox.ac.uk)
- Tumour growth and metastasis are associated with angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis through the production of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) or VEGF-C in tumours, and the phosphorylation of VEGF receptor (VEGFR)-2 or VEGFR-3 in vascular endothelial cells or lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs). (complementaryoncology.com)
- Tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs) play an important role in tumour lymphangiogenesis, and consequently stimulate metastasis through the lymphatic system to lymph nodes. (complementaryoncology.com)
- Lymphangiogenesis, an important initial step in tumor metastasis and transplant sensitization, is mediated by the action of VEGF-C and -D on VEGFR3. (ox.ac.uk)
- Angiogenesis (the formation of new blood vessels) and lymphangiogenesis (formation of new lymphatic vessels), i.e., neovasculogenesis, are key determinants for the survival, proliferation, and metastasis of cancer cells. (toppersonalhealth.com)
- 2005). Lymphangiogenesis is also important for tumors expansion, especially the for lymph node metastasis (Kadowaki et al . (vin.com)
Angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis4
- Using experiments involving transgenic mice, they have successfully shown that dietary saturated/trans fats, but not cholesterol, can trigger hepatic angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis, leading to the promotion of hepatic tumors. (toppersonalhealth.com)
- The researchers then monitored the degree of hepatic angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis and growth factor expression using a variety of techniques including quantitative mRNA measurement, immunoblot analysis, and immunohistochemistry. (toppersonalhealth.com)
- According to Prof. Tanaka , "We demonstrated for the first time that hepatic angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis were enhanced by saturated-fat- or trans-fat-rich diets, but not cholesterol-rich diets, mainly through the JNK-HIF1α-VEGF-C axis. (toppersonalhealth.com)
- VEGF is one of most important mediators of neoplastic angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis (Hirakawa et al . (vin.com)
VEGFR-3 Ligands and Lymphangiogenesis1
- Jeltsch M . VEGFR-3 Ligands and Lymphangiogenesis [Internet]. (jeltsch.org)
Lymph5
- Absence of Lymphangiogenesis and Intratumoural Lymph Vessels in Human Metastatic Breast Cancer," The Journal of Pathology, Vol. 200, 2003, pp. 195-206. (scirp.org)
- Dr. Detmar and his team of researchers conducted a study consisting of 45 patients with primary cutaneous melanoma, where the extent of tumor lymphangiogenesis in the excised primary tumors and the presence of metastases in the sentinel lymph node biopsy samples were examined. (dermatologytimes.com)
- Accumulation of Tregs and lymph node lymphangiogenesis was also COX-2/EP3-dependent. (nii.ac.jp)
- Based on the findings of this study, H. pylori-positive GC patients have greater lymphangiogenesis and lymph node immunosuppression than H. pylori-negative GC patients . (bvsalud.org)
- RESULTS: No blood or lymph vessels were detectable immediately after normal-risk transplantation in either donor or host cornea, but hem- and lymphangiogenesis were clearly visible at day 3 after transplantation. (ox.ac.uk)
Lymphatic Endothelial Cells1
- Functionally, sEVs derived from GC cells infected with H. pylori deliver miR-1246 to lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) and promote lymphangiogenesis and lymphatic remodeling . (bvsalud.org)
VEGF10
- There are several known pro-lymphangiogenesis inducers such as VEGF-C, hyaluronic acid and ephrin-B2. (wikipedia.org)
- The anti-tumour and anti-metastatic actions of wogonin may be associated with the inhibition of VEGF-C-induced lymphangiogenesis through a reduction in VEGF-C-induced VEGFR-3 phosphorylation by the inhibition of COX-2 expression and IL-1? (complementaryoncology.com)
- VEGF-A stimulates lymphangiogenesis and hemangiogenesis in inflammatory neovascularization via macrophage recruitment. (ox.ac.uk)
- We re-evaluated the potential role of VEGF-A in lymphangiogenesis using a novel model in which both lymphangiogenesis and hemangiogenesis are induced in the normally avascular cornea. (ox.ac.uk)
- Furthermore, both lymphangiogenesis and hemangiogenesis were significantly reduced in mice transgenic for VEGF-A(164/164) or VEGF-A(188/188) (each of which expresses only one of the three principle VEGF-A isoforms). (ox.ac.uk)
- Because VEGF-A is chemotactic for macrophages and we demonstrate here that macrophages in inflamed corneas release lymphangiogenic VEGF-C/VEGF-D, we evaluated the possibility that macrophage recruitment plays a role in VEGF-A-mediated lymphangiogenesis. (ox.ac.uk)
- We conclude that VEGF-A recruitment of monocytes/macrophages plays a crucial role in inducing inflammatory neovascularization by supplying/amplifying signals essential for pathological hemangiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis. (ox.ac.uk)
- Inhibition of hemangiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis after normal-risk corneal transplantation by neutralizing VEGF promotes graft survival. (ox.ac.uk)
- CONCLUSIONS: There is concurrent, VEGF-A-dependent hem- and lymphangiogenesis after normal-risk keratoplasty within the preoperatively avascular recipient bed. (ox.ac.uk)
- The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the platelet-derived growth factor/vascular endothelial growth factor (PDGF/VEGF) family and is active in angiogenesis, lymphangiogenesis, and endothelial cell growth. (nih.gov)
Tumour Lymphangiogenesis1
- We studied tumour lymphangiogenesis and lymphatic invasion using D2-40 endothelial marker in 35 breast cancer patients treated by primary surgery and correlated it with various clinico-pathological prognostic parameters. (scirp.org)
Endothelial2
- We received the 2015 prize in the category "Basic Science" for our recent publication CCBE1 Enhances Lymphangiogenesis via A Disintegrin and Metalloprotease With Thrombospondin Motifs-3-Mediated Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor-C Activation . (helsinki.fi)
- M. A. Ansari, V. Pandey, V. Srivastava, M. Kumar, R. Mishra and A. Kumar, "Lymphangiogenesis as a Prognostic Marker in Breast Cancer Using D2-40 as Lymphatic Endothelial Marker-A Preliminary Study," Journal of Cancer Therapy , Vol. 3 No. 5A, 2012, pp. 814-821. (scirp.org)
Tumor2
- We next demonstrated that ΔNp63-overexpressing SCC are associated with both a poor prognosis and a high tumor vascularisation and lymphangiogenesis. (oncotarget.com)
- Tumor analysis revealed reduced macrophage infiltration, with NOS1 downregulation in CXCL14-expressing CAF and lymphangiogenesis as a novel component of CXCL14-promoted tumor growth. (lu.se)
Induce5
- Mouse corneal suture and ear section models were used to induce lymphangiogenesis and macrophage infiltration. (elsevierpure.com)
- Although it is clear that dissemination via the blood system involves hemangiogenesis, it is uncertain whether tumors also induce lymphangiogenesis or simply invade existing peritumoral vessels. (ox.ac.uk)
- Surgical intervention and subsequent wound healing process are known to induce neo-lymphangiogenesis, but few studies have been reported to utilize this mechanism for lymphedema treatment. (arizona.edu)
- Subdermal dissection, although its probability is not high, has a potential to induce neo-lymphangiogenesis. (arizona.edu)
- Small Extracellular Vesicles Derived from Helicobacter Pylori-Infected Gastric Cancer Cells Induce Lymphangiogenesis and Lymphatic Remodeling via Transfer of miR-1246. (bvsalud.org)
Corneal5
- Administration of PMab-1, reduced lymphangiogenesis in the corneal suture and ear wound healing models. (elsevierpure.com)
- PURPOSE: To evaluate the occurrence and time course of hem- and lymphangiogenesis after normal-risk corneal transplantation in the mouse model and to test whether pharmacologic strategies inhibiting both processes improve long-term graft survival. (ox.ac.uk)
- METHODS: Normal-risk allogeneic (C57BL/6 to BALB/c) and syngeneic (BALB/c to BALB/c) corneal transplantations were performed and occurrence and time course of hem- and lymphangiogenesis after keratoplasty was observed, by using double immunofluorescence of corneal flatmounts (with CD31 as a panendothelial and LYVE-1 as a lymphatic vascular endothelium-specific marker). (ox.ac.uk)
- Inhibition of hem- and lymphangiogenesis (afferent and efferent arm of an immune response) after normal-risk corneal transplantation improves long-term graft survival, establishing early postoperative hem- and lymphangiogenesis as novel risk factors for graft rejection even in low-risk eyes. (ox.ac.uk)
- Topical Ranibizumab inhibits inflammatory corneal hem- and lymphangiogenesis. (uni-koeln.de)
Hemangiogenesis1
- Either systemic depletion of all bone marrow-derived cells (by irradiation) or local depletion of macrophages in the cornea (using clodronate liposomes) prior to injury significantly inhibited both hemangiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis. (ox.ac.uk)
Inflammatory1
- The purpose of this study is to investigate the role of podoplanin in lymphangiogenesis and macrophage functions under inflammatory conditions. (elsevierpure.com)
Tumors1
- kidney, angiogenesis (CD31-positive cells), lymphangiogenesis (LYVE-1-positive cells), and TAM (F4/80-positive cell) numbers in the tumors of LM8-bearing mice. (complementaryoncology.com)
Lymphedema2
- We found that lymphangiogenesis in chronic inflammation and secondary lymphedema was regulated by COX-2. (nii.ac.jp)
- The aim of this study was to evaluate feasibility of subdermal dissection for neo-lymphangiogenesis induction (SDN) to treat lower extremity lymphedema (LEL). (arizona.edu)
Vascularisation1
- 2 It has been previously reported that a decrease in intestinal vascularisation and number of Paneth cells occurs alongside lymphangiogenesis in the absence of intestinal microflora. (emjreviews.com)
Abstract1
- abstract = "Objectives: Lymphangiogenesis may be involved in the pathogenesis of adenomyosis. (elsevierpure.com)
Absence1
- Proteomic analysis of conditioned media was performed using MaxQuant software to analyse differentially regulated proteins associated with lymphangiogenesis in the absence or presence of Paneth cells or in portal hypertension. (emjreviews.com)
Kidney2
Evidence1
- Evidence for Lymphangiogenesis and Its Prognostic Implications in Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma," Journal of Pathology, Vol. 206, No. 2, 2005, pp. 170-177. (scirp.org)
Role3
- Lymphangiogenesis plays an important physiological role in homeostasis, metabolism and immunity. (wikipedia.org)
- The aim of this study was therefore to investigate the regulatory role of Paneth cells in the development of intestinal and mesenteric lymphangiogenesis and portal hypertension. (emjreviews.com)
- The role of fatty acid β-oxidation in lymphangiogenesis. (nih.gov)
Conclusions1
- Conclusions: Treatment with the LNG-IUS resulted in reduced lymphangiogenesis and LVD in the endometrial and myometrial tissues of patients with adenomyosis. (elsevierpure.com)
Development1
- Lymphangiogenesis is the formation of lymphatic vessels from pre-existing lymphatic vessels in a method believed to be similar to angiogenesis (blood vessel development). (wikipedia.org)
Protein1
- It is not meant to be a discussion of protein reagents or of specific biological situations that exhibit lymphangiogenesis (see reviews 5-7). (arizona.edu)
Formation1
- Après des études de médecine à l'Université de Genève et une formation clinique en pathologie, médecine interne et maladies infectieuses à Genève et au Massachusetts General Hospital de Boston, Didier Trono s'engage dans une carrière scientifique au Whitehead Institute du MIT. (epfl.ch)