Any compound that contains a constituent sugar, in which the hydroxyl group attached to the first carbon is substituted by an alcoholic, phenolic, or other group. They are named specifically for the sugar contained, such as glucoside (glucose), pentoside (pentose), fructoside (fructose), etc. Upon hydrolysis, a sugar and nonsugar component (aglycone) are formed. (From Dorland, 28th ed; From Miall's Dictionary of Chemistry, 5th ed)
Cyclopentanophenanthrenes with a 5- or 6-membered lactone ring attached at the 17-position and SUGARS attached at the 3-position. Plants they come from have long been used in congestive heart failure. They increase the force of cardiac contraction without significantly affecting other parameters, but are very toxic at larger doses. Their mechanism of action usually involves inhibition of the NA(+)-K(+)-EXCHANGING ATPASE and they are often used in cell biological studies for that purpose.
Glycoside Hydrolases are a class of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds, resulting in the breakdown of complex carbohydrates and oligosaccharides into simpler sugars.
Glycosides from plants of the genus DIGITALIS. Some of these are useful as cardiotonic and anti-arrhythmia agents. Included also are semi-synthetic derivatives of the naturally occurring glycosides. The term has sometimes been used more broadly to include all CARDIAC GLYCOSIDES, but here is restricted to those related to Digitalis.
A subclass of iridoid compounds that include a glycoside moiety, usually found at the C-1 position.
A cardiac glycoside sometimes used in place of DIGOXIN. It has a longer half-life than digoxin; toxic effects, which are similar to those of digoxin, are longer lasting. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p665)
A type of MONOTERPENES, derived from geraniol. They have the general form of cyclopentanopyran, but in some cases, one of the rings is broken as in the case of secoiridoid. They are different from the similarly named iridals (TRITERPENES).
The above-ground plant without the roots.
Glucosides are glycosides that contain glucose as the sugar component, often forming part of the plant's defense mechanism and can have various pharmacological effects when extracted and used medically.
A mass spectrometric technique that is used for the analysis of a wide range of biomolecules, such as glycoalkaloids, glycoproteins, polysaccharides, and peptides. Positive and negative fast atom bombardment spectra are recorded on a mass spectrometer fitted with an atom gun with xenon as the customary beam. The mass spectra obtained contain molecular weight recognition as well as sequence information.
Concentrated pharmaceutical preparations of plants obtained by removing active constituents with a suitable solvent, which is evaporated away, and adjusting the residue to a prescribed standard.
C(23)-steroids with methyl groups at C-10 and C-13 and a five-membered lactone at C-17. They are aglycone constituents of CARDIAC GLYCOSIDES and must have at least one double bond in the molecule. The class includes cardadienolides and cardatrienolides. Members include DIGITOXIN and DIGOXIN and their derivatives and the STROPHANTHINS.
Triterpenes are a class of naturally occurring compounds consisting of six isoprene units arranged to form a 30-carbon skeleton, often found in plants and some animals, with various bioactivities including anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and cytotoxic properties.
A group of 3-hydroxy-4-keto-FLAVONOIDS.
A subclass of iridoid compounds that include a glucoside moiety, usually found at the C-1 position.
Saturated derivatives of the steroid pregnane. The 5-beta series includes PROGESTERONE and related hormones; the 5-alpha series includes forms generally excreted in the urine.
A cardiotonic glycoside obtained mainly from Digitalis lanata; it consists of three sugars and the aglycone DIGOXIGENIN. Digoxin has positive inotropic and negative chronotropic activity. It is used to control ventricular rate in ATRIAL FIBRILLATION and in the management of congestive heart failure with atrial fibrillation. Its use in congestive heart failure and sinus rhythm is less certain. The margin between toxic and therapeutic doses is small. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p666)
A plant genus of the family RANUNCULACEAE that contains triterpenoid saponins. Remifemin from C. racemosa is used to suppress LUTEINIZING HORMONE. It is reclassified by some to ACTAEA. The common name of black snakeroot is also used with ASARUM and SANICULA.
Spectroscopic method of measuring the magnetic moment of elementary particles such as atomic nuclei, protons or electrons. It is employed in clinical applications such as NMR Tomography (MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING).
A flavonol glycoside found in many plants, including BUCKWHEAT; TOBACCO; FORSYTHIA; HYDRANGEA; VIOLA, etc. It has been used therapeutically to decrease capillary fragility.
A cardioactive glycoside consisting of rhamnose and ouabagenin, obtained from the seeds of Strophanthus gratus and other plants of the Apocynaceae; used like DIGITALIS. It is commonly used in cell biological studies as an inhibitor of the NA(+)-K(+)-EXCHANGING ATPASE.
Root-like underground horizontal stem of plants that produces shoots above and roots below. Distinguished from true roots which don't have buds and nodes. Similar to true roots in being underground and thickened by storage deposits.
The buttercup plant family of the order Ranunculales, subclass Magnoliidae, class Magnoliopsida. The leaves are usually alternate and stalkless. The flowers usually have two to five free sepals and may be radially symmetrical or irregular.
A plant genus of the family ASTERACEAE. Members contain stevioside and other sweet diterpene glycosides. The leaf is used for sweetening (SWEETENING AGENTS).
A type of glycoside widely distributed in plants. Each consists of a sapogenin as the aglycone moiety, and a sugar. The sapogenin may be a steroid or a triterpene and the sugar may be glucose, galactose, a pentose, or a methylpentose.
An exocellulase with specificity for a variety of beta-D-glycoside substrates. It catalyzes the hydrolysis of terminal non-reducing residues in beta-D-glucosides with release of GLUCOSE.
A group of FLAVONOLS based on kaempferol. They are derived from naringenin and can be hydroxylated to QUERCETIN or reduced to leucopelargonidin.
The location of the atoms, groups or ions relative to one another in a molecule, as well as the number, type and location of covalent bonds.
Cholestane derivatives containing a fused lactone ring at the 16,17-position and a spiroglycosidic linkage at C-22. Members include sarsaponin, DIOSGENIN and yamogenin.
A flavonol widely distributed in plants. It is an antioxidant, like many other phenolic heterocyclic compounds. Glycosylated forms include RUTIN and quercetrin.
The process of cleaving a chemical compound by the addition of a molecule of water.
A plant genus of the family ASCLEPIADACEAE. This is the true milkweed; APOCYNUM & EUPHORBIA hirta are rarely called milkweed. Asclepias asthmatica has been changed to TYLOPHORA.
A group of DITERPENES cyclized into four rings.
Enzymes which catalyze the endohydrolysis of 1,4-beta-D-xylosidic linkages in XYLANS.
A group of FLAVONOIDS characterized with a 4-ketone.
Plants whose roots, leaves, seeds, bark, or other constituent parts possess therapeutic, tonic, purgative, curative or other pharmacologic attributes, when administered to man or animals.
The figwort plant family of the order Lamiales. The family is characterized by bisexual flowers with tubular corollas (fused petals) that are bilaterally symmetrical (two-lips) and have four stamens in most, two of which are usually shorter.
An enzyme that catalyzes the active transport system of sodium and potassium ions across the cell wall. Sodium and potassium ions are closely coupled with membrane ATPase which undergoes phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, thereby providing energy for transport of these ions against concentration gradients.
A genus of aerobic, gram-negative, motile, slightly curved, rod-shaped bacteria. (From Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, 9th ed)
The sequence of carbohydrates within POLYSACCHARIDES; GLYCOPROTEINS; and GLYCOLIPIDS.
Thirteen-carbon butene cyclohexene degradation products formed by the cleavage of CAROTENOIDS. They contribute to the flavor of some FRUIT. Ionone should not be confused with the similarly named ionol.
An endocellulase with specificity for the hydrolysis of 1,4-beta-glucosidic linkages in CELLULOSE, lichenin, and cereal beta-glucans.
A group of phenyl benzopyrans named for having structures like FLAVONES.
A plant genus of the family CRASSULACEAE. Members contain rhodioloside. This roseroot is unrelated to the familiar rose (ROSA). Some species in this genus are called stonecrop which is also a common name for SEDUM.
The characteristic 3-dimensional shape of a carbohydrate.
Chinese herbal or plant extracts which are used as drugs to treat diseases or promote general well-being. The concept does not include synthesized compounds manufactured in China.
A group of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of alpha- or beta-xylosidic linkages. EC 3.2.1.8 catalyzes the endo-hydrolysis of 1,4-beta-D-xylosidic linkages; EC 3.2.1.32 catalyzes the endo-hydrolysis of 1,3-beta-D-xylosidic linkages; EC 3.2.1.37 catalyzes the exo-hydrolysis of 1,4-beta-D-linkages from the non-reducing termini of xylans; and EC 3.2.1.72 catalyzes the exo-hydrolysis of 1,3-beta-D-linkages from the non-reducing termini of xylans. Other xylosidases have been identified that catalyze the hydrolysis of alpha-xylosidic bonds.
Polysaccharides consisting of xylose units.
The mint plant family. They are characteristically aromatic, and many of them are cultivated for their oils. Most have square stems, opposite leaves, and two-lipped, open-mouthed, tubular corollas (united petals), with five-lobed, bell-like calyxes (united sepals).
Expanded structures, usually green, of vascular plants, characteristically consisting of a bladelike expansion attached to a stem, and functioning as the principal organ of photosynthesis and transpiration. (American Heritage Dictionary, 2d ed)
A characteristic feature of enzyme activity in relation to the kind of substrate on which the enzyme or catalytic molecule reacts.
A plant family of the order Lamiales. It is characterized by simple leaves in opposite pairs, cystoliths (enlarged cells containing crystals of calcium carbonate), and bilaterally symmetrical and bisexual flowers that are usually crowded together. The common name for Ruellia of wild petunia is easily confused with PETUNIA.
A plant genus of the family OROBANCHACEAE. Members contain phenylethanoid glycosides.
The usually underground portions of a plant that serve as support, store food, and through which water and mineral nutrients enter the plant. (From American Heritage Dictionary, 1982; Concise Dictionary of Biology, 1990)
A family of glycosidases that hydrolyse crystalline CELLULOSE into soluble sugar molecules. Within this family there are a variety of enzyme subtypes with differing substrate specificities that must work together to bring about complete cellulose hydrolysis. They are found in structures called CELLULOSOMES.
The morning glory family of flowering plants, of the order Solanales, which includes about 50 genera and at least 1,400 species. Leaves are alternate and flowers are funnel-shaped. Most are twining and erect herbs, with a few woody vines, trees, and shrubs.
Spectrophotometry in the infrared region, usually for the purpose of chemical analysis through measurement of absorption spectra associated with rotational and vibrational energy levels of molecules. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
The Madder plant family of the order Rubiales, subclass Asteridae, class Magnoliopsida includes important medicinal plants that provide QUININE; IPECAC; and COFFEE. They have opposite leaves and interpetiolar stipules.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Oligosaccharides containing two monosaccharide units linked by a glycosidic bond.
Flammable, amorphous, vegetable products of secretion or disintegration, usually formed in special cavities of plants. They are generally insoluble in water and soluble in alcohol, carbon tetrachloride, ether, or volatile oils. They are fusible and have a conchoidal fracture. They are the oxidation or polymerization products of the terpenes, and are mixtures of aromatic acids and esters. Most are soft and sticky, but harden after exposure to cold. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed & Dorland, 28th ed)
The characteristic three-dimensional shape of a molecule.
A plant genus of the family RUBIACEAE. Members contain genepin, from which geniposide is obtained for use as a crosslinking agent in ADHESIVES, and 3-caffeoyl-4-sinapoylquinic acid.
A plant genus of the family CORNACEAE. It is widely cultivated for the attractive flowers.
A plant genus of the family MYRTACEAE that bears an edible fruit and contains guavin B and quercetin glycosides.
A plant genus of the family ASCLEPIADACEAE. Members contain steroidal glycosides and cytotoxic phenanthroindolizidine N-oxide alkaloids.
Polyacenes with four ortho-fused benzene rings in a straight linear arrangement. This group is best known for the subclass called TETRACYCLINES.
Benzene derivatives that include one or more hydroxyl groups attached to the ring structure.
A plant genus of the family Plantaginaceae. Members contain scrosides (CINNAMATES) and phenylethanoid glycoside. P. kurrooa is the source of picroliv (a purified iridoid glycoside fraction from the roots having hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties).
A plant genus of the family ARALIACEAE. Ciwujia extract, which is prepared from plants of this genus, contains ciwujianosides and is used to enhance PHYSICAL ENDURANCE.
Liquid chromatographic techniques which feature high inlet pressures, high sensitivity, and high speed.
A mass spectrometry technique used for analysis of nonvolatile compounds such as proteins and macromolecules. The technique involves preparing electrically charged droplets from analyte molecules dissolved in solvent. The electrically charged droplets enter a vacuum chamber where the solvent is evaporated. Evaporation of solvent reduces the droplet size, thereby increasing the coulombic repulsion within the droplet. As the charged droplets get smaller, the excess charge within them causes them to disintegrate and release analyte molecules. The volatilized analyte molecules are then analyzed by mass spectrometry.
Parts of plants that usually grow vertically upwards towards the light and support the leaves, buds, and reproductive structures. (From Concise Dictionary of Biology, 1990)
A plant genus best known for edible underground tubers. Yam may also refer to a moist variety of sweet potato, IPOMOEA BATATAS.
3 beta,14-Dihydroxy-5 beta-card-20(22)enolide. A cardenolide which is the aglycon of digitoxin. Synonyms: Cerberigenin; Echujetin; Evonogenin; Thevetigenin.
A plant genus of the family LILIACEAE that is a short plant with a distinct whorl of 3 broad leaves.
Picrates are salts of picric acid, an explosive organic compound previously used as a yellow dye and antiseptic, which are now primarily used in chemical research and industrial applications. Please note that picrates should be handled with care due to their potential explosiveness when heated or subjected to friction.
The milkweed plant family of the order Gentianales, subclass Asteridae, class Magnoliopsida. It includes many tropical herbs and shrubby climbers; most with milky juice. Flowers have five united petals. Fruits are podlike, usually with tufted seeds.
The outer layer of the woody parts of plants.
A monocot family within the order Liliales. This family is divided by some botanists into other families such as Convallariaceae, Hyacinthaceae and Amaryllidaceae. Amaryllidaceae, which have inferior ovaries, includes CRINUM; GALANTHUS; LYCORIS; and NARCISSUS and are known for AMARYLLIDACEAE ALKALOIDS.
Compounds with a core of 10 carbons generally formed via the mevalonate pathway from the combination of 3,3-dimethylallyl pyrophosphate and isopentenyl pyrophosphate. They are cyclized and oxidized in a variety of ways. Due to the low molecular weight many of them exist in the form of essential oils (OILS, VOLATILE).
Chromatography on thin layers of adsorbents rather than in columns. The adsorbent can be alumina, silica gel, silicates, charcoals, or cellulose. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of terminal, non-reducing beta-D-mannose residues in beta-D-mannosides. The enzyme plays a role in the lysosomal degradation of the N-glycosylprotein glycans. Defects in the lysosomal form of the enzyme in humans result in a buildup of mannoside intermediate metabolites and the disease BETA-MANNOSIDOSIS.
The aglucon moiety of a saponin molecule. It may be triterpenoid or steroid, usually spirostan, in nature.
Determination of the spectra of ultraviolet absorption by specific molecules in gases or liquids, for example Cl2, SO2, NO2, CS2, ozone, mercury vapor, and various unsaturated compounds. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
A flavanone glycoside found in CITRUS fruit peels.
Seedless nonflowering plants of the class Filicinae. They reproduce by spores that appear as dots on the underside of feathery fronds. In earlier classifications the Pteridophyta included the club mosses, horsetails, ferns, and various fossil groups. In more recent classifications, pteridophytes and spermatophytes (seed-bearing plants) are classified in the Subkingdom Tracheobionta (also known as Tracheophyta).
A colorless, flammable liquid used in the manufacture of FORMALDEHYDE and ACETIC ACID, in chemical synthesis, antifreeze, and as a solvent. Ingestion of methanol is toxic and may cause blindness.
The fleshy or dry ripened ovary of a plant, enclosing the seed or seeds.
A species of gram-positive, thermophilic, cellulolytic bacteria in the family Clostridaceae. It degrades and ferments CELLOBIOSE and CELLULOSE to ETHANOL in the CELLULOSOME.
A polysaccharide with glucose units linked as in CELLOBIOSE. It is the chief constituent of plant fibers, cotton being the purest natural form of the substance. As a raw material, it forms the basis for many derivatives used in chromatography, ion exchange materials, explosives manufacturing, and pharmaceutical preparations.
A plant genus of the family PYROLACEAE. The common name of wintergreen is more often used for GAULTHERIA.
Carbohydrates consisting of between two (DISACCHARIDES) and ten MONOSACCHARIDES connected by either an alpha- or beta-glycosidic link. They are found throughout nature in both the free and bound form.
The parts of plants, including SEEDS.
The dogbane family of the order Gentianales. Members of the family have milky, often poisonous juice, smooth-margined leaves, and flowers in clusters. Asclepiadacea (formerly the milkweed family) has been included since 1999 and before 1810.
A group of polycyclic compounds closely related biochemically to TERPENES. They include cholesterol, numerous hormones, precursors of certain vitamins, bile acids, alcohols (STEROLS), and certain natural drugs and poisons. Steroids have a common nucleus, a fused, reduced 17-carbon atom ring system, cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene. Most steroids also have two methyl groups and an aliphatic side-chain attached to the nucleus. (From Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary, 11th ed)
A semisynthetic digitalis glycoside with the general properties of DIGOXIN but more rapid onset of action. Its cardiotonic action is prolonged by its demethylation to DIGOXIN in the liver. It has been used in the treatment of congestive heart failure (HEART FAILURE).
A plant genus in the family CAPRIFOLIACEAE known for elderberries.
A group of 4-keto-FLAVONOIDS.
A plant genus of the family OLEACEAE. Members contain suspensaside.
A genus of toxic herbaceous Eurasian plants of the Plantaginaceae which yield cardiotonic DIGITALIS GLYCOSIDES. The most useful species are Digitalis lanata and D. purpurea.
A class of dibenzylbutane derivatives which occurs in higher plants and in fluids (bile, serum, urine, etc.) in man and other animals. These compounds, which have a potential anti-cancer role, can be synthesized in vitro by human fecal flora. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)
A cyanogenic glycoside found in the seeds of Rosaceae.
The aglycone constituents of CARDIAC GLYCOSIDES. The ring structure is basically a cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene nucleus attached to a lactone ring at the C-17 position.
A hexosaminidase with specificity for terminal non-reducing N-acetyl-D-galactosamine residues in N-acetyl-alpha-D-galactosaminides.
A plant genus of the family SOLANACEAE. Members contain SOLANACEOUS ALKALOIDS. Some species in this genus are called deadly nightshade which is also a common name for ATROPA BELLADONNA.
A plant genus of the family LILIACEAE. Members contain the cardiotonic PROSCILLARIDIN. The common name of squill is also used for URGINEA.
A plant genus of the family RANUNCULACEAE that contains aquiledine, isoaquiledine and cycloartane-type glycosides.
The rose plant family in the order ROSALES and class Magnoliopsida. They are generally woody plants. A number of the species of this family contain cyanogenic compounds.
Simple sugars, carbohydrates which cannot be decomposed by hydrolysis. They are colorless crystalline substances with a sweet taste and have the same general formula CnH2nOn. (From Dorland, 28th ed)

Proteoglycan involvement in polyamine uptake. (1/2075)

We have evaluated the possible role of proteoglycans in the uptake of spermine by human lung fibroblasts. Exogenous glycosaminoglycans behaved as competitive inhibitors of spermine uptake, the most efficient being heparan sulphate (Ki=0.16+/-0.04 microM). Treatment of fibroblasts with either heparan sulphate lyase, p-nitrophenyl-O-beta-D-xylopyranoside or chlorate reduced spermine uptake considerably, whereas chondroitin sulphate lyase had a limited effect. Inhibition of polyamine biosynthesis with alpha-difluoromethylornithine resulted in an increase of cell-associated heparan sulphate proteoglycans exhibiting higher affinity for spermine. The data indicate a specific role for heparan sulphate proteoglycans in the uptake of spermine by fibroblasts. Spermine uptake by pgsD-677, a mutant Chinese hamster ovary cell defective in heparan sulphate biosynthesis, was only moderately reduced (20%) compared with wild-type cells. Treatment of mutant cells with the above-mentioned xyloside resulted in a greater reduction of endogenous proteoglycan production as well as a higher inhibition of spermine uptake than in wild-type cells. Moreover, treatment with chondroitin sulphate lyase resulted in a selective inhibition of uptake in mutant cells, indicating a role for chondroitin/dermatan sulphate proteoglycans in the uptake of spermine by these cells. Fibroblasts, made growth-dependent on exogenous spermine by alpha-difluoromethylornithine treatment, were growth-inhibited by heparan sulphate or beta-D-xyloside, which might have future therapeutical implications.  (+info)

Determining anomericity of the glycosidic bond in Zn(II)-diethylenetriamine-disaccharide complexes using MSn in a quadrupole ion trap. (2/2075)

Zinc-diethylenetriamine (Zn-dien) N-glycoside complexes of four 1,4 and four 1,6 linked disaccharides are prepared. Each reaction mixture is ionized by electrospray and the resulting species [Zn(dien)(disaccharide)-H]+ is allowed to undergo collision-induced dissociation in a quadrupole ion trap. An MS3 analysis is used to differentiate alpha versus beta anomericity of the glycosidic bond in the disaccharide moiety. In addition, the MS2 and MS3 spectra can be used together to determine the linkage position of this glycosidic bond.  (+info)

Characterization of a novel unconjugated pteridine glycoside, cyanopterin, in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. (3/2075)

A new pteridine glycoside, called cyanopterin, was isolated from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 and its structure was elucidated as 6-[1-(4-O-methyl-(alpha-d-glucuronyl)-(1, 6)-(beta-d-galactosyloxy]methylpterin by chemical degradation and 1H- and 13C-NMR spectroscopic means. Cyanopterin is constitutively synthesized at a relatively high intracellular concentration that is comparable to that of chlorophyll a in a molar ratio of approximately 1 to 1.6. The in vivo oxidation state of cyanopterin is primarily the fully reduced 5,6,7,8-tetrahydro form. The cellular function is unknown at present. The findings have established a model system, using Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803, for studies of the physiological functions of unconjugated pteridine glycosides found mostly in cyanobacteria.  (+info)

Collagen synthesis and deposition in cartilage during disrupted proteoglycan production. (4/2075)

A simple system was developed to investigate in vitro the possible relationship between collagen and proteoglycan synthesis in cartilage. When production of complete proteoglycan molecules was effectively inhibited with 4-methylumbelliferyl beta-D-xyloside collagen synthesis and distribution were virtually unaffected.  (+info)

Stimulation of collagen galactosyltransferase and glucosyltransferase activities by lysophosphatidylcholine. (5/2075)

Lysophosphatidylcholine stimulated the activities of collagen galactosyl- and glucosyl-transferases in chick-embryo extract and its particulate fractions in vitro, whereas essentially no stimulation was noted in the high-speed supernatant, where the enzymes are soluble and membrane-free. The stimulatory effect of lysophosphatidylcholine was masked by 0.1% Triton X-100. In kinetic experiments lysophosphatidylcholine raised the maximum velocities with respect to the substrates and co-substrates, whereas no changes were observed in the apparant Km values. Phospholipase A preincubation of the chick-embryo extract resulted in stimulation of both transferase activities, probably gy generating lysophosphatides from endogenous phospholipids. No stimulation by lysophosphatidylcholine was found when tested with 500-fold-purified glycosyltransferase. The results suggest that collagen glycosyltransferases must be associated with the membrane structures of the cell in order to be stimulated by lysophosphatidylcholine. Lysophosphatidylcholine could have some regulatory significance in vivo, since its concentration in the cell is comparable with that which produced marked stimulation in vitro.  (+info)

Initiation of galactosaminoglycan biosynthesis. Separate galactosylation and dephosphorylation pathways for phosphoxylosylated decorin protein and exogenous xyloside. (6/2075)

By using various radiolabelled precursors, glycosylation and phosphorylation of decorin in a rat fibroblast cell line was investigated in the presence of increasing concentrations of p-nitrophenyl-O-beta-d-xylopyranoside. Decorin core protein glycanation was suppressed to approximately 25% of the normal level in the presence of 2 mm and 3 mm xyloside. Glycans/saccharides were released from the core protein and size-separated by gel chromatography. The intracellular decorin obtained from cells treated with 2 mm xyloside was substituted with Xyl and also with Gal-Xyl and Gal-Gal-Xyl, but not with longer saccharides. Only the trisaccharide contained an almost fully phosphorylated Xyl. We conclude that galactosylation of endogenous, xylosylated decorin and exogenous xyloside probably follow separate pathways or that xylosides and early decorin glycoforms are kept separated. At the addition of the first glucuronic acid the two pathways seem to merge and dephosphorylation of decorin takes place. Xyloside-primed and secreted galactosaminoglycan chains produced simultanously retained phosphorylated Xyl. Inadequate dephosphorylation could be due to excess substrate or to a short transit.time. As shown previously [Moses, J., Oldberg, A., Eklund, E. & Fransson, L.-A. (1997) Eur. J. Biochem. 248, 767-774], brefeldin A-arrested decorin is substituted with the linkage-region extended with an undersulphated and incomplete galactosaminoglycan chain. In cells treated with this drug, xylosides were unable to prime galactosaminoglycan synthesis and unable to inhibit glycosylation and phosporylation of decorin.  (+info)

Fusicoccin, 14-3-3 proteins, and defense responses in tomato plants. (7/2075)

Fusicoccin (FC) is a fungal toxin that activates the plant plasma membrane H+-ATPase by binding with 14-3-3 proteins, causing membrane hyperpolarization. Here we report on the effect of FC on a gene-for-gene pathogen-resistance response and show that FC application induces the expression of several genes involved in plant responses to pathogens. Ten members of the FC-binding 14-3-3 protein gene family were isolated from tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) to characterize their role in defense responses. Sequence analysis is suggestive of common biochemical functions for these tomato 14-3-3 proteins, but their genes showed different expression patterns in leaves after challenges. Different specific subsets of 14-3-3 genes were induced after treatment with FC and during a gene-for-gene resistance response. Possible roles for the H+-ATPase and 14-3-3 proteins in responses to pathogens are discussed.  (+info)

Characterization of the UDP-glucuronosyltransferases involved in the glucuronidation of an antithrombotic thioxyloside in rat and humans. (8/2075)

To investigate the glucuronidation on the hydroxyl group of carbohydrate-containing drugs, the in vitro formation of glucuronides on the thioxyloside ring of the antithrombotic drug, LF 4.0212, was followed in rat and human liver microsomes and with recombinant UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGT). The reaction revealed a marked regioselectivity in rat and humans. Human liver microsomes glucuronidated the compound mainly on the 2-hydroxyl position of the thioxyloside ring, whereas rat was able to form glucuronide on either the 2-, 3-, or 4- hydroxyl group of the molecule, although to a lower extent. LF 4.0212 was a much better substrate of human UGT than the rat enzyme (Vmax/Km 30.0 and 0.06 microl/min/mg, respectively). Phenobarbital, 3-methylcholanthrene, and clofibrate enhanced the glucuronidation of LF 4.0212 on positions 2, 3, and 4 of the thioxyloside ring, thus indicating that several UGT isoforms were involved in this process. The biosynthesis of the 2-O-glucuronide isomer was catalyzed by the human UGT1A9 and 2B4, but not by UGT1A6 and 2B11. By contrast, the rat liver recombinant UGT1A6 and 2B1 failed to form the 2-O-glucuronide isomers. From all the recombinant UGTs tested, none catalyzed the formation of the 3-O-glucuronide isomer. Interestingly, glucuronidation on the 4-position was found in all the metabolic competent V79 cell lines considered, including the nontransfected V79 cells, suggesting the presence of an endogenous UGT in fibroblasts able to actively glucuronidate the drug. This activity, which was nonsensitive to the inhibitory effect of 7,7,7-triphenylheptanoic acid, a potent UGT inhibitor, could reflect the existence of a different enzyme.  (+info)

Glycosides are organic compounds that consist of a glycone (a sugar component) linked to a non-sugar component, known as an aglycone, via a glycosidic bond. They can be found in various plants, microorganisms, and some animals. Depending on the nature of the aglycone, glycosides can be classified into different types, such as anthraquinone glycosides, cardiac glycosides, and saponin glycosides.

These compounds have diverse biological activities and pharmacological effects. For instance:

* Cardiac glycosides, like digoxin and digitoxin, are used in the treatment of heart failure and certain cardiac arrhythmias due to their positive inotropic (contractility-enhancing) and negative chronotropic (heart rate-slowing) effects on the heart.
* Saponin glycosides have potent detergent properties and can cause hemolysis (rupture of red blood cells). They are used in various industries, including cosmetics and food processing, and have potential applications in drug delivery systems.
* Some glycosides, like amygdalin found in apricot kernels and bitter almonds, can release cyanide upon hydrolysis, making them potentially toxic.

It is important to note that while some glycosides have therapeutic uses, others can be harmful or even lethal if ingested or otherwise introduced into the body in large quantities.

Cardiac glycosides are a group of naturally occurring compounds that have a toxic effect on the heart. They are found in certain plants, including foxglove and lily of the valley, as well as in some toads and beetles. The most well-known cardiac glycoside is digoxin, which is derived from the foxglove plant and is used as a medication to treat heart failure and atrial arrhythmias.

Cardiac glycosides work by inhibiting the sodium-potassium pump in heart muscle cells, leading to an increase in intracellular calcium levels. This increases the force of heart contractions, which can be beneficial in treating heart failure. However, if the dose is too high, cardiac glycosides can also cause dangerous arrhythmias and even death.

It's important for healthcare professionals to carefully monitor patients taking cardiac glycosides, as the therapeutic and toxic doses are very close together. Additionally, certain medications and medical conditions can interact with cardiac glycosides and increase the risk of toxicity.

Glycoside hydrolases are a class of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds found in various substrates such as polysaccharides, oligosaccharides, and glycoproteins. These enzymes break down complex carbohydrates into simpler sugars by cleaving the glycosidic linkages that connect monosaccharide units.

Glycoside hydrolases are classified based on their mechanism of action and the type of glycosidic bond they hydrolyze. The classification system is maintained by the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (IUBMB). Each enzyme in this class is assigned a unique Enzyme Commission (EC) number, which reflects its specificity towards the substrate and the type of reaction it catalyzes.

These enzymes have various applications in different industries, including food processing, biofuel production, pulp and paper manufacturing, and biomedical research. In medicine, glycoside hydrolases are used to diagnose and monitor certain medical conditions, such as carbohydrate-deficient glycoprotein syndrome, a rare inherited disorder affecting the structure of glycoproteins.

Digitalis glycosides are a type of cardiac glycoside that are derived from the foxglove plant (Digitalis purpurea) and related species. These compounds have a steroidal structure with a lactone ring attached to the molecule, which is responsible for their positive inotropic effects on the heart.

The two main digitalis glycosides used clinically are digoxin and digitoxin. They work by inhibiting the sodium-potassium pump in cardiac muscle cells, leading to an increase in intracellular calcium levels and a subsequent enhancement of myocardial contractility. This makes them useful in the treatment of heart failure and atrial arrhythmias such as atrial fibrillation.

However, digitalis glycosides have a narrow therapeutic index, meaning that there is only a small difference between their therapeutic and toxic doses. Therefore, they must be administered with caution and patients should be closely monitored for signs of toxicity such as nausea, vomiting, visual disturbances, and cardiac arrhythmias.

Iridoid glycosides are a type of naturally occurring compounds that are found in various plants, including the Lamiaceae (mint) family and the Plantaginaceae (plantain) family. These compounds consist of an iridoid moiety, which is a cyclic molecule derived from the terpene iridodial, linked to a sugar group. Iridoid glycosides have been studied for their potential medicinal properties, including anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, and analgesic effects. Some examples of plants that contain iridoid glycosides include gardenia, olive, and valerian. It is important to note that while some iridoid glycosides have been found to have medicinal benefits, others may be toxic in high concentrations, so it is essential to use them under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Digitoxin is a cardiac glycoside drug that is derived from the foxglove plant (Digitalis lanata). It is used in the treatment of various heart conditions, particularly congestive heart failure and certain types of arrhythmias. Digitoxin works by increasing the force of heart muscle contractions and slowing the heart rate, which helps to improve the efficiency of the heart's pumping action.

Like other cardiac glycosides, digitoxin inhibits the sodium-potassium pump in heart muscle cells, leading to an increase in intracellular calcium levels and a strengthening of heart muscle contractions. However, digitoxin has a longer half-life than other cardiac glycosides such as digoxin, which means that it stays in the body for a longer period of time and may require less frequent dosing.

Digitoxin is available in tablet form and is typically prescribed at a low dose, with regular monitoring of blood levels to ensure safe and effective use. Common side effects of digitoxin include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and dizziness. In rare cases, it can cause more serious side effects such as arrhythmias or toxicity, which may require hospitalization and treatment with medications or other interventions.

Iridoids are a type of naturally occurring compounds that are widely distributed in the plant kingdom. They are characterized by the presence of a cyclopentanoid structure fused to a monoterpene unit. Iridoids have a wide range of biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antioxidant effects. Some iridoids also have potential therapeutic benefits in the treatment of various diseases, such as cancer and neurodegenerative disorders.

In a medical context, iridoids may be mentioned in relation to their presence in certain medicinal plants or herbs used in traditional medicine, or in research investigating their potential pharmacological properties. However, it is important to note that the use of iridoid-containing plants or supplements should only be done under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional, as with any medical treatment.

Aerial parts of plants refer to the above-ground portions of a plant, including leaves, stems, flowers, and fruits. These parts are often used in medicine, either in their entirety or as isolated extracts, to take advantage of their medicinal properties. The specific components of aerial parts that are used in medicine can vary depending on the plant species and the desired therapeutic effects. For example, the leaves of some plants may contain active compounds that have anti-inflammatory or analgesic properties, while the flowers of others may be rich in antioxidants or compounds with sedative effects. In general, aerial parts of plants are used in herbal medicine to treat a wide range of conditions, including respiratory, digestive, and nervous system disorders, as well as skin conditions and infections.

Glucosides are chemical compounds that consist of a glycosidic bond between a sugar molecule (typically glucose) and another non-sugar molecule, which can be an alcohol, phenol, or steroid. They occur naturally in various plants and some microorganisms.

Glucosides are not medical terms per se, but they do have significance in pharmacology and toxicology because some of them may release the sugar portion upon hydrolysis, yielding aglycone, which can have physiological effects when ingested or absorbed into the body. Some glucosides are used as medications or dietary supplements due to their therapeutic properties, while others can be toxic if consumed in large quantities.

Fast Atom Bombardment (FAB) Mass Spectrometry is a technique used for determining the mass of ions in a sample. In FAB-MS, the sample is mixed with a matrix material and then bombarded with a beam of fast atoms, usually xenon or cesium. This bombardment leads to the formation of ions from the sample which can then be detected and measured using a mass analyzer. The resulting mass spectrum provides information about the molecular weight and structure of the sample molecules. FAB-MS is particularly useful for the analysis of large, thermally labile, or polar molecules that may not ionize well by other methods.

A plant extract is a preparation containing chemical constituents that have been extracted from a plant using a solvent. The resulting extract may contain a single compound or a mixture of several compounds, depending on the extraction process and the specific plant material used. These extracts are often used in various industries including pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, cosmetics, and food and beverage, due to their potential therapeutic or beneficial properties. The composition of plant extracts can vary widely, and it is important to ensure their quality, safety, and efficacy before use in any application.

Cardenolides are a type of steroid compound that are found in certain plants and animals. These compounds have a characteristic structure that includes a five-membered lactone ring, which is attached to a steroid nucleus. Cardenolides are well known for their toxicity to many organisms, including humans, and they have been used for both medicinal and poisonous purposes.

One of the most famous cardenolides is digitoxin, which is derived from the foxglove plant (Digitalis purpurea). Digitoxin has been used as a medication to treat heart conditions such as congestive heart failure, as it can help to strengthen heart contractions and regulate heart rhythm. However, because of its narrow therapeutic index and potential for toxicity, digitoxin is not commonly used today.

Other cardenolides include ouabain, which is found in the seeds of the African plant Acokanthera ouabaio, and bufadienolides, which are found in the skin and parotid glands of toads. These compounds have also been studied for their potential medicinal uses, but they are not widely used in clinical practice due to their toxicity.

It is important to note that cardenolides can be highly toxic to humans and animals, and exposure to these compounds can cause a range of symptoms including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, seizures, and even death. As such, it is essential to use caution when handling or coming into contact with plants or animals that contain cardenolides.

Triterpenes are a type of natural compound that are composed of six isoprene units and have the molecular formula C30H48. They are synthesized through the mevalonate pathway in plants, fungi, and some insects, and can be found in a wide variety of natural sources, including fruits, vegetables, and medicinal plants.

Triterpenes have diverse structures and biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and cytotoxic effects. Some triterpenes are also used in traditional medicine, such as glycyrrhizin from licorice root and betulinic acid from the bark of birch trees.

Triterpenes can be further classified into various subgroups based on their carbon skeletons, including squalene, lanostane, dammarane, and ursane derivatives. Some triterpenes are also modified through various biochemical reactions to form saponins, steroids, and other compounds with important biological activities.

Flavonols are a type of flavonoid, which is a class of plant and fungal metabolites. They are characterized by the presence of a 3-hydroxyflavone skeleton. Flavonols are found in a variety of plants and are known for their antioxidant properties. Some common dietary sources of flavonols include onions, kale, broccoli, apples, tea, and red wine. They have been studied for their potential health benefits, including reducing the risk of chronic diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular disease. Flavonols are also known to have anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and antimicrobial properties.

Iridoid glucosides are a type of plant-based compounds that are characterized by their iridoid structure, which is a cyclic organic compound containing a cyclopentane ring fused to a six-membered unsaturated carbocycle. These compounds are often found in plants as glycosides, meaning they are combined with a sugar molecule such as glucose.

Iridoid glucosides have been identified in a variety of plant families, including the Lamiaceae (mint family), Scrophulariaceae (figwort family), and Rubiaceae (coffee family). Some examples of iridoid glucosides include geniposide, which is found in the fruit of the gardenia plant, and aucubin, which is found in the leaves of the eucommia tree.

Iridoid glucosides have been studied for their potential medicinal properties, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial effects. However, more research is needed to fully understand their mechanisms of action and potential therapeutic uses.

Pregnanes are a class of steroid hormones and steroids that contain a pregnane nucleus, which is a steroid core with a carbon skeleton consisting of 21 carbons. This structure includes four fused rings, labeled A through D, and is derived from cholesterol.

Pregnanes are important precursors for the synthesis of various steroid hormones in the body, including progesterone, which plays a crucial role in maintaining pregnancy and regulating the menstrual cycle. Other examples of pregnanes include cortisol, a stress hormone produced by the adrenal gland, and aldosterone, a hormone that helps regulate electrolyte balance and blood pressure.

It's worth noting that pregnanes can also refer to synthetic compounds that contain this steroid nucleus and are used in various medical and research contexts.

Digoxin is a medication that belongs to a class of drugs called cardiac glycosides. It is used to treat various heart conditions, such as heart failure and atrial fibrillation, by helping the heart beat stronger and more regularly. Digoxin works by inhibiting the sodium-potassium pump in heart muscle cells, which leads to an increase in intracellular calcium and a strengthening of heart contractions. It is important to monitor digoxin levels closely, as too much can lead to toxicity and serious side effects.

"Cimicifuga" is a genus of plants commonly known as black cohosh or bugbane. It belongs to the family Ranunculaceae and is native to North America. The plant has been used in traditional medicine for treating various health conditions, such as menopausal symptoms, menstrual cramps, and inflammation. However, it's essential to consult a healthcare professional before using any herbal remedies for medical purposes.

Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS) is a non-invasive diagnostic technique that provides information about the biochemical composition of tissues, including their metabolic state. It is often used in conjunction with Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) to analyze various metabolites within body tissues, such as the brain, heart, liver, and muscles.

During MRS, a strong magnetic field, radio waves, and a computer are used to produce detailed images and data about the concentration of specific metabolites in the targeted tissue or organ. This technique can help detect abnormalities related to energy metabolism, neurotransmitter levels, pH balance, and other biochemical processes, which can be useful for diagnosing and monitoring various medical conditions, including cancer, neurological disorders, and metabolic diseases.

There are different types of MRS, such as Proton (^1^H) MRS, Phosphorus-31 (^31^P) MRS, and Carbon-13 (^13^C) MRS, each focusing on specific elements or metabolites within the body. The choice of MRS technique depends on the clinical question being addressed and the type of information needed for diagnosis or monitoring purposes.

Rutin is a flavonoid, a type of plant pigment that is found in various plants and foods including citrus fruits, buckwheat, and asparagus. It has antioxidant properties and is known to help strengthen blood vessels and reduce inflammation. In medical terms, rutin may be mentioned in the context of discussing treatments for conditions related to these effects, such as varicose veins or hemorrhoids. However, it's important to note that while rutin has potential health benefits, more research is needed to fully understand its effects and proper dosages.

Ouabain is defined as a cardiac glycoside, a type of steroid, that is found in the seeds and roots of certain plants native to Africa. It is used in medicine as a digitalis-like agent to increase the force of heart contractions and slow the heart rate, particularly in the treatment of congestive heart failure and atrial fibrillation. Ouabain functions by inhibiting the sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+-ATPase) in the cell membrane, leading to an increase in intracellular sodium and calcium ions, which ultimately enhances cardiac muscle contractility. It is also known as g-strophanthin or ouabaine.

A rhizome is not typically used as a medical term, but it is a term borrowed from botany that has been adopted in some areas of medicine, particularly in psychiatry and psychotherapy.

In its original botanical sense, a rhizome is a horizontal stem of a plant that grows underground, often sending out roots and shoots from its nodes. This growth pattern is contrasted with that of a root system, which grows downward, and a stem system, which grows upward.

In psychiatry and psychotherapy, the term "rhizome" has been used as a metaphor to describe a non-hierarchical and decentralized approach to understanding mental processes and subjectivity. The rhizome model emphasizes the complexity, multiplicity, and interconnectedness of these processes, and rejects simplistic or reductionist explanations that focus on a single cause or origin. Instead, it encourages a more holistic and dynamic view of mental life, one that is open to multiple perspectives and interpretations.

It's important to note that the use of the term "rhizome" in this context is metaphorical and not medical in the strict sense. It is a way of thinking about mental processes and subjectivity that has been influenced by poststructuralist and feminist theories, among others.

Ranunculaceae is a family of flowering plants, also known as the buttercup family. It includes over 2,000 species distributed across 58 genera. The plants in this family are characterized by their showy, often brightly colored flowers and typically have numerous stamens and carpels. Many members of Ranunculaceae contain toxic compounds, which can be irritants or even poisonous if ingested. Examples of plants in this family include buttercups, delphiniums, monkshood, and columbines.

Stevia is not a medical term, but a common name for a natural sweetener derived from the leaves of the Stevia rebaudiana plant. Here's a definition related to its use as a sweetener:

Stevia: A natural non-nutritive sweetener and sugar substitute derived from the leaves of the Stevia rebaudiana plant, which is native to South America. The sweetening compounds in stevia are called steviol glycosides, which have up to 350 times the sweetness of sucrose (table sugar) but contain minimal calories and do not raise blood sugar levels. Stevia extracts are often used as a sugar substitute in food and beverages, including drinks, desserts, and baked goods. It is also available in powdered or liquid forms for general use as a sweetener.

Saponins are a type of naturally occurring chemical compound found in various plants, including soapwords, ginseng, and many others. They are known for their foaming properties, similar to that of soap, which gives them their name "saponin" derived from the Latin word "sapo" meaning soap.

Medically, saponins have been studied for their potential health benefits, including their ability to lower cholesterol levels, reduce inflammation, and boost the immune system. However, they can also have toxic effects in high concentrations, causing gastrointestinal disturbances and potentially damaging red blood cells.

Saponins are typically found in the cell walls of plants and can be extracted through various methods for use in pharmaceuticals, food additives, and cosmetics.

Beta-glucosidase is an enzyme that breaks down certain types of complex sugars, specifically those that contain a beta-glycosidic bond. This enzyme is found in various organisms, including humans, and plays a role in the digestion of some carbohydrates, such as cellulose and other plant-based materials.

In the human body, beta-glucosidase is produced by the lysosomes, which are membrane-bound organelles found within cells that help break down and recycle various biological molecules. Beta-glucosidase is involved in the breakdown of glycolipids and gangliosides, which are complex lipids that contain sugar molecules.

Deficiencies in beta-glucosidase activity can lead to certain genetic disorders, such as Gaucher disease, in which there is an accumulation of glucocerebrosidase, a type of glycolipid, within the lysosomes. This can result in various symptoms, including enlargement of the liver and spleen, anemia, and bone pain.

Kaempferol is not a medical term, but a chemical compound. It is a type of flavonoid, a class of plant pigments that are known for their antioxidant properties. Kaempferol can be found in various plants and foods such as tea, broccoli, kale, spinach, grapes, and some types of berries.

Medically, kaempferol has been studied for its potential health benefits due to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer properties. However, more research is needed to confirm these effects and determine the appropriate dosages for medical use. It's important to note that consuming foods rich in kaempferol as part of a balanced diet is generally considered safe and beneficial for health.

Molecular structure, in the context of biochemistry and molecular biology, refers to the arrangement and organization of atoms and chemical bonds within a molecule. It describes the three-dimensional layout of the constituent elements, including their spatial relationships, bond lengths, and angles. Understanding molecular structure is crucial for elucidating the functions and reactivities of biological macromolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates. Various experimental techniques, like X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM), are employed to determine molecular structures at atomic resolution, providing valuable insights into their biological roles and potential therapeutic targets.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Spirostans" is not a recognized term in medical terminology. It seems like it might be a reference to a specific chemical compound or class of compounds, possibly related to steroids, based on the prefix "spiro-" and the suffix "-stan." However, I cannot provide a precise definition without more context.

If you're referring to a specific medical or scientific concept, could you please provide more information or check the spelling? I'm here to help, and I want to make sure I give you the most accurate and helpful response possible.

Quercetin is a type of flavonoid antioxidant that is found in plant foods, including leafy greens, tomatoes, berries, and broccoli. It has been studied for its potential health benefits, such as reducing inflammation, protecting against damage to cells, and helping to reduce the risk of heart disease and cancer. Quercetin is also known for its ability to stabilize mast cells and prevent the release of histamine, making it a popular natural remedy for allergies. It is available in supplement form, but it is always recommended to consult with a healthcare provider before starting any new supplement regimen.

Hydrolysis is a chemical process, not a medical one. However, it is relevant to medicine and biology.

Hydrolysis is the breakdown of a chemical compound due to its reaction with water, often resulting in the formation of two or more simpler compounds. In the context of physiology and medicine, hydrolysis is a crucial process in various biological reactions, such as the digestion of food molecules like proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. Enzymes called hydrolases catalyze these hydrolysis reactions to speed up the breakdown process in the body.

"Asclepias" is a genus of plants in the dogbane family (Apocynaceae). It includes several species commonly known as milkweeds. These plants are native to North America and are known for their milky sap and clusters of pink, yellow, or white flowers. Some species of Asclepias are important host plants for the monarch butterfly, which lays its eggs on the leaves and uses the sap to fuel its migration.

Diterpenes, kaurane refers to a class of diterpenoids with a unique chemical structure called a kaurane skeleton. Diterpenes are a type of terpene, which are natural compounds derived from isoprene units. Kaurane diterpenes are characterized by a particular carbon skeleton consisting of five six-membered rings, including four cyclohexane rings and one cyclopentane ring.

Kaurane diterpenes can be found in various plants, including those used in traditional medicine. Some kaurane diterpenes have been reported to possess biological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and cytotoxic effects. However, more research is needed to fully understand their therapeutic potential and safety profile.

Endo-1,4-beta Xylanases are a type of enzyme that catalyze the endohydrolysis of 1,4-beta-D-xylosidic linkages in xylans, which are complex polysaccharides made up of beta-1,4-linked xylose residues. Xylan is a major hemicellulose component found in the cell walls of plants, and endo-1,4-beta Xylanases play an important role in the breakdown and digestion of plant material by various organisms, including bacteria, fungi, and animals. These enzymes are widely used in industrial applications, such as biofuel production, food processing, and pulp and paper manufacturing, to break down xylans and improve the efficiency of various processes.

Flavanones are a type of flavonoid, which is a class of plant pigments widely found in fruits, vegetables, and other plants. Flavanones are known for their antioxidant properties and potential health benefits. They are typically found in citrus fruits such as oranges, lemons, and grapefruits. Some common flavanones include hesperetin, naringenin, and eriodictyol. These compounds have been studied for their potential effects on cardiovascular health, cancer prevention, and neuroprotection, although more research is needed to fully understand their mechanisms of action and therapeutic potential.

Medicinal plants are defined as those plants that contain naturally occurring chemical compounds which can be used for therapeutic purposes, either directly or indirectly. These plants have been used for centuries in various traditional systems of medicine, such as Ayurveda, Chinese medicine, and Native American medicine, to prevent or treat various health conditions.

Medicinal plants contain a wide variety of bioactive compounds, including alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, terpenes, and saponins, among others. These compounds have been found to possess various pharmacological properties, such as anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer activities.

Medicinal plants can be used in various forms, including whole plant material, extracts, essential oils, and isolated compounds. They can be administered through different routes, such as oral, topical, or respiratory, depending on the desired therapeutic effect.

It is important to note that while medicinal plants have been used safely and effectively for centuries, they should be used with caution and under the guidance of a healthcare professional. Some medicinal plants can interact with prescription medications or have adverse effects if used inappropriately.

Scrophulariaceae is a family of plants commonly known as the Figwort or Snapdragon family. It was once a large and diverse group, but many of its members have been reclassified into different families in recent years based on molecular evidence. The family still includes a number of well-known garden plants such as foxgloves (Digitalis), snapdragons (Antirrhinum), and penstemons (Penstemon).

The plants in Scrophulariaceae are typically herbaceous, although some are shrubs or small trees. They are characterized by their two-lipped flowers, with the upper lip usually forming a hood and the lower lip often having three lobes. The stamens and style are often enclosed within the flower and only emerge when it is fully open.

Scrophulariaceae has been reported to contain various chemical compounds with potential medicinal properties, such as cardiac glycosides in Digitalis species, which have been used to treat heart conditions. However, it's important to note that the use of these plants for medicinal purposes should only be done under the guidance and supervision of a qualified healthcare professional, as they can also contain toxic compounds that may cause harm if not used correctly.

Sodium-Potassium-Exchanging ATPase (also known as Na+/K+ ATPase) is a type of active transporter found in the cell membrane of many types of cells. It plays a crucial role in maintaining the electrochemical gradient and membrane potential of animal cells by pumping sodium ions (Na+) out of the cell and potassium ions (K+) into the cell, using energy derived from ATP hydrolysis.

This transporter is composed of two main subunits: a catalytic α-subunit that contains the binding sites for Na+, K+, and ATP, and a regulatory β-subunit that helps in the proper targeting and functioning of the pump. The Na+/K+ ATPase plays a critical role in various physiological processes, including nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, and kidney function.

In summary, Sodium-Potassium-Exchanging ATPase is an essential membrane protein that uses energy from ATP to transport sodium and potassium ions across the cell membrane, thereby maintaining ionic gradients and membrane potentials necessary for normal cellular function.

"Cellvibrio" is a genus of bacteria that belongs to the family of Oxalobacteraceae. These bacteria are gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic rods that are commonly found in various environments such as soil, water, and plant material. They are known for their ability to degrade complex organic compounds, including polysaccharides like cellulose and xylan. Some species of Cellvibrio have potential applications in biotechnology and bioenergy production due to their ability to produce enzymes that can break down plant biomass into fermentable sugars. However, there is no specific medical definition or association with human diseases for the genus "Cellvibrio".

A "carbohydrate sequence" refers to the specific arrangement or order of monosaccharides (simple sugars) that make up a carbohydrate molecule, such as a polysaccharide or an oligosaccharide. Carbohydrates are often composed of repeating units of monosaccharides, and the sequence in which these units are arranged can have important implications for the function and properties of the carbohydrate.

For example, in glycoproteins (proteins that contain carbohydrate chains), the specific carbohydrate sequence can affect how the protein is processed and targeted within the cell, as well as its stability and activity. Similarly, in complex carbohydrates like starch or cellulose, the sequence of glucose units can determine whether the molecule is branched or unbranched, which can have implications for its digestibility and other properties.

Therefore, understanding the carbohydrate sequence is an important aspect of studying carbohydrate structure and function in biology and medicine.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Norisoprenoids" is not a widely recognized or established term in medicine or medical chemistry. It appears to be a term used primarily in the field of plant metabolism and natural products chemistry, referring to a class of compounds that are derived from the degradation of carotenoids (a type of isoprenoid) and have lost one or more methyl groups.

If you're asking about this term in a different context or if there's specific medical relevance you have in mind, could you please provide more details? I'd be happy to help further if I can.

Cellulase is a type of enzyme that breaks down cellulose, which is a complex carbohydrate and the main structural component of plant cell walls. Cellulases are produced by certain bacteria, fungi, and protozoans, and are used in various industrial applications such as biofuel production, food processing, and textile manufacturing. In the human body, there are no known physiological roles for cellulases, as humans do not produce these enzymes and cannot digest cellulose.

Flavonoids are a type of plant compounds with antioxidant properties that are beneficial to health. They are found in various fruits, vegetables, grains, and wine. Flavonoids have been studied for their potential to prevent chronic diseases such as heart disease and cancer due to their ability to reduce inflammation and oxidative stress.

There are several subclasses of flavonoids, including:

1. Flavanols: Found in tea, chocolate, grapes, and berries. They have been shown to improve blood flow and lower blood pressure.
2. Flavones: Found in parsley, celery, and citrus fruits. They have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties.
3. Flavanonols: Found in citrus fruits, onions, and tea. They have been shown to improve blood flow and reduce inflammation.
4. Isoflavones: Found in soybeans and legumes. They have estrogen-like effects and may help prevent hormone-related cancers.
5. Anthocyanidins: Found in berries, grapes, and other fruits. They have antioxidant properties and may help improve vision and memory.

It is important to note that while flavonoids have potential health benefits, they should not be used as a substitute for medical treatment or a healthy lifestyle. It is always best to consult with a healthcare professional before starting any new supplement regimen.

Rhodiola (Rhodiola rosea), also known as golden root or roseroot, is an herb that grows in the wild Arctic regions of Europe and Asia. It has been used in traditional medicine in Russia and Scandinavia for centuries to increase stamina, strength, and mental capacity, and to help cope with cold climates and high altitudes.

Rhodiola rosea contains several chemical compounds, including rosavins and salidroside, which are believed to have adaptogenic properties, meaning they may help the body better respond to physical, chemical, and environmental stress. Some studies suggest that rhodiola may help reduce fatigue, improve mental performance, and boost the immune system, but more research is needed to confirm these effects and determine optimal dosages.

It's important to note that while some supplements containing rhodiola rosea are available over-the-counter, they are not regulated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the same way as prescription drugs, so it's important to talk to a healthcare provider before taking them. Additionally, rhodiola may interact with certain medications or have side effects, so it's important to use it under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Carbohydrate conformation refers to the three-dimensional shape and structure of a carbohydrate molecule. Carbohydrates, also known as sugars, can exist in various conformational states, which are determined by the rotation of their component bonds and the spatial arrangement of their functional groups.

The conformation of a carbohydrate molecule can have significant implications for its biological activity and recognition by other molecules, such as enzymes or antibodies. Factors that can influence carbohydrate conformation include the presence of intramolecular hydrogen bonds, steric effects, and intermolecular interactions with solvent molecules or other solutes.

In some cases, the conformation of a carbohydrate may be stabilized by the formation of cyclic structures, in which the hydroxyl group at one end of the molecule forms a covalent bond with the carbonyl carbon at the other end, creating a ring structure. The most common cyclic carbohydrates are monosaccharides, such as glucose and fructose, which can exist in various conformational isomers known as anomers.

Understanding the conformation of carbohydrate molecules is important for elucidating their biological functions and developing strategies for targeting them with drugs or other therapeutic agents.

Chinese herbal drugs, also known as traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), refer to a system of medicine that has been practiced in China for thousands of years. It is based on the belief that the body's vital energy, called Qi, must be balanced and flowing freely for good health. TCM uses various techniques such as herbal therapy, acupuncture, dietary therapy, and exercise to restore balance and promote healing.

Chinese herbal drugs are usually prescribed in the form of teas, powders, pills, or tinctures and may contain one or a combination of herbs. The herbs used in Chinese medicine are typically derived from plants, minerals, or animal products. Some commonly used Chinese herbs include ginseng, astragalus, licorice root, and cinnamon bark.

It is important to note that the use of Chinese herbal drugs should be under the guidance of a qualified practitioner, as some herbs can interact with prescription medications or have side effects. Additionally, the quality and safety of Chinese herbal products can vary widely depending on the source and manufacturing process.

Xylosidases are a group of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of xylosides, which are glycosides with a xylose sugar. Specifically, they cleave the terminal β-1,4-linked D-xylopyranoside residues from various substrates such as xylooligosaccharides and xylan. These enzymes play an important role in the breakdown and metabolism of plant-derived polysaccharides, particularly hemicelluloses, which are a major component of plant biomass. Xylosidases have potential applications in various industrial processes, including biofuel production and animal feed manufacturing.

Xylans are a type of complex carbohydrate, specifically a hemicellulose, that are found in the cell walls of many plants. They are made up of a backbone of beta-1,4-linked xylose sugar molecules and can be substituted with various side groups such as arabinose, glucuronic acid, and acetyl groups. Xylans are indigestible by humans, but they can be broken down by certain microorganisms in the gut through a process called fermentation, which can produce short-chain fatty acids that have beneficial effects on health.

I apologize for the confusion, but "Lamiaceae" is not a medical term. It is a taxonomic category in biology, specifically it is a family of flowering plants that includes many familiar herbs such as mint, rosemary, sage, basil, and lavender. These plants are often used in medicine, cooking, and for ornamental purposes. The Lamiaceae family is characterized by their square stems, opposite leaves, and two-lipped flowers.

I believe there may be a slight misunderstanding in your question. "Plant leaves" are not a medical term, but rather a general biological term referring to a specific organ found in plants.

Leaves are organs that are typically flat and broad, and they are the primary site of photosynthesis in most plants. They are usually green due to the presence of chlorophyll, which is essential for capturing sunlight and converting it into chemical energy through photosynthesis.

While leaves do not have a direct medical definition, understanding their structure and function can be important in various medical fields, such as pharmacognosy (the study of medicinal plants) or environmental health. For example, certain plant leaves may contain bioactive compounds that have therapeutic potential, while others may produce allergens or toxins that can impact human health.

Substrate specificity in the context of medical biochemistry and enzymology refers to the ability of an enzyme to selectively bind and catalyze a chemical reaction with a particular substrate (or a group of similar substrates) while discriminating against other molecules that are not substrates. This specificity arises from the three-dimensional structure of the enzyme, which has evolved to match the shape, charge distribution, and functional groups of its physiological substrate(s).

Substrate specificity is a fundamental property of enzymes that enables them to carry out highly selective chemical transformations in the complex cellular environment. The active site of an enzyme, where the catalysis takes place, has a unique conformation that complements the shape and charge distribution of its substrate(s). This ensures efficient recognition, binding, and conversion of the substrate into the desired product while minimizing unwanted side reactions with other molecules.

Substrate specificity can be categorized as:

1. Absolute specificity: An enzyme that can only act on a single substrate or a very narrow group of structurally related substrates, showing no activity towards any other molecule.
2. Group specificity: An enzyme that prefers to act on a particular functional group or class of compounds but can still accommodate minor structural variations within the substrate.
3. Broad or promiscuous specificity: An enzyme that can act on a wide range of structurally diverse substrates, albeit with varying catalytic efficiencies.

Understanding substrate specificity is crucial for elucidating enzymatic mechanisms, designing drugs that target specific enzymes or pathways, and developing biotechnological applications that rely on the controlled manipulation of enzyme activities.

Acanthaceae is a family of flowering plants that includes around 2,500 species distributed across 220-400 genera. These plants are primarily found in tropical and subtropical regions, with some extending into temperate zones. The family is characterized by the presence of stiff, spiny bracts, which are often colorful and modified to attract pollinators.

The plants in Acanthaceae can vary widely in form, from herbaceous annuals and perennials to shrubs and trees. They have simple or opposite leaves that may be entire or lobed. The flowers are typically bisexual, with a two-lipped calyx and corolla, and four stamens.

Some well-known members of Acanthaceae include the garden plants Shrimp Plant (Justicia brandegeeana) and Whorled Tubelet (Lepidagathis formosa), as well as the medicinal plant Indian Snakeroot (Rauvolfia serpentina).

In a medical context, some species of Acanthaceae have been used in traditional medicine for various purposes, such as treating skin conditions, fevers, and gastrointestinal disorders. However, it is important to note that the use of these plants should be done with caution and under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional, as they can also contain toxic compounds.

Cistanche is a genus of plants in the family Orobanchaceae, also known as the broomrape family. It includes several species that are native to Asia and the Mediterranean region. One commonly used species is Cistanche deserticola, which is known in traditional Chinese medicine as Rou Cong Rong. This plant is a parasitic desert shrub that grows by tapping into the roots of other plants for nutrients.

In traditional Chinese medicine, extracts from the dried root of Cistanche deserticola are used to treat various conditions, such as impotence, constipation, and kidney deficiency. However, it's important to note that while some studies suggest potential health benefits of Cistanche, more research is needed to confirm its effectiveness and safety.

As with any supplement or medication, consult a healthcare professional before using Cistanche extract or any other products derived from this plant.

A plant root is not a medical term per se, but it is a term from botany, which is the study of plants. However, I can certainly provide a definition for you.

Plant roots are the underground organs of a plant that typically grow downward into the soil. They serve several important functions, including:

1. Anchorage: Roots help to stabilize the plant and keep it upright in the ground.
2. Absorption: Roots absorb water and nutrients from the soil, which are essential for the plant's growth and development.
3. Conduction: Roots conduct water and nutrients up to the above-ground parts of the plant, such as the stem and leaves.
4. Vegetative reproduction: Some plants can reproduce vegetatively through their roots, producing new plants from root fragments or specialized structures called rhizomes or tubers.

Roots are composed of several different tissues, including the epidermis, cortex, endodermis, and vascular tissue. The epidermis is the outermost layer of the root, which secretes a waxy substance called suberin that helps to prevent water loss. The cortex is the middle layer of the root, which contains cells that store carbohydrates and other nutrients. The endodermis is a thin layer of cells that surrounds the vascular tissue and regulates the movement of water and solutes into and out of the root. The vascular tissue consists of xylem and phloem, which transport water and nutrients throughout the plant.

Cellulases are a group of enzymes that break down cellulose, which is a complex carbohydrate and the main structural component of plant cell walls. These enzymes are produced by various organisms, including bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. They play an important role in the natural decomposition process and have various industrial applications, such as in the production of biofuels, paper, and textiles.

Cellulases work by hydrolyzing the beta-1,4 glycosidic bonds between the glucose molecules that make up cellulose, breaking it down into simpler sugars like glucose. This process is known as saccharification. The specific type of cellulase enzyme determines where on the cellulose molecule it will cleave the bond.

There are three main types of cellulases: endoglucanases, exoglucanases, and beta-glucosidases. Endoglucanases randomly attack internal bonds in the amorphous regions of cellulose, creating new chain ends for exoglucanases to act on. Exoglucanases (also known as cellobiohydrolases) cleave cellobiose units from the ends of the cellulose chains, releasing cellobiose or glucose. Beta-glucosidases convert cellobiose into two molecules of glucose, which can then be further metabolized by the organism.

In summary, cellulases are a group of enzymes that break down cellulose into simpler sugars through hydrolysis. They have various industrial applications and play an essential role in natural decomposition processes.

Convolvulaceae is a family of flowering plants, also known as the bindweed or morning glory family. It includes both annual and perennial vines, herbs, and shrubs, with over 1,650 species spread across around 60 genera. The plants in this family are characterized by their twining stems and funnel-shaped flowers. Some of the well-known members of Convolvulaceae include the sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), morning glory (Ipomoea spp.), and bindweed (Convolvulus spp.).

Many species in this family contain ergoline alkaloids, which can have hallucinogenic effects. Some indigenous cultures have used these plants for their psychoactive properties in religious or spiritual ceremonies. However, it's important to note that some of these alkaloids can be toxic and even fatal if ingested in large quantities.

In a medical context, certain species of Convolvulaceae may be relevant due to their potential toxicity or as weeds that can cause problems in agriculture. For example, field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis) is a notorious agricultural weed that can reduce crop yields and increase the difficulty of farming.

Spectrophotometry, Infrared is a scientific analytical technique used to measure the absorption or transmission of infrared light by a sample. It involves the use of an infrared spectrophotometer, which directs infrared radiation through a sample and measures the intensity of the radiation that is transmitted or absorbed by the sample at different wavelengths within the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Infrared spectroscopy can be used to identify and quantify functional groups and chemical bonds present in a sample, as well as to study the molecular structure and composition of materials. The resulting infrared spectrum provides a unique "fingerprint" of the sample, which can be compared with reference spectra to aid in identification and characterization.

Infrared spectrophotometry is widely used in various fields such as chemistry, biology, pharmaceuticals, forensics, and materials science for qualitative and quantitative analysis of samples.

Rubiaceae is not a medical term, but a taxonomic category in botany. It refers to the family of flowering plants that includes more than 13,500 species, distributed across approximately 600 genera. Some well-known members of this family include coffee (Coffea arabica), gardenias (Gardenia jasminoides), and madder (Rubia tinctorum).

In a medical context, certain plants from the Rubiaceae family have been used in traditional medicine for various purposes. For example:

* Coffee (Coffea arabica) beans are used to prepare caffeinated beverages that can help with alertness and concentration.
* Gardenia fruits and flowers have been used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat anxiety, insomnia, and inflammation.
* Madder root (Rubia tinctorum) has been used as a dye and in traditional medicine to treat skin conditions and digestive disorders.

However, it's important to note that the medicinal use of plants from this family should be based on scientific evidence and under the guidance of healthcare professionals, as some of these plants can have side effects or interact with medications.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Disaccharides are a type of carbohydrate that is made up of two monosaccharide units bonded together. Monosaccharides are simple sugars, such as glucose, fructose, or galactose. When two monosaccharides are joined together through a condensation reaction, they form a disaccharide.

The most common disaccharides include:

* Sucrose (table sugar), which is composed of one glucose molecule and one fructose molecule.
* Lactose (milk sugar), which is composed of one glucose molecule and one galactose molecule.
* Maltose (malt sugar), which is composed of two glucose molecules.

Disaccharides are broken down into their component monosaccharides during digestion by enzymes called disaccharidases, which are located in the brush border of the small intestine. These enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis of the glycosidic bond that links the two monosaccharides together, releasing them to be absorbed into the bloodstream and used for energy.

Disorders of disaccharide digestion and absorption can lead to various symptoms, such as bloating, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. For example, lactose intolerance is a common condition in which individuals lack sufficient levels of the enzyme lactase, leading to an inability to properly digest lactose and resulting in gastrointestinal symptoms.

In a medical context, "resins, plant" refer to the sticky, often aromatic substances produced by certain plants. These resins are typically composed of a mixture of volatile oils, terpenes, and rosin acids. They may be present in various parts of the plant, including leaves, stems, and roots, and are often found in specialized structures such as glands or ducts.

Plant resins have been used for centuries in traditional medicine and other applications. Some resins have antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, or analgesic properties and have been used to treat a variety of ailments, including skin conditions, respiratory infections, and pain.

Examples of plant resins with medicinal uses include:

* Frankincense (Boswellia spp.) resin has been used in traditional medicine to treat inflammation, arthritis, and asthma.
* Myrrh (Commiphora spp.) resin has been used as an antiseptic, astringent, and anti-inflammatory agent.
* Pine resin has been used topically for its antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties.

It's important to note that while some plant resins have demonstrated medicinal benefits, they should be used with caution and under the guidance of a healthcare professional. Some resins can have adverse effects or interact with medications, and it's essential to ensure their safe and effective use.

Molecular conformation, also known as spatial arrangement or configuration, refers to the specific three-dimensional shape and orientation of atoms that make up a molecule. It describes the precise manner in which bonds between atoms are arranged around a molecular framework, taking into account factors such as bond lengths, bond angles, and torsional angles.

Conformational isomers, or conformers, are different spatial arrangements of the same molecule that can interconvert without breaking chemical bonds. These isomers may have varying energies, stability, and reactivity, which can significantly impact a molecule's biological activity and function. Understanding molecular conformation is crucial in fields such as drug design, where small changes in conformation can lead to substantial differences in how a drug interacts with its target.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Gardenia" is not a medical term. It is the name of a genus of flowering plants in the coffee family, Rubiaceae. These plants are native to tropical and subtropical regions of Africa, Southern Asia, and Australia. The flowers of some Gardenia species are used in perfumes and traditional medicines due to their fragrance. If you have any questions about a specific medical term or concept, please let me know and I would be happy to help.

"Cornus" is a genus name that refers to a group of plants commonly known as dogwoods. These plants belong to the family Cornaceae and are native to the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. There are around 30-60 species in this genus, depending on the classification system used.

Dogwoods are deciduous or evergreen shrubs or small trees that typically have opposite, simple leaves and showy flowers. The flowers are often surrounded by large, modified bracts that can be white, pink, or yellow. The fruit of dogwoods is a small, fleshy drupe that contains one to four seeds.

Some species of Cornus have medicinal properties. For example, the bark of Cornus florida (flowering dogwood) and Cornus mas (Cornelian cherry) has been used in traditional medicine to treat fever, diarrhea, and other ailments. However, it is important to note that the use of these plants for medicinal purposes should be done under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional, as they can also have toxic effects if not used properly.

"Psidium" is a scientific name for a genus of plants that include several species of tropical trees and shrubs, the most well-known of which is "Psidium guajava," or the common guava. These plants are native to Central and South America and are now grown in many tropical and subtropical regions around the world.

The fruits of these plants are also commonly referred to as "guavas" and are popular for their sweet, tangy flavor and high nutritional content. They are rich in vitamin C, dietary fiber, and antioxidants, making them a valuable addition to a healthy diet.

In medical or scientific contexts, the term "Psidium" may be used to refer specifically to the genus of plants or more broadly to any plant or fruit within that genus.

'Cynanchum' is a genus of plants in the family Apocynaceae, also known as Milkweed or Dogbane family. These plants are primarily found in tropical and subtropical regions around the world. Some species of Cynanchum have medicinal uses, including treatments for skin conditions, inflammation, and pain relief. However, it's important to note that some species may contain toxic compounds and should only be used under the guidance of a medical professional.

Naphthacenes are hydrocarbon compounds that consist of a naphthalene ring fused to two additional benzene rings. They belong to the class of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and have been studied for their potential carcinogenic properties. Naphthacenes can be found in various environmental sources, including air pollution from vehicle emissions and cigarette smoke. However, it's important to note that specific medical definitions related to diseases or conditions are not typically associated with naphthacenes.

Phenols, also known as phenolic acids or phenol derivatives, are a class of chemical compounds consisting of a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to an aromatic hydrocarbon ring. In the context of medicine and biology, phenols are often referred to as a type of antioxidant that can be found in various foods and plants.

Phenols have the ability to neutralize free radicals, which are unstable molecules that can cause damage to cells and contribute to the development of chronic diseases such as cancer, heart disease, and neurodegenerative disorders. Some common examples of phenolic compounds include gallic acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and ellagic acid, among many others.

Phenols can also have various pharmacological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and analgesic effects. However, some phenolic compounds can also be toxic or irritating to the body in high concentrations, so their use as therapeutic agents must be carefully monitored and controlled.

Picrorhiza is a genus of plants belonging to the family Scrophulariaceae. In a medical context, Picrorhiza kurroa is the species most commonly referred to as Picrorhiza. It is a traditional Ayurvedic medicinal plant native to the Himalayan region. The roots and rhizomes of this plant are used in various Ayurvedic formulations for their hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. They have been traditionally used to treat liver disorders, asthma, chronic indigestion, and skin diseases. However, it is essential to consult a healthcare professional before using any herbal remedies for medicinal purposes.

"Acanthopanax" is a genus of shrubs and small trees in the family Araliaceae. It includes several species native to Asia, such as Acanthopanax senticosus (also known as Eleutherococcus senticosus or Siberian ginseng) and Acanthopanax gracilistylus (also known as Mikania cordata or Japanese tea). These plants have been used in traditional medicine for various purposes, including boosting the immune system, increasing energy, and reducing stress. However, it's important to note that the scientific evidence supporting these uses is limited, and more research is needed before any firm conclusions can be drawn.

Therefore, "Acanthopanax" itself does not have a specific medical definition as it refers to a genus of plants with various proposed medicinal properties.

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a type of chromatography that separates and analyzes compounds based on their interactions with a stationary phase and a mobile phase under high pressure. The mobile phase, which can be a gas or liquid, carries the sample mixture through a column containing the stationary phase.

In HPLC, the mobile phase is a liquid, and it is pumped through the column at high pressures (up to several hundred atmospheres) to achieve faster separation times and better resolution than other types of liquid chromatography. The stationary phase can be a solid or a liquid supported on a solid, and it interacts differently with each component in the sample mixture, causing them to separate as they travel through the column.

HPLC is widely used in analytical chemistry, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and other fields to separate, identify, and quantify compounds present in complex mixtures. It can be used to analyze a wide range of substances, including drugs, hormones, vitamins, pigments, flavors, and pollutants. HPLC is also used in the preparation of pure samples for further study or use.

Mass spectrometry with electrospray ionization (ESI-MS) is an analytical technique used to identify and quantify chemical species in a sample based on the mass-to-charge ratio of charged particles. In ESI-MS, analytes are ionized through the use of an electrospray, where a liquid sample is introduced through a metal capillary needle at high voltage, creating an aerosol of charged droplets. As the solvent evaporates, the analyte molecules become charged and can be directed into a mass spectrometer for analysis.

ESI-MS is particularly useful for the analysis of large biomolecules such as proteins, peptides, and nucleic acids, due to its ability to gently ionize these species without fragmentation. The technique provides information about the molecular weight and charge state of the analytes, which can be used to infer their identity and structure. Additionally, ESI-MS can be interfaced with separation techniques such as liquid chromatography (LC) for further purification and characterization of complex samples.

A plant stem is not typically defined in a medical context, but rather in the field of botany. However, I can certainly provide a general biological definition for you.

In plants, stems are organs that serve primarily as support structures, holding leaves, flowers, and fruits aloft where they can receive sunlight and exchange gases. They also act as conduits, transporting water, nutrients, and sugars made during photosynthesis between the roots and shoots of a plant.

The stem is usually composed of three main tissue systems: dermal, vascular, and ground. The dermal tissue system forms the outermost layer(s) of the stem, providing protection and sometimes participating in gas exchange. The vascular tissue system contains the xylem (which transports water and nutrients upward) and phloem (which transports sugars and other organic compounds downward). The ground tissue system, located between the dermal and vascular tissues, is responsible for food storage and support.

While not a direct medical definition, understanding the structure and function of plant stems can be relevant in fields such as nutrition, agriculture, and environmental science, which have implications for human health.

'Dioscorea' is the medical term for a genus of plants commonly known as yams. These plants belong to the family Dioscoreaceae and are native to tropical and warm temperate regions of the world. The tubers or roots of some species of Dioscorea are edible and are an important food source in many parts of the world, particularly in Africa and Asia. Some species of Dioscorea contain steroidal saponins, which have been used in traditional medicine for their anti-inflammatory and other properties. However, it is important to note that some species of Dioscorea are toxic and should not be consumed without proper preparation and knowledge.

Digitoxigenin is a steroidal compound that is derived from digitalis plants, such as Digitalis lanata and Digitalis purpurea. It is a genin, which means it is a type of cardiac glycoside that does not contain a sugar molecule. Digitoxigenin itself does not have any intrinsic biological activity, but it can be converted into other compounds that do have therapeutic effects.

Digitoxigenin is a key intermediate in the synthesis of several important drugs, including digoxin and digitoxin. These drugs are used to treat various heart conditions, such as congestive heart failure and atrial fibrillation, by increasing the force of heart contractions and slowing the heart rate.

It is worth noting that digitoxigenin and its derivatives can have toxic effects if used inappropriately or in excessive amounts. Therefore, they should only be administered under the close supervision of a qualified healthcare professional.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Trillium" is not a medical term. It is actually the name of a genus of plants in the family Melanthiaceae, also known as Wake Robin or Wood Lily. These plants are native to North America and Asia and are characterized by their distinctive whorl of three leaves and solitary flower with three petals. They have been used in traditional medicine for various purposes, such as treating wounds and skin conditions, but there is limited scientific evidence supporting these uses.

I am not a medical expert, but I can provide some information that may be helpful. "Picrates" is not a term commonly used in medical definitions. Instead, it is a term used in chemistry to refer to salts of picric acid (2,4,6-trinitrophenol), which was once used as a yellow dye and explosive.

Picric acid has been used historically in some medical applications, such as a component in certain topical antiseptics and in histological staining procedures. However, its use in modern medicine is quite limited due to its high sensitivity to impact, heat, and friction, which makes it potentially dangerous to handle.

Therefore, it's important to note that "picrates" is not a medical term per se but rather a chemical one, and any medical application of picric acid or its salts would be highly specialized and unlikely to be encountered in most healthcare settings.

Asclepiadaceae is a former family of flowering plants that is now considered to be part of the larger family Apocynaceae. It was named after Asclepius, the Greek god of medicine and healing, due to the medicinal properties of some of its members. The plants in this family are primarily tropical or subtropical vines, shrubs, and trees that have milky sap and opposite leaves. They are known for their unique flower structure, which includes a corona of fleshy, modified stamens surrounding the central reproductive structures. Some examples of plants that were once classified in Asclepiadaceae include milkweeds (Asclepias spp.), periwinkles (Catharanthus roseus), and mandevillas (Mandevilla spp.).

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Plant Bark" is not a term with a specific medical definition. In general, the bark refers to the outermost covering of a tree or other plant, which serves as protection and provides a barrier against external threats. It is composed of layers including the inner bark (phloem), which transports nutrients throughout the plant, and the outer bark (periderm), which is made up of dead cells that form a protective layer.

While some plants or plant parts do have medicinal properties and are used in various forms of traditional or alternative medicine, "Plant Bark" by itself does not have any specific medical connotations. If you're referring to a specific type of plant bark with potential medicinal uses, please provide more details so I can give a more accurate response.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Liliaceae" is not a medical term. It is a taxonomic category in botany, specifically it is the family name for plants that include lilies, tulips, and related species. In a medical context, you might be referring to the specific plant species themselves, or possibly the allergic reactions some people can have to the pollen of these plants. If you have any more specific questions about botanical terms in a medical context, I'd be happy to try and help further.

Monoterpenes are a class of terpenes that consist of two isoprene units and have the molecular formula C10H16. They are major components of many essential oils found in plants, giving them their characteristic fragrances and flavors. Monoterpenes can be further classified into various subgroups based on their structural features, such as acyclic (e.g., myrcene), monocyclic (e.g., limonene), and bicyclic (e.g., pinene) compounds. In the medical field, monoterpenes have been studied for their potential therapeutic properties, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticancer activities. However, more research is needed to fully understand their mechanisms of action and clinical applications.

Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) is a type of chromatography used to separate, identify, and quantify the components of a mixture. In TLC, the sample is applied as a small spot onto a thin layer of adsorbent material, such as silica gel or alumina, which is coated on a flat, rigid support like a glass plate. The plate is then placed in a developing chamber containing a mobile phase, typically a mixture of solvents.

As the mobile phase moves up the plate by capillary action, it interacts with the stationary phase and the components of the sample. Different components of the mixture travel at different rates due to their varying interactions with the stationary and mobile phases, resulting in distinct spots on the plate. The distance each component travels can be measured and compared to known standards to identify and quantify the components of the mixture.

TLC is a simple, rapid, and cost-effective technique that is widely used in various fields, including forensics, pharmaceuticals, and research laboratories. It allows for the separation and analysis of complex mixtures with high resolution and sensitivity, making it an essential tool in many analytical applications.

Beta-Mannosidase is an enzyme that breaks down complex carbohydrates known as glycoproteins. It does this by catalyzing the hydrolysis of beta-mannosidic linkages, which are specific types of chemical bonds that connect mannose sugars within glycoproteins.

This enzyme plays an important role in the normal functioning of the body, particularly in the breakdown and recycling of glycoproteins. A deficiency in beta-mannosidase activity can lead to a rare genetic disorder known as beta-Mannosidosis, which is characterized by the accumulation of mannose-rich oligosaccharides in various tissues and organs, leading to progressive neurological deterioration and other symptoms.

Sapogenins are steroid-like compounds that are naturally occurring in some plants, particularly in the sap of certain species. They are aglycones (non-sugar components) of saponins, which are glycosides (compounds with sugar molecules) known for their foaming properties.

Sapogenins have a steroidal structure and can be further categorized into two groups: spirostanol sapogenins and furostanol sapogenins. These compounds have potential therapeutic applications due to their anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and cytotoxic properties. However, more research is needed to fully understand their mechanisms of action and potential benefits in medical treatments.

Spectrophotometry, Ultraviolet (UV-Vis) is a type of spectrophotometry that measures how much ultraviolet (UV) and visible light is absorbed or transmitted by a sample. It uses a device called a spectrophotometer to measure the intensity of light at different wavelengths as it passes through a sample. The resulting data can be used to determine the concentration of specific components within the sample, identify unknown substances, or evaluate the physical and chemical properties of materials.

UV-Vis spectroscopy is widely used in various fields such as chemistry, biology, pharmaceuticals, and environmental science. It can detect a wide range of substances including organic compounds, metal ions, proteins, nucleic acids, and dyes. The technique is non-destructive, meaning that the sample remains unchanged after the measurement.

In UV-Vis spectroscopy, the sample is placed in a cuvette or other container, and light from a source is directed through it. The light then passes through a monochromator, which separates it into its component wavelengths. The monochromatic light is then directed through the sample, and the intensity of the transmitted or absorbed light is measured by a detector.

The resulting absorption spectrum can provide information about the concentration and identity of the components in the sample. For example, if a compound has a known absorption maximum at a specific wavelength, its concentration can be determined by measuring the absorbance at that wavelength and comparing it to a standard curve.

Overall, UV-Vis spectrophotometry is a versatile and powerful analytical technique for quantitative and qualitative analysis of various samples in different fields.

Hesperidin is a flavonoid, specifically a type of flavanone glycoside, that is commonly found in citrus fruits such as oranges, lemons, and grapefruits. It is particularly abundant in the peel and membranes of these fruits. Hesperidin has been studied for its potential health benefits, including its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cardiovascular protective properties. However, more research is needed to fully understand its effects and potential therapeutic uses.

Ferns are a group of vascular plants that reproduce by means of spores rather than seeds. They are characterized by their frond-like leaves and lack of flowers or fruits. Ferns have been around for millions of years, with some fossilized ferns dating back to the Devonian period, over 360 million years ago.

Ferns are an important part of many ecosystems, particularly in tropical rainforests where they provide habitat and food for a variety of animals. They also play a role in soil erosion control and nutrient cycling.

Medically, some ferns have been used in traditional medicine to treat various ailments, such as bracken fern which has been used to treat wounds, burns, and skin diseases. However, it is important to note that not all ferns are safe for consumption or use as medicines, and some can be toxic if ingested or applied topically. It is always recommended to consult with a healthcare professional before using any plant-based remedies.

Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol or wood alcohol, is a volatile, colorless, flammable liquid with a distinctive odor similar to that of ethanol (drinking alcohol). It is used in various industrial applications such as the production of formaldehyde, acetic acid, and other chemicals. In the medical field, methanol is considered a toxic alcohol that can cause severe intoxication and metabolic disturbances when ingested or improperly consumed. Methanol poisoning can lead to neurological symptoms, blindness, and even death if not treated promptly and effectively.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "fruit" is not a medical term per se. It is a common term used to describe the part of a plant that develops from the ovary after flowering and contains seeds. However, in a nutritional or dietary context, "fruits" are often referred to as foods that are typically sweet and juicy, and come from plants' flowers. They are rich in fiber, vitamins, and minerals, making them an essential part of a healthy diet. But in a strict medical sense, there isn't a specific definition for "fruit."

'Clostridium thermocellum' is a type of anaerobic, gram-positive bacterium that is known for its ability to produce cellulases and break down cellulose. It is thermophilic, meaning it grows optimally at higher temperatures, typically between 55-70°C. This organism is of interest in the field of bioenergy because of its potential to convert plant biomass into useful products such as biofuels. However, it's important to note that this bacterium can also produce harmful metabolic byproducts and can be potentially pathogenic to humans.

Cellulose is a complex carbohydrate that is the main structural component of the cell walls of green plants, many algae, and some fungi. It is a polysaccharide consisting of long chains of beta-glucose molecules linked together by beta-1,4 glycosidic bonds. Cellulose is insoluble in water and most organic solvents, and it is resistant to digestion by humans and non-ruminant animals due to the lack of cellulase enzymes in their digestive systems. However, ruminants such as cows and sheep can digest cellulose with the help of microbes in their rumen that produce cellulase.

Cellulose has many industrial applications, including the production of paper, textiles, and building materials. It is also used as a source of dietary fiber in human food and animal feed. Cellulose-based materials are being explored for use in biomedical applications such as tissue engineering and drug delivery due to their biocompatibility and mechanical properties.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Pyrola" is not a term commonly used in medical definitions. It is actually the name of a genus of flowering plants in the family Pyrolaceae. If you have any other term or concept that you would like me to provide a medical definition for, I would be happy to help!

Oligosaccharides are complex carbohydrates composed of relatively small numbers (3-10) of monosaccharide units joined together by glycosidic linkages. They occur naturally in foods such as milk, fruits, vegetables, and legumes. In the body, oligosaccharides play important roles in various biological processes, including cell recognition, signaling, and protection against pathogens.

There are several types of oligosaccharides, classified based on their structures and functions. Some common examples include:

1. Disaccharides: These consist of two monosaccharide units, such as sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose), and maltose (glucose + glucose).
2. Trisaccharides: These contain three monosaccharide units, like maltotriose (glucose + glucose + glucose) and raffinose (galactose + glucose + fructose).
3. Oligosaccharides found in human milk: Human milk contains unique oligosaccharides that serve as prebiotics, promoting the growth of beneficial bacteria in the gut. These oligosaccharides also help protect infants from pathogens by acting as decoy receptors and inhibiting bacterial adhesion to intestinal cells.
4. N-linked and O-linked glycans: These are oligosaccharides attached to proteins in the body, playing crucial roles in protein folding, stability, and function.
5. Plant-derived oligosaccharides: Fructooligosaccharides (FOS) and galactooligosaccharides (GOS) are examples of plant-derived oligosaccharides that serve as prebiotics, promoting the growth of beneficial gut bacteria.

Overall, oligosaccharides have significant impacts on human health and disease, particularly in relation to gastrointestinal function, immunity, and inflammation.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Plant Structures" is not a medical term. It is a term used in the field of botany to refer to the different parts of a plant, such as roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits. Each of these structures has specific functions that contribute to the overall growth, reproduction, and survival of the plant. If you have any questions related to biology or botany, I'd be happy to try and help answer them!

Apocynaceae is a family of flowering plants that includes shrubs, trees, and vines. It's also known as the dogbane or milkweed family. The plants in this family have milky sap and contain toxic compounds, which can be harmful or even fatal to animals and humans if ingested. Some well-known members of Apocynaceae include the various species of milkweeds (Asclepias spp.), oleander (Nerium oleander), and periwinkle (Vinca spp.).

The family is characterized by having opposite leaves, flowers with five petals and five sepals, and a superior ovary. The fruits are usually paired follicles that contain numerous seeds with tufts of hair to aid in wind dispersal. Many species in this family have medicinal or toxic properties, and some have economic importance as ornamental plants, sources of fiber, or for their use in traditional medicine.

Steroids, also known as corticosteroids, are a type of hormone that the adrenal gland produces in your body. They have many functions, such as controlling the balance of salt and water in your body and helping to reduce inflammation. Steroids can also be synthetically produced and used as medications to treat a variety of conditions, including allergies, asthma, skin conditions, and autoimmune disorders.

Steroid medications are available in various forms, such as oral pills, injections, creams, and inhalers. They work by mimicking the effects of natural hormones produced by your body, reducing inflammation and suppressing the immune system's response to prevent or reduce symptoms. However, long-term use of steroids can have significant side effects, including weight gain, high blood pressure, osteoporosis, and increased risk of infections.

It is important to note that anabolic steroids are a different class of drugs that are sometimes abused for their muscle-building properties. These steroids are synthetic versions of the male hormone testosterone and can have serious health consequences when taken in large doses or without medical supervision.

I'm sorry for the confusion, but there seems to be a typo in your request. The correct name for the medication you might be asking about is "Digoxin." Digoxin is a type of medication known as a cardiac glycoside, which is used to treat various heart conditions such as heart failure and atrial fibrillation.

Here's a medical definition of Digoxin:

Digoxin is a cardiac glycoside derived from the digitalis plant, which is used in the treatment of heart failure and atrial fibrillation. It works by increasing the force of contraction of the heart muscle and slowing the heart rate, thereby improving the efficiency of the heart's pumping action. Digoxin is available in oral and injectable forms and is typically administered in divided doses throughout the day. Common side effects include nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, while more serious side effects may include arrhythmias and cardiac toxicity. Close monitoring of serum digoxin levels is necessary to ensure safe and effective use of this medication.

"Sambucus" is a genus of flowering plants in the family Adoxaceae, commonly known as elder or elderberry. While "Sambucus" itself is not a medical term, certain species of this plant, particularly "Sambucus nigra," have been used in traditional medicine for their potential health benefits. The berries and flowers of elderberry are rich in vitamins and antioxidants, and they have been traditionally used to treat colds, flu, and other respiratory infections. However, it is important to note that the raw berries and leaves of elderberry contain a substance called sambunigrin, which can be toxic if consumed in large quantities or improperly prepared. Therefore, it is recommended to consume only properly cooked or processed elderberry products under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Flavones are a type of flavonoid, which is a class of plant and fungal metabolites. They are characterized by a phenylbenzopyrone structure, consisting of two benzene rings (A and B) linked through a heterocyclic pyrone ring (C). Flavones specifically have a double bond between the second and third carbon atoms in the C ring, which contributes to their planar structure.

Flavones are found in various plants, including fruits, vegetables, and herbs, and they have been studied for their potential health benefits. Some common flavones include luteolin, apigenin, and chrysin. These compounds have been shown to have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties in laboratory studies, but more research is needed to determine their effectiveness and safety in humans.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Forsythia" is not a medical term. It is actually the name of a genus of flowering plants in the olive family, Oleaceae. These plants are known for their yellow flowers that typically bloom in early spring. They are often used as ornamental shrubs in gardens and landscapes. If you have any medical concerns or questions, I would be happy to try and help with those!

'Digitalis' is a medication that is derived from the foxglove plant (Digitalis purpurea). It contains cardiac glycosides, primarily digoxin and digitoxin, which have positive inotropic effects on the heart muscle, increasing its contractility. Digitalis is primarily used to treat various types of heart failure and atrial arrhythmias. It works by inhibiting the sodium-potassium pump in heart muscle cells, leading to an increase in intracellular calcium and enhanced cardiac muscle contraction.

It's important to note that digitalis has a narrow therapeutic index, meaning that the difference between a therapeutic and toxic dose is small. Therefore, it requires careful monitoring of serum drug levels and clinical response to ensure safe and effective use. Common side effects include gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, as well as visual disturbances and cardiac arrhythmias.

Lignans are a type of plant compound that have antioxidant and estrogen properties. They are found in various plants such as seeds, grains, fruits, and vegetables. Once consumed, some lignans can be converted by intestinal bacteria into enterolactone and enterodiol, which can have weak estrogenic or anti-estrogenic effects in the body. These compounds have been studied for their potential health benefits, including reducing the risk of cancer and heart disease. However, more research is needed to fully understand their effects and potential health benefits.

Amygdalin is a naturally occurring compound found in the seeds of some fruits, such as apricots, and in certain nuts, including almonds. It is also known as "laetrile" and has been promoted as an alternative treatment for cancer. However, its effectiveness as a cancer treatment is not supported by scientific evidence, and it can have serious side effects, including cyanide poisoning. The use of amygdalin as a medical treatment is not approved by regulatory agencies in many countries, including the United States and Canada.

Cardanolides are a type of steroid compound that are found in certain plants, particularly in the family Apocynaceae. These compounds have a characteristic structure that includes a five-membered lactone ring attached to a steroid nucleus, and they are known for their ability to inhibit the sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+-ATPase) in animal cells. This property makes cardanolides toxic to many organisms, including humans, and they have been used as heart poisons and insecticides.

One of the most well-known cardanolides is ouabain, which is found in the seeds of several African plants and has been used traditionally as a medicine for various purposes, including as a heart stimulant and a poison for hunting. Other examples of cardanolides include digoxin and digitoxin, which are derived from the foxglove plant (Digitalis purpurea) and are used in modern medicine to treat heart failure and atrial arrhythmias.

It's worth noting that while cardanolides have important medical uses, they can also be highly toxic if ingested or otherwise introduced into the body in large amounts. Therefore, it's essential to use these compounds only under the supervision of a qualified healthcare professional.

Alpha-N-Acetylgalactosaminidase (also known as alpha-GalNAcase) is an enzyme that belongs to the class of glycoside hydrolases. Its systematic name is N-acetyl-alpha-galactosaminide galactosaminohydrolase. This enzyme is responsible for catalyzing the hydrolysis of the terminal, non-reducing N-acetyl-D-galactosamine residues in gangliosides and glycoproteins.

Gangliosides are sialic acid-containing glycosphingolipids found in animal tissues, especially in the nervous system. Glycoproteins are proteins that contain oligosaccharide chains (glycans) covalently attached to their polypeptide backbone.

Deficiency or dysfunction of alpha-N-Acetylgalactosaminidase can lead to various genetic disorders, such as Schindler and Kanzaki diseases, which are characterized by the accumulation of gangliosides and glycoproteins in lysosomes, leading to progressive neurological deterioration.

"Solanum" is a genus of flowering plants that includes many species, some of which are economically important as food crops and others which are toxic. The term "Solanum" itself does not have a specific medical definition, but several species within this genus are relevant to medicine and human health. Here are some examples:

1. Solanum lycopersicum (tomato): While tomatoes are primarily known as a food crop, they also contain various compounds with potential medicinal properties. For instance, they are rich in antioxidants like lycopene, which has been studied for its potential benefits in preventing cancer and cardiovascular diseases.
2. Solanum tuberosum (potato): Potatoes are a staple food crop, but their leaves and green parts contain solanine, a toxic alkaloid that can cause gastrointestinal disturbances, neurological symptoms, and even death in severe cases.
3. Solanum melongena (eggplant): Eggplants have been studied for their potential health benefits due to their high antioxidant content, including nasunin, which has been shown to protect against lipid peroxidation and DNA damage.
4. Solanum nigrum (black nightshade): This species contains solanine and other toxic alkaloids, but some parts of the plant have been used in traditional medicine for their anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic properties. However, its use as a medicinal herb is not well-established, and it can be toxic if improperly prepared or consumed in large quantities.
5. Solanum dulcamara (bittersweet nightshade): This species has been used in traditional medicine for various purposes, including treating skin conditions, respiratory ailments, and gastrointestinal complaints. However, its use as a medicinal herb is not well-supported by scientific evidence, and it can be toxic if ingested in large quantities.

In summary, "Solanum" refers to a genus of flowering plants that includes several species with relevance to medicine and human health. While some species are important food crops, others contain toxic compounds that can cause harm if improperly consumed or prepared. Additionally, the medicinal use of some Solanum species is not well-established and may carry risks.

"Scilla" is a term that refers to a genus of plants in the family Asparagaceae, specifically within the subfamily Scilloideae. These plants are commonly known as "squills" and are native to Mediterranean regions, South Africa, and parts of Asia. They are perennial herbs with linear leaves and bell-shaped flowers that can be blue, white, or pink.

In a medical context, the term "scilla" may also refer to a medication derived from the dried bulb of Scilla maritima (also known as European Squill), which contains cardiac glycosides such as scillaren A and B. This medication has been used in the past as an expectorant, diuretic, and heart stimulant, although its use is not widespread in modern medicine due to the availability of safer and more effective alternatives.

It's important to note that "scilla" should not be confused with "skullcap," which is a different plant species (Scutellaria lateriflora) used in herbal medicine for its sedative and anxiolytic properties.

'Aquilegia' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Ranunculaceae, commonly known as columbines. These perennial plants are native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere and have showy, bell-shaped flowers with spurs that contain nectar. While 'Aquilegia' species have some medicinal uses, they are not typically used in modern medical contexts.

Therefore, there is no medical definition for 'Aquilegia'. However, it is important to note that all parts of the plant can be toxic if ingested in large quantities due to the presence of alkaloids, which can cause symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.

Rosaceae is not a medical term but a taxonomic category in biology, specifically an family of flowering plants. However, many physicians and dermatologists are familiar with some members of this family because they cause several common skin conditions.

Rosaceae refers to a family of plants that include roses, strawberries, blackberries, and many other ornamental and edible plants. Some genera within this family contain species known to cause various dermatologic conditions in humans, particularly affecting the face.

The most well-known skin disorders associated with Rosaceae are:

1. Acne rosacea (or rosacea): A chronic inflammatory skin condition primarily affecting the central face, characterized by flushing, persistent erythema (redness), telangiectasia (dilated blood vessels), papules, pustules, and sometimes rhinophyma (enlarged, bulbous nose).
2. Erythematotelangiectatic rosacea: A subtype of rosacea characterized by persistent central facial erythema, flushing, and telangiectasia without papules or pustules.
3. Phymatous rosacea: A subtype of rosacea characterized by thickening skin, irregular surface nodularities, and enlargement, particularly of the nose (rhinophyma).
4. Ocular rosacea: Inflammation of the eyes and eyelids associated with rosacea, causing symptoms like dryness, grittiness, foreign body sensation, burning, stinging, itching, watering, redness, and occasional blurry vision.

While not a medical term itself, Rosaceae is an essential concept in dermatology due to the skin conditions it encompasses.

Monosaccharides are simple sugars that cannot be broken down into simpler units by hydrolysis. They are the most basic unit of carbohydrates and are often referred to as "simple sugars." Monosaccharides typically contain three to seven atoms of carbon, but the most common monosaccharides contain five or six carbon atoms.

The general formula for a monosaccharide is (CH2O)n, where n is the number of carbon atoms in the molecule. The majority of monosaccharides have a carbonyl group (aldehyde or ketone) and multiple hydroxyl groups. These functional groups give monosaccharides their characteristic sweet taste and chemical properties.

The most common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose, all of which contain six carbon atoms and are known as hexoses. Other important monosaccharides include pentoses (five-carbon sugars) such as ribose and deoxyribose, which play crucial roles in the structure and function of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).

Monosaccharides can exist in various forms, including linear and cyclic structures. In aqueous solutions, monosaccharides often form cyclic structures through a reaction between the carbonyl group and a hydroxyl group, creating a hemiacetal or hemiketal linkage. These cyclic structures can adopt different conformations, known as anomers, depending on the orientation of the hydroxyl group attached to the anomeric carbon atom.

Monosaccharides serve as essential building blocks for complex carbohydrates, such as disaccharides (e.g., sucrose, lactose, and maltose) and polysaccharides (e.g., starch, cellulose, and glycogen). They also participate in various biological processes, including energy metabolism, cell recognition, and protein glycosylation.

Glycosides can be linked by an O- (an O-glycoside), N- (a glycosylamine), S-(a thioglycoside), or C- (a C-glycoside) glycosidic ... glycosides are classified as α-glycosides or β-glycosides. Some enzymes such as α-amylase can only hydrolyze α-linkages; others ... In these glycosides, the aglycone part is a steroid nucleus. These glycosides are found in the plant genera Digitalis, Scilla, ... Glycosides play numerous important roles in living organisms. Many plants store chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides. ...
"Cardiac Glycosides". www.people.vcu.edu. Retrieved 2017-05-25. Cheeke PR (1989-07-31). Toxicants of Plant Origin: Glycosides. ... The general structure of a cardiac glycoside consists of a steroid molecule attached to a sugar (glycoside) and an R group. The ... as done by cardiac glycosides. Nevertheless, due to questions of toxicity and dosage, cardiac glycosides have been replaced ... Cardiac glycosides are a class of organic compounds that increase the output force of the heart and decrease its rate of ...
P57 is an oxypregnane steroidal glycoside isolated from the African cactiform Hoodia gordonii. P57 is hypothesized to be the ... studies of the anorectic mechanism of a plant steroidal glycoside". Brain Research. 1020 (1-2): 1-11. doi:10.1016/j.brainres. ...
... , also known as sennoside or senna, is a medication used to treat constipation and empty the large intestine ... Common side effects of senna glycoside include abdominal cramps. It is not recommended for long-term use, as it may result in ... Senna glycosides can increase digoxin toxicity in patients taking digoxin by reducing serum potassium levels, thereby enhancing ... They are anthraquinone derivatives and dimeric glycosides. Senna is an over-the-counter medication available in multiple ...
Glycoside Stevia Sugar substitute Brandle, J. E.; Telmer, P. G. (2007). "Steviol glycoside biosynthesis" (PDF). Phytochemistry ... Steviol glycosides are the chemical compounds responsible for the sweet taste of the leaves of the South American plant Stevia ... A commercial steviol glycoside mixture extracted from the plant was found to have about 80% stevioside, 8% rebaudioside A, and ... Synthesis of steviol glycoside begins with isoprene units created via the DXP or MEP pathway. Two molecules derived from ...
... s are classified into EC 3.2.1 as enzymes catalyzing the hydrolysis of O- or S-glycosides. Glycoside ... Mutant glycoside hydrolases termed glycosynthases have been developed that can achieve the synthesis of glycosides in high ... Thioglycoligases catalyze the condensation of activated glycosides and various thiol-containing acceptors. Various glycoside ... Mucopolysaccharidoses Glucosidase Lysozyme Glycosyltransferase List of glycoside hydrolase families Clans of glycoside ...
In molecular biology, glycoside hydrolase family 70 is a family of glycoside hydrolases. Glycoside hydrolases EC 3.2.1. are a ... "Glycoside Hydrolase Family 70". CAZypedia.org. Retrieved 2018-03-06. CAZypedia Consortium (December 2018). "Ten years of ... A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different ...
In molecular biology, glycoside hydrolase family 36 is a family of glycoside hydrolases. Glycoside hydrolases EC 3.2.1. are a ... Glycoside hydrolase family 36 can be subdivided into 11 families, GH36A to GH36K. Henrissat B, Callebaut I, Mornon JP, Fabrega ... Glycoside hydrolase family 36 also includes enzymes with α-N-acetylgalactosaminidase EC 3.2.1.49 and stachyose synthase EC 2.4. ... Glycoside hydrolase family 36 together with family 31 and family 27 alpha-galactosidases form the glycosyl hydrolase clan GH-D ...
In molecular biology, glycoside hydrolase family 108 is a family of glycoside hydrolases. Glycoside hydrolases EC 3.2.1. are a ... Glycoside hydrolase family 108 CAZY GH_108 includes enzymes with lysozyme (N-acetylmuramidase) EC 3.2.1.17 activity. A glutamic ... "Glycoside Hydrolase Family 108". CAZypedia.org. Retrieved 2018-03-06. CAZypedia Consortium (December 2018). "Ten years of ... A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different ...
In molecular biology, glycoside hydrolase family 35 is a family of glycoside hydrolases. Glycoside hydrolases EC 3.2.1. are a ... Glycoside hydrolase family 35 CAZY GH_35 comprises enzymes with only one known activity; beta-galactosidase (EC 3.2.1.23). ... "Glycoside Hydrolase Family 35". CAZypedia.org. Retrieved 2018-03-06. CAZypedia Consortium (December 2018). "Ten years of ... A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different ...
... is a family of glycoside hydrolases. Glycoside hydrolases EC 3.2.1. are a widespread group of ... Glycoside hydrolase family 1 CAZY GH_1 comprises enzymes with a number of known activities; beta-glucosidase (EC 3.2.1.21); ... "Glycoside Hydrolase Family 1". CAZypedia.org. Retrieved 2018-03-06. CAZypedia Consortium (December 2018). "Ten years of ... A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different ...
In molecular biology, glycoside hydrolase family 63 is a family of glycoside hydrolases. Glycoside hydrolases EC 3.2.1. are a ... "Glycoside Hydrolase Family 63". CAZypedia.org. Retrieved 2018-03-06. CAZypedia Consortium (December 2018). "Ten years of ... A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different ...
In molecular biology, glycoside hydrolase family 100 is a family of glycoside hydrolases. Glycoside hydrolases EC 3.2.1. are a ... Glycoside hydrolase family 100 CAZY GH_100 includes enzymes with invertase activity EC 3.2.1.26. Henrissat B, Callebaut I, ... "Glycoside Hydrolase Family 100". CAZypedia.org. Retrieved 2018-03-06. CAZypedia Consortium (December 2018). "Ten years of ... A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different ...
In molecular biology, Glycoside hydrolase family 11 is a family of glycoside hydrolases. Glycoside hydrolases EC 3.2.1. are a ... Glycoside hydrolase family 11 CAZY GH_11 comprises enzymes with only one known activity, xylanase (EC 3.2.1.8). These enzymes ... "Glycoside Hydrolase Family 11". CAZypedia.org. Retrieved 2018-03-06. CAZypedia Consortium (December 2018). "Ten years of ... A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different ...
In molecular biology, glycoside hydrolase family 39 is a family of glycoside hydrolases. Glycoside hydrolases EC 3.2.1. are a ... Glycoside hydrolase family 39 CAZY GH_39 comprises enzymes with several known activities; alpha-L-iduronidase (EC 3.2.1.76); ... "Glycoside Hydrolase Family 39". CAZypedia.org. Retrieved 2018-03-06. CAZypedia Consortium (December 2018). "Ten years of ... A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different ...
In molecular biology, glycoside hydrolase family 66 is a family of glycoside hydrolases. Glycoside hydrolases EC 3.2.1. are a ... Glycoside hydrolase family 66 CAZY GH_66 includes enzymes with cycloisomaltooligosaccharide glucanotransferase EC 2.4.1.248 and ... "Glycoside Hydrolase Family 66". CAZypedia.org. Retrieved 2018-03-06. CAZypedia Consortium (December 2018). "Ten years of ... A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different ...
In molecular biology, glycoside hydrolase family 24 is a family of glycoside hydrolases. Glycoside hydrolases EC 3.2.1. are a ... Glycoside hydrolase family 24 CAZY GH_24 comprises enzymes with only one known activity; lysozyme (EC 3.2.1.17). This family ... "Glycoside Hydrolase Family 24". CAZypedia.org. Retrieved 2018-03-06. CAZypedia Consortium (December 2018). "Ten years of ... A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different ...
In molecular biology, glycoside hydrolase family 77 is a family of glycoside hydrolases. Glycoside hydrolases EC 3.2.1. are a ... "Glycoside Hydrolase Family 77". CAZypedia.org. Retrieved 2018-03-06. CAZypedia Consortium (December 2018). "Ten years of ... A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different ... This article incorporates text from the public domain Pfam and InterPro: IPR003385 Portal: Biology (EC 3.2.1, Glycoside ...
In molecular biology, glycoside hydrolase family 65 is a family of glycoside hydrolases. Glycoside hydrolases EC 3.2.1. are a ... "Glycoside Hydrolase Family 65". CAZypedia.org. Retrieved 2018-03-06. CAZypedia Consortium (December 2018). "Ten years of ... A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different ...
In molecular biology, Glycoside hydrolase family 18 is a family of glycoside hydrolases. Glycoside hydrolases EC 3.2.1. are a ... "Glycoside Hydrolase Family 18". CAZypedia.org. Retrieved 2018-03-06. CAZypedia Consortium (December 2018). "Ten years of ... A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different ...
In molecular biology, glycoside hydrolase family 33 is a family of glycoside hydrolases. Glycoside hydrolases EC 3.2.1. are a ... "Glycoside Hydrolase Family 33". CAZypedia.org. Retrieved 2018-03-06. CAZypedia Consortium (December 2018). "Ten years of ... A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different ... Portal: Biology (EC 3.2.1, Glycoside hydrolase families, Protein families). ...
In molecular biology, glycoside hydrolase family 7 is a family of glycoside hydrolases EC 3.2.1., which are a widespread group ... Glycoside hydrolase family 7 CAZY GH_7 comprises enzymes with several known activities including endoglucanase (EC 3.2.1.4) and ... "Glycoside Hydrolase Family 7". CAZypedia.org. Retrieved 2018-03-06. CAZypedia Consortium (December 2018). "Ten years of ... A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different ...
In molecular biology, glycoside hydrolase family 92 is a family of glycoside hydrolases. Glycoside hydrolases EC 3.2.1. are a ... Glycoside hydrolase family 92 includes enzymes with mannosyl-oligosaccharide α-1,2-mannosidase EC 3.2.1.113, mannosyl- ... "Glycoside Hydrolase Family 92". CAZypedia.org. Retrieved 2018-03-06. CAZypedia Consortium (December 2018). "Ten years of ... A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different ...
In molecular biology, glycoside hydrolase family 71 is a family of glycoside hydrolases. Glycoside hydrolases EC 3.2.1. are a ... "Glycoside Hydrolase Family 71". CAZypedia.org. Retrieved 2018-03-06. CAZypedia Consortium (December 2018). "Ten years of ... A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different ...
In molecular biology, Glycoside hydrolase family 10 is a family of glycoside hydrolases. Glycoside hydrolases EC 3.2.1. are a ... Glycoside hydrolase family 10 CAZY GH_10 comprises enzymes with a number of known activities; xylanase (EC 3.2.1.8); endo-1,3- ... "Glycoside Hydrolase Family 10". CAZypedia.org. Retrieved 2018-03-06. CAZypedia Consortium (December 2018). "Ten years of ... A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different ...
In molecular biology, glycoside hydrolase family 78 is a family of glycoside hydrolases. Glycoside hydrolases EC 3.2.1. are a ... Glycoside hydrolase family 78 CAZY GH_78 includes enzymes with α-L-rhamnosidase EC 3.2.1.40 activity. This family includes ... For example, terpenyl glycosides, the glycosidic precursor of aromatic terpenoids, act as important flavouring substances in ... "Glycoside Hydrolase Family 78". CAZypedia.org. Retrieved 2018-03-06. CAZypedia Consortium (December 2018). "Ten years of ...
In molecular biology, glycoside hydrolase family 44 is a family of glycoside hydrolases. Glycoside hydrolases EC 3.2.1. are a ... Glycoside hydrolase family 44 CAZY GH_44, formerly known as cellulase family J, includes enzymes with endoglucanase EC 3.2.1.4 ... "Glycoside Hydrolase Family 44". CAZypedia.org. Retrieved 2018-03-06. CAZypedia Consortium (December 2018). "Ten years of ... A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different ...
In molecular biology, Glycoside hydrolase family 17 is a family of glycoside hydrolases. It folds into a TIM barrel. Glycoside ... y[ _]9 Glycoside hydrolase family 17 CAZY GH_17 comprises enzymes with several known activities; endo-1,3-beta-glucosidase (EC ... "Glycoside Hydrolase Family 17". CAZypedia.org. Retrieved 2018-03-06. CAZypedia Consortium (December 2018). "Ten years of ... A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different ...
In molecular biology, glycoside hydrolase family 73 is a family of glycoside hydrolases. Glycoside hydrolases EC 3.2.1. are a ... Glycoside hydrolase family 73 CAZY GH_73 includes peptidoglycan hydrolases with endo-β-N-acetylglucosaminidase specificity. ... "Glycoside Hydrolase Family 73". CAZypedia.org. Retrieved 2018-03-06. CAZypedia Consortium (December 2018). "Ten years of ... A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different ...
In molecular biology, glycoside hydrolase family 37 is a family of glycoside hydrolases. Glycoside hydrolases EC 3.2.1. are a ... Glycoside hydrolase family 37 CAZY GH_37 comprises enzymes with only one known activity; trehalase (EC 3.2.1.28). Trehalase is ... "Glycoside Hydrolase Family 3". CAZypedia.org. Retrieved 2018-03-06. CAZypedia Consortium (December 2018). "Ten years of ... A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different ...
Glycosides can be linked by an O- (an O-glycoside), N- (a glycosylamine), S-(a thioglycoside), or C- (a C-glycoside) glycosidic ... glycosides are classified as α-glycosides or β-glycosides. Some enzymes such as α-amylase can only hydrolyze α-linkages; others ... In these glycosides, the aglycone part is a steroid nucleus. These glycosides are found in the plant genera Digitalis, Scilla, ... Glycosides play numerous important roles in living organisms. Many plants store chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides. ...
Cardiac glycosides are medicines for treating heart failure and certain irregular heartbeats. They are one of several classes ... Cardiac glycosides are medicines for treating heart failure and certain irregular heartbeats. They are one of several classes ... The medicine digoxin contains cardiac glycosides.. Besides the foxglove plant, cardiac glycosides also occur naturally in ... Cardiac glycoside overdose occurs when someone takes more than the normal or recommended amount of this medicine. This can be ...
Triterpenoid glycosides from Stauntonia hexaphylla. Download Prime PubMed App to iPhone, iPad, or Android ... Three known triterpenoid glycosides were also isolated. A new proglycoside was isolated from the cleavage of the ester- ... Carbohydrate SequenceDrugs, Chinese HerbalGlycosidesMagnetic Resonance SpectroscopyMolecular Sequence DataOleanolic Acid ... Three known triterpenoid glycosides were also isolated. A new proglycoside was isolated from the cleavage of the ester- ...
Cardiac glycosides are found in a diverse group of plants including Digitalis purpurea and Digitalis lanata (foxgloves), Nerium ... encoded search term (Cardiac Glycoside Plant Poisoning) and Cardiac Glycoside Plant Poisoning What to Read Next on Medscape ... Cardiac glycosides are found in a diverse group of plants including the following [1] :. * Digitalis purpurea and Digitalis ... 1783 were due to exposure to plants containing cardiac glycosides. Cardiac glycoside exposure from plants accounts for ...
Cardiac glycosides are found in a diverse group of plants including Digitalis purpurea and Digitalis lanata (foxgloves), Nerium ... encoded search term (Cardiac Glycoside Plant Poisoning) and Cardiac Glycoside Plant Poisoning What to Read Next on Medscape ... Cardiac Glycoside Plant Poisoning Clinical Presentation. Updated: Jan 23, 2021 * Author: Raffi Kapitanyan, MD; Chief Editor: ... Plant poisonings: common plants that contain cardiac glycosides. J Emerg Nurs. 2011 Jan. 37 (1):102-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. ...
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Thermostable GH159 glycoside hydrolase from Caldicellulosiruptor at 1.7 A ... and preliminary structural properties are reported for three glycoside hydrolases of the recently described glycoside hydrolase ... and preliminary structural properties are reported for three glycoside hydrolases of the recently described glycoside hydrolase ... Activity screening using a set of para -nitrophenyl ( p NP) glycosides suggested additional arabinosidase activity on ...
Cardiac Glycosides. Class Summary. The positive inotropic and negative chronotropic effects of these agents are useful in the ... Cardiac glycosides are used to enhance cardiac contractility as an adjunct to treating congestive heart failure. They are used ... Digoxin is a cardiac glycoside with direct inotropic effects, as well as indirect effects, on the cardiovascular system. It ...
The directed movement of a glycoside into, out of or within a cell, or between cells, by means of some agent such as a ...
Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine summarized the diverse pharmacological activities of bioactive glycosides ... Bioactive glycosides are active compounds found in TCM that show therapeutic properties. Their potential warrants further ... Li L, Feng Y, Hong Y, Lin X, Shen L. RECENT ADVANCES IN DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM FOR BIOACTIVE GLYCOSIDES FROM TRADITIONAL CHINESE ... In particular, bioactive glycosides can be used to treat intractable diseases via targeted drug delivery. ...
Cite this Research Publication : A. Banerji and Chintalwar, G. J., "Phytoecdysones & a new flavonol glycoside from Sesuvium ... Phytoecdysones & a new flavonol glycoside from Sesuvium portulacastrum Linn. Publication Type : Journal Article ...
Iridoid glycosides (CIG) are the major component of Corni fructus. In this work, we researched the antioxidative, hypoglycemic ... Iridoid glycosides (CIG) are the major component of Corni fructus. In this work, we researched the antioxidative, hypoglycemic ... Hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic and antioxidant effects of iridoid glycosides extracted from Corni fructus: possible involvement of ... Hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic and antioxidant effects of iridoid glycosides extracted from Corni fructus: possible involvement of ...
These glycosides are synthesized via steviol glycoside biosynthesis pathway operating in the leaves of Stevia; making leaves an ... Quantitative estimation of steviol glycosides: HPLC was carried out to quantify the steviol glycosides from plants treated with ... The sweetness is due to steviol glycosides, the glucosylated steviol derivatives of steviol glycoside biosynthesis pathway. In ... Expression analysis of genes of steviol glycoside biosynthesis pathway in response to sucrose variability: In order to have an ...
Systematic Screening of Synthetic Gene-Encoded Enzymes for Synthesis of Modified Glycosides. Published in:. ACS Catalysis 9(4) ... Systematic Screening of Synthetic Gene-Encoded Enzymes for Synthesis of Modified Glycosides ... coli clones each harboring 1 of 175 synthetic genes that represent the subfamilies within the glycoside hydrolase family GH1 to ... it also provides a general framework that can be exploited to develop catalysts from other glycoside-hydrolase-containing clone ...
Steviol glycosides are present in the leaves of the Stevia rebaudiana plant, have a sweet taste, and have been used as a ... The results showed that exposure to steviol glycosides is unlikely to pose a carcinogenic risk to humans, which is consistent ... Lack of potential carcinogenicity for steviol glycosides - Systematic evaluation and integration of mechanistic data into the ... To build on previous authoritative safety assessments of steviol glycosides, a systematic assessment of mechanistic data ...
Click the button below to add the Lewis A trisaccharide methyl glycoside 500 ug to your wish list. ...
1-Glycosides intro. .pptx - Téléchargez le document au format PDF ou consultez-le gratuitement en ligne ... Glycosides Dr. Mostafa Hegazy Glycosides Chemistry  Glycosides are considered as acetals or sugar ethers.  Where the -OH ... to glycosidic linkage: They contain free -OH group (in O-glycosides), free NH (in N-glycosides), free SH(in S- glycosides)  ... Glycosides Dr. Mostafa Hegazy Examples of some medicinal uses of glycosides for treatment of 1-CHF as cardiac stimulants e.g. ...
Senna glycoside - Descargar como PDF o ver en línea de forma gratuita ... O Aloe-emodin-8-glycoside Rhein-8-glycoside Chrysophanol-8-glycoside 2. O-glycoside where the aglycone moiety partially reduced ... Senna glycoside. *1. Senna glycoside Kratika Daniel (Ph.D) Assistant professor MANDSAUR INSTITUTE OF PHARMACY, Mandsaur ... 3. Types of anthraquinone glycoside 1. O-glycosides where the aglycone moiety is 1,8 dihydroxyanthraquinone derivatives, e.g., ...
Glycoside Hydrolase Family 9. From CAZypedia. Revision as of 13:18, 18 December 2021 by Harry Brumer. (talk , contribs) (Text ... Honda Y, Arai S, Suzuki K, Kitaoka M, and Fushinobu S. (2016). The crystal structure of an inverting glycoside hydrolase family ... Yoshida K and Komae K. (2006). A rice family 9 glycoside hydrolase isozyme with broad substrate specificity for hemicelluloses ... Indeed, as one of the first glycoside hydrolase families classified by hydrophobic cluster analysis, GH9 was previously known ...
The glycoside hydrolases of this family are lytic transglycosylases (also referred to as peptidoglycan lyases) of both ... Retrieved from "http://www.cazypedia.org/index.php?title=Glycoside_Hydrolase_Family_23&oldid=16468" ...
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Two series of new pyrazoline and isoxazole bridged indole C-glycoside molecular hybrids (n = 36) were efficiently synthesized ... C-glycosides are important class of molecules exhibit diverse biological activities and present as structural motif in many ... C-glycosides are important class of molecules exhibit diverse biological activities and present as structural motif in many ... Design and efficient synthesis of pyrazoline and isoxazole bridged indole C-glycoside hybrids as potential anticancer agents. ...
Design and efficient synthesis of pyrazoline and isoxazole bridged indole C-glycoside hybrids as potential anticancer agents ... Publisher Correction: Design and efficient synthesis of pyrazoline and isoxazole bridged indole C-glycoside hybrids as ... Publisher Correction: Design and efficient synthesis of pyrazoline and isoxazole bridged indole C-glycoside hybrids as ...
Naturally occurring glycosides found in plants and having important biological activity. These products have been chemically ... Plant Glycosides Naturally occurring glycosides found in plants and having important biological activity. These products have ...
Alkyl glycosides are acetals obtained by condensation of glycosides with a fatty alcohol. In industry, saccharose, glucose, and ... Prenol glycosides. Hydroxygeranyllinallol diterpenoid glycosides are abundant metabolites in three genera of Solanaceae ( ... Alkyl glycosides and polyglycosides. Alkyl glucosides have been described in heterocysts in Cyanobacteria where they likely ... These alkyl glycosides are composed of a glycosyl moiety (one or several units) linked to the hydroxyl group of a fatty alcohol ...
Buy Steviol Glycosides from Australias leading digital marketplace for chemical inputs ...
28-​(4-methyl-1-​piperazinyl)​Oleanolic acid, 3-O-​[2-​O-​(6-​deoxy-​α-​L-​mannopyranosyl)​-​α-​L-​arabinopyranosyl]​, 95% ...
Digitalis Glycosides. CYTOMEL may reduce the therapeutic effects of digitalis glycosides. Serum digitalis glycoside levels may ... be decreased when a hypothyroid patient becomes euthyroid, necessitating an increase in the dose of digitalis glycosides. ...
Solanum aculeastrum Dunal was investigated for the presence of molluscicidal compounds. This led to the isolation of solaculine A, from the root bark in addition to known steroidal alkaloids; solamargine and beta-solamarine from the berries. The structures were elucidated by spectroscopic techniques. Molluscicidal activity of the aqueous extracts of the berries and root bark, and the isolated compounds were investigated ...
  • The sweetness is due to steviol glycosides, the glucosylated steviol derivatives of steviol glycoside biosynthesis pathway. (scialert.net)
  • In present study, we analyzed the effect of varying sucrose (1, 3 and 5%) concentrations on the genes involved in steviol glycoside biosynthesis pathway and content of steviol glycosides. (scialert.net)
  • Furthermore, the quantitative estimation of steviol glycosides in leaves revealed that approximately 4.5 times higher glycosides accumulated in 5% sucrose treated plants than that in 3 and 1% treated plants. (scialert.net)
  • Present work thus suggests that sucrose might be acting as an enhancer of transcriptional trigger to the genes of steviol glycoside biosynthesis pathway that could positively manipulate the production of steviol glycosides. (scialert.net)
  • Steviol glycosides are present in the leaves of the Stevia rebaudiana plant, have a sweet taste, and have been used as a sweetener for centuries. (sweeteners.org)
  • To build on previous authoritative safety assessments of steviol glycosides, a systematic assessment of mechanistic data related to key characteristics of carcinogens (KCCs) was conducted. (sweeteners.org)
  • Over 900 KCC-relevant endpoints from peer-reviewed literature and high-throughput screening data (ToxCast/Tox21) were identified across individual steviol glycosides and derivatives, metabolites, and whole leaf extracts. (sweeteners.org)
  • Following integration across all data, and accounting for study quality and relevance, the totality of the evidence demonstrated an overall lack of genotoxic and carcinogenic activity for steviol glycosides. (sweeteners.org)
  • The findings support prior conclusions that steviol glycosides are unlikely to be carcinogenic in humans. (sweeteners.org)
  • The current systematic evaluation of all available evidence from human, animal, and mechanistic data affirms the lack of genotoxic and carcinogenic potential of steviol glycosides. (sweeteners.org)
  • The outcomes of this study are consistent with conclusions from regulatory food safety authorities worldwide supporting that steviol glycosides are safe and non-carcinogenic. (sweeteners.org)
  • This study by Chappell et al aimed to systematically identify, evaluate and integrate all available mechanistic data related to key characteristics of carcinogens (KCC) in order to assess potential carcinogenicity of steviol glycosides using a structured, quantitative framework. (sweeteners.org)
  • The results showed that exposure to steviol glycosides is unlikely to pose a carcinogenic risk to humans, which is consistent with assessments from authoritative bodies including the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). (sweeteners.org)
  • Iridoid glycosides (CIG) are the major component of Corni fructus . (rsc.org)
  • Systemic, genotype-specific induction of two herbivore-deterrent iridoid glycosides in Plantago lanceolata L. in response to fungal infection by Diaporthe adunca (Rob. (knaw.nl)
  • Effects and mechanisms of iridoid glycosides from Patrinia scabiosaefolia on improving insulin resistance in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. (bvsalud.org)
  • Any dysrhythmia characterized by both increased automaticity and depressed conduction is suggestive of cardiac glycoside toxicity. (medscape.com)
  • Although acute and chronic plant cardiac glycoside toxicity are treated in similar manners, their noncardiac clinical manifestations differ. (medscape.com)
  • Kanji S, Maclean RD. Cardiac glycoside toxicity: More than 200 years and counting. (cdc.gov)
  • Toxicity from herbal cardiac glycosides was well recognized by 1785, when William Withering published his classic work describing therapeutic uses and toxicity of foxglove, D purpurea . (medscape.com)
  • Therapeutic use of herbal cardiac glycosides continues to be a source of toxicity today. (medscape.com)
  • Cardiac glycosides have been also found in Asian herbal products and have been a source of human toxicity. (medscape.com)
  • Toxicity may occur after consuming teas brewed from plant parts or after consuming leaves, flowers, or seeds from plants containing cardiac glycosides. (medscape.com)
  • The early signs of toxicity from the cardiac glycosides can mimic the heart problem it is meant to treat, making diagnosis difficult. (wagwalking.com)
  • The most important cleavage enzymes are the glycoside hydrolases, and the most important synthetic enzymes in nature are glycosyltransferases. (wikipedia.org)
  • There are four type of linkages present between glycone and aglycone: C-linkage/glycosidic bond, "nonhydrolysable by acids or enzymes" O-linkage/glycosidic bond N-linkage/glycosidic bond S-linkage/glycosidic bond Glycosides are also classified according to the chemical nature of the aglycone. (wikipedia.org)
  • Steviol glycoside biosynthesis pathway has sixteen steps catalyzed by different enzymes. (scialert.net)
  • Definition Glycosides are non-reducing organic compounds that on hydrolysis with acids or enzymes yield: 1- A sugar part (or glycone, formed of one or more sugar units). (slideshare.net)
  • Any member of the class of enzymes that catalyze the cleavage of the glycosidic linkage of glycosides and the addition of water to the resulting molecules. (bvsalud.org)
  • Bioactive glycosides are active compounds found in TCM that show therapeutic properties. (naturalnews.com)
  • The researchers hope that one day, suitable drug delivery vehicles for bioactive glycosides can be proposed as these compounds are the ideal candidates for the effective treatment of various diseases by natural means. (naturalnews.com)
  • Glycosides Dr. Mostafa Hegazy  Glycosides are non-reducing compounds (do not reduce Fehling's solution) unless the aglycone portion contains a reducing group (e.g. in K- strophanthoside which contains an aldehydic group). (slideshare.net)
  • Glycosides Dr. Mostafa Hegazy Function in the plant Glycosides are considered as:  Energy producers during seedlings through hydrolysis of stored compounds. (slideshare.net)
  • Our bioassay-guided fractionation of the methanol extract of the stems and barks of the plant led to the isolation of two anti-HIV compounds, justiprocumins A and B. The compounds are identified as new arylnaphthalide lignans (ANL) glycosides. (edu.hk)
  • Cardiac glycosides are naturally occurring compounds formed in several plants. (wagwalking.com)
  • Cardiac glycosides are compounds that can disrupt the natural rhythm of the heart. (wagwalking.com)
  • Cardiac glycosides are organic compounds that can disrupt regular heart rhythm by acting on the force of the cardiac muscle itself. (wagwalking.com)
  • High performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection (HPLC-DAD)-based chemical analysis of the extract fraction library of the plateau soil-derived fungus Auxarthron umbrinum SCSIO 40432 led to the identification of eight compounds, including a known aromatic furanone glycoside malfilamentoside A ( 1 ) whose stereochemistry remained unsolved, and a new malfilamentoside D ( 2 ), together with six known compounds ( 3 ~ 8 ). (sioc-journal.cn)
  • Digoxin is a cardiac glycoside with direct inotropic effects, as well as indirect effects, on the cardiovascular system. (medscape.com)
  • Glycosides Dr. Mostafa Hegazy Examples of some medicinal uses of glycosides for treatment of 1-CHF as cardiac stimulants e.g. digoxin and ouabain from Digitalis and Strophanthus respectively. (slideshare.net)
  • Cardiac glycosides, usually in the form of digoxin, are often used in the treatment of congestive heart failure. (wagwalking.com)
  • to glycosidic linkage: They contain free -OH group (in O-glycosides), free NH (in N-glycosides), free SH(in S- glycosides)  The common linkage between the sugar part and the aglycone is an oxygen linkage connecting the reducing group of a sugar and an alcoholic or a phenolic hydroxyl group of the aglycone to give O-glycosides. (slideshare.net)
  • Besides the foxglove plant, cardiac glycosides also occur naturally in plants such as Lily-of-the-Valley and oleander , among several others. (medlineplus.gov)
  • More than 200 naturally occurring cardiac glycosides have been identified. (medscape.com)
  • to the stereo of the sugars: sugars exist in isomeric - and -forms, both - and -glycosides are theoretically possible, but most of the naturally occurring glycosides are of the -type  Types acc. (slideshare.net)
  • Naturally occurring glycosides found in plants and having important biological activity. (synthose.com)
  • There are several types of plants that contain naturally occurring cardiac glycosides. (wagwalking.com)
  • Three new ellagitannins named balanophotannins A-C having a 1,1′-(3,3′,4,4′-tetrahydroxy)dibenzofurandicarboxyl group in their molecules and four known lignan glycosides were isolated from the extracts of fresh aboveground and underground parts of a medicinal parasitic plant Balanophora japonica (Balanophoraceae). (edu.hk)
  • The botanical glycoside, oleandrin, derived from extracts of Nerium oleander , has previously been shown to reduce the levels of the gp120 envelope glycoprotein on human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) particles and inhibit HIV-1 infectivity in vitro . (longdom.org)
  • However, cyanogenic glycosides (linamarin and lotaustralin) are present in large amounts in all parts of the cassava plant and this often limits its food uses. (fhsafrica.org)
  • This article outlines some of the standards for cassava-based products and also highlights the improved methods for managing cyanogenic glycosides in cassava. (fhsafrica.org)
  • In this review, researchers from the Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine summarized the diverse pharmacological activities of bioactive glycosides and discussed recent advances in the development of suitable delivery systems for these plant components. (naturalnews.com)
  • On the other hand, the promising effects of bioactive glycosides are hindered by their poor solubility, poor stability, and rapid elimination. (naturalnews.com)
  • To overcome these problems, it is necessary to improve the therapeutic efficacy of bioactive glycosides first. (naturalnews.com)
  • In particular, bioactive glycosides can be used to treat intractable diseases via targeted drug delivery. (naturalnews.com)
  • However, problems arise from combining bioactive glycosides with certain drug delivery vehicles, so addressing these challenges is a top priority. (naturalnews.com)
  • Bioactive steroidal alkaloid glycosides from Selanum aculeastrum. (ac.ke)
  • Long-term (chronic) poisoning can occur in people who take cardiac glycosides every day. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Older people are especially likely to suffer from problems of long-term (chronic) cardiac glycoside poisoning. (medlineplus.gov)
  • In addition, the venom gland of cane toad ( Bufo marinus ) contains large quantities of a purported aphrodisiac substance that has resulted in cardiac glycoside poisoning. (medscape.com)
  • Eddleston M, Ariaratnam CA, Sjostrom L, Jayalath S, Rajakanthan K, Rajapakse S. Acute yellow oleander (Thevetia peruviana) poisoning: cardiac arrhythmias, electrolyte disturbances, and serum cardiac glycoside concentrations on presentation to hospital. (medscape.com)
  • Antidotes for acute cardenolide (cardiac glycoside) poisoning. (medscape.com)
  • What is Cardiac Glycosides Poisoning? (wagwalking.com)
  • Vomiting is generally not induced in cases of cardiac glycoside poisoning due to the rapid absorption of the compound. (wagwalking.com)
  • Fischer glycosidation refers to the synthesis of glycosides by the reaction of unprotected monosaccharides with alcohols (usually as solvent) in the presence of a strong acid catalyst. (wikipedia.org)
  • The present study discusses the efficacy of Aloe emodin-8-O-glycoside (AEG), a plant derived anthroquinone, on alleviating insulin resistance and augmenting glycogen synthesis in L6 myotubes and 3T3L1 adipocytes. (wiley.com)
  • In chemistry, a glycoside /ˈɡlaɪkəsaɪd/ is a molecule in which a sugar is bound to another functional group via a glycosidic bond. (wikipedia.org)
  • In formal terms, a glycoside is any molecule in which a sugar group is bonded through its anomeric carbon to another group via a glycosidic bond. (wikipedia.org)
  • Many authors require in addition that the sugar be bonded to a non-sugar for the molecule to qualify as a glycoside, thus excluding polysaccharides. (wikipedia.org)
  • Depending on whether the glycosidic bond lies "below" or "above" the plane of the cyclic sugar molecule, glycosides are classified as α-glycosides or β-glycosides. (wikipedia.org)
  • Glycosides Dr. Mostafa Hegazy The sugar moiety in glycosides consists of either : 1- A monosaccharide molecule (e.g. glucose, rhamnose. (slideshare.net)
  • Presence of two functional copies of these genes has suggested their efficient role in steviol glycoside biosynthesis pathway as well. (scialert.net)
  • The rest five downstream steps are specific for steviol glycoside biosynthesis pathway. (scialert.net)
  • Common sugar in glycosides is -D-glucose, Other sugars (like pentoses and deoxy-hexoses) Sugar derivatives (e.g. uronic acids such as glucuronic acid in glycyrrhizin) are also found. (slideshare.net)
  • Glycosides Dr. Mostafa Hegazy Pharmacological activities The pharmacological action of glycosides is mainly associated with and due to the aglycone part. (slideshare.net)
  • 3- An oligosaccharide (e.g. trisaccharide as scillatriose, tetrasaccharide as in purpurea glycoside A, or pentasaccharide as in saponins), linked together in a chain. (slideshare.net)
  • MeOH (1:1) extract of the aerial parts of Ludwigia stolonifera afforded a megastigmane glycoside named, roseoside. (strath.ac.uk)
  • The botanical glycoside, oleandrin, and an extract of Nerium oleander have been shown to prevent the incorporation of the gp120 envelope glycoprotein of HIV-1 into mature virus particles and inhibit viral infectivity in vitro [ 1 ]. (longdom.org)
  • Glycosides Dr. Mostafa Hegazy Sugar Attachment The sugar moiety is attached to the aglycone part mostly at : one position (e.g. in monodesmosidic saponins), or two different positions (e.g. in bidesmosidic saponins). (slideshare.net)
  • These alkyl glycosides are composed of a glycosyl moiety (one or several units) linked to the hydroxyl group of a fatty alcohol which may be a normal-chain , a branched-chain or a phenolic alcohol. (gerli.com)
  • The sugar group is then known as the glycone and the non-sugar group as the aglycone or genin part of the glycoside. (wikipedia.org)
  • citation needed] Glycosides can be classified by the glycone, by the type of glycosidic bond, and by the aglycone. (wikipedia.org)
  • These glycosides contain an aglycone group that is a derivative of anthraquinone. (wikipedia.org)
  • Cardiac glycosides are found in several plants, including the leaves of the foxglove plant. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Click the button below to add the Lewis A trisaccharide methyl glycoside 500 ug to your wish list. (p212121.com)
  • Novel multidomain, multifunctional glycoside hydrolases from highly lignocellulolytic Caldicellulosiruptor species. (ncsu.edu)
  • Four novel multidomain glycoside hydrolases (GHs) from Caldicellulosiruptor morganii and Caldicellulosiruptor danielii were produced recombinantly in Caldicellulosiruptor bescii and characterized. (ncsu.edu)
  • If you catch your pet consuming the either digitalis-based heart medication or cardiac glycoside laden plant, identification may be all that is required to determine the cause of your pet's reactions. (wagwalking.com)
  • citation needed] Much of the chemistry of glycosides is explained in the article on glycosidic bonds. (wikipedia.org)
  • At therapeutic doses, cardiac glycosides also may increase inotropy. (medscape.com)
  • Serum concentrations might be detectable after an exposure to plant-derived cardiac glycosides, some of which can cross-react with the various hospital laboratory assays used. (cdc.gov)
  • Many such plant glycosides are used as medications. (wikipedia.org)
  • Plant poisonings: common plants that contain cardiac glycosides. (medscape.com)
  • We further determined that the ANL glycosides are the chemical constituents that contribute to the anti-HIV activity of this plant. (edu.hk)
  • Cardiac glycoside is a chemical that has effects on the heart, stomach, intestines, and nervous system. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Cardiac glycosides also have vagotonic effects, resulting in bradycardia and heart block. (medscape.com)
  • Prepare a variety of spatially defined homogenous polyvalent glycosides for studying multivalency effects in protein-carbohydrate interaction. (grantome.com)
  • Hesperetin dihydrochalcone 4'-glucoside, 1, and phloretin 4'-glucoside, 2, belong to a family of dihydrochalcone glycosides that exhibit flavorant properties. (cdc.gov)
  • An example of an alcoholic glycoside is salicin, which is found in the genus Salix. (wikipedia.org)
  • Cardiac glycoside overdose occurs when someone takes more than the normal or recommended amount of this medicine. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Indeed, as one of the first glycoside hydrolase families classified by hydrophobic cluster analysis, GH9 was previously known as "Cellulase Family E" [ 1 , 2 ]. (cazypedia.org)
  • The cluster glycoside effect describes the remarkably high affinities of polyvalent saccharide ligands for polyvalent lectins, as measured by agglutination assays. (grantome.com)
  • Although the cluster glycoside effect is well described phenomenologically, the molecular origin of the effect is not at all clear. (grantome.com)
  • This project will explore the molecular origin of the cluster glycoside effect. (grantome.com)
  • 3. Utilize titration microcalorimetry to determine the molecular origin of the cluster glycoside effect. (grantome.com)
  • Functional, biochemical, and preliminary structural properties are reported for three glycoside hydrolases of the recently described glycoside hydrolase (GH) family 159. (rcsb.org)
  • There are blood tests available to detect the cardiac glycosides, as well as to monitor the levels of glycosides in the system, however the cost of these methods generally limits their accessibility for veterinary diagnosis. (wagwalking.com)
  • Many plants store chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides. (wikipedia.org)
  • Glycosides play numerous important roles in living organisms. (wikipedia.org)
  • Some important glycosides, the glycosyl phosphopolyprenols , are involved in several reactions leading to protein glycosylation. (gerli.com)