Behavioral manifestations of cerebral dominance in which there is preferential use and superior functioning of either the left or the right side, as in the preferred use of the right hand or right foot.
Dominance of one cerebral hemisphere over the other in cerebral functions.
The founding member of the nodal signaling ligand family of proteins. Nodal protein was originally discovered in the region of the mouse embryo primitive streak referred to as HENSEN'S NODE. It is expressed asymmetrically on the left side in chordates and plays a critical role in the genesis of left-right asymmetry during vertebrate development.
A congenital abnormality in which organs in the THORAX and the ABDOMEN are opposite to their normal positions (situs solitus) due to lateral transposition. Normally the STOMACH and SPLEEN are on the left, LIVER on the right, the three-lobed right lung is on the right, and the two-lobed left lung on the left. Situs inversus has a familial pattern and has been associated with a number of genes related to microtubule-associated proteins.
The processes occurring in early development that direct morphogenesis. They specify the body plan ensuring that cells will proceed to differentiate, grow, and diversify in size and shape at the correct relative positions. Included are axial patterning, segmentation, compartment specification, limb position, organ boundary patterning, blood vessel patterning, etc.
The dorsal posterior subdivision of the diencephalon. The epithalamus is generally considered to include the habenular nuclei (HABENULA) and associated fiber bundles, the PINEAL BODY, and the epithelial roof of the third ventricle. The anterior and posterior paraventricular nuclei of the thalamus are included with the THALAMIC NUCLEI although they develop from the same pronuclear mass as the epithalamic nuclei and are sometimes considered part of the epithalamus.
Abnormal thoracoabdominal VISCERA arrangement (visceral heterotaxy) or malformation that involves additional CONGENITAL HEART DEFECTS (e.g., heart isomerism; DEXTROCARDIA) and/or abnormal SPLEEN (e.g., asplenia and polysplenia). Irregularities with the central nervous system, the skeleton and urinary tract are often associated with the syndrome.
The species Delphinapterus leucas, in the family Monodontidae, found primarily in the Arctic Ocean and adjoining seas. They are small WHALES lacking a dorsal fin.
A small protuberance at the dorsal, posterior corner of the wall of the THIRD VENTRICLE, adjacent to the dorsal THALAMUS and PINEAL BODY. It contains the habenular nuclei and is a major part of the epithalamus.
A family of rat kangaroos found in and around Australia. Genera include Potorous and Bettongia.
Signaling ligands that act in opposition to NODAL PROTEIN. During vertebrate development they regulate the degree of left-right asymmetry by controlling the spatiotemporal influence of NODAL PROTEIN.
Tests for central hearing disorders based on the competing message technique (binaural separation).
Conjoined twins are a rare type of monozygotic twinning where genetically identical individuals form a single organism with varying degrees of physical connection and shared anatomy due to incomplete division during embryonic development.
An exotic species of the family CYPRINIDAE, originally from Asia, that has been introduced in North America. They are used in embryological studies and to study the effects of certain chemicals on development.
A verbal or nonverbal means of communicating ideas or feelings.
A group of islands in Melanesia constituting a French overseas territory. The group includes New Caledonia (the main island), Ile des Pins, Loyalty Island, and several other islet groups. The capital is Noumea. It was discovered by Captain Cook in 1774 and visited by various navigators, explorers, and traders from 1792 to 1840. Occupied by the French in 1853, it was set up as a penal colony 1864-94. In 1946 it was made a French overseas territory. It was named by Captain Cook with the 5th and 6th century A.D. Latin name for Scotland, Caledonia. (From Webster's New Geographical Dictionary, 1988, p830 & Room, Brewer's Dictionary of Names, 1992, p375)
Proteins obtained from the ZEBRAFISH. Many of the proteins in this species have been the subject of studies involving basic embryological development (EMBRYOLOGY).
A growth differentiation factor that plays a role in the genesis of left-right asymmetry during vertebrate development. Evidence for this role is seen in MICE where loss of growth differentiation factor 1 function results in right-left isomerism of visceral organs. In HUMANS heterozygous loss of growth differentiation factor 1 function has been associated with CONGENITAL HEART DEFECTS and TRANSPOSITION OF GREAT VESSELS.
Populations of thin, motile processes found covering the surface of ciliates (CILIOPHORA) or the free surface of the cells making up ciliated EPITHELIUM. Each cilium arises from a basic granule in the superficial layer of CYTOPLASM. The movement of cilia propels ciliates through the liquid in which they live. The movement of cilia on a ciliated epithelium serves to propel a surface layer of mucus or fluid. (King & Stansfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)
Non-invasive method of demonstrating internal anatomy based on the principle that atomic nuclei in a strong magnetic field absorb pulses of radiofrequency energy and emit them as radiowaves which can be reconstructed into computerized images. The concept includes proton spin tomographic techniques.
Artery formed by the bifurcation of the BASILAR ARTERY. Branches of the posterior cerebral artery supply portions of the OCCIPITAL LOBE; PARIETAL LOBE; inferior temporal gyrus, brainstem, and CHOROID PLEXUS.
A barbiturate with hypnotic and sedative properties (but not antianxiety). Adverse effects are mainly a consequence of dose-related CNS depression and the risk of dependence with continued use is high. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p565)
Common name for the largest birds in the order PASSERIFORMES, family Corvidae. These omnivorous black birds comprise most of the species in the genus Corvus, along with ravens and jackdaws (which are often also referred to as crows).
Substances and materials manufactured for use in various technologies and industries and for domestic use.
Imaging techniques used to colocalize sites of brain functions or physiological activity with brain structures.
An autosomal recessive disorder characterized by a triad of DEXTROCARDIA; INFERTILITY; and SINUSITIS. The syndrome is caused by mutations of DYNEIN genes encoding motility proteins which are components of sperm tails, and CILIA in the respiratory and the reproductive tracts.
The developmental entity of a fertilized egg (ZYGOTE) in animal species other than MAMMALS. For chickens, use CHICK EMBRYO.
A localization-related (focal) form of epilepsy characterized by recurrent seizures that arise from foci within the temporal lobe, most commonly from its mesial aspect. A wide variety of psychic phenomena may be associated, including illusions, hallucinations, dyscognitive states, and affective experiences. The majority of complex partial seizures (see EPILEPSY, COMPLEX PARTIAL) originate from the temporal lobes. Temporal lobe seizures may be classified by etiology as cryptogenic, familial, or symptomatic (i.e., related to an identified disease process or lesion). (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p321)
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action during the developmental stages of an organism.
A spectrum of septal defects involving the ATRIAL SEPTUM; VENTRICULAR SEPTUM; and the atrioventricular valves (TRICUSPID VALVE; BICUSPID VALVE). These defects are due to incomplete growth and fusion of the ENDOCARDIAL CUSHIONS which are important in the formation of two atrioventricular canals, site of future atrioventricular valves.
The part of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM that is contained within the skull (CRANIUM). Arising from the NEURAL TUBE, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including PROSENCEPHALON (the forebrain); MESENCEPHALON (the midbrain); and RHOMBENCEPHALON (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of CEREBRUM; CEREBELLUM; and other structures in the BRAIN STEM.
Movement of a part of the body for the purpose of communication.
Tests designed to assess language behavior and abilities. They include tests of vocabulary, comprehension, grammar and functional use of language, e.g., Development Sentence Scoring, Receptive-Expressive Emergent Language Scale, Parsons Language Sample, Utah Test of Language Development, Michigan Language Inventory and Verbal Language Development Scale, Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities, Northwestern Syntax Screening Test, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Ammons Full-Range Picture Vocabulary Test, and Assessment of Children's Language Comprehension.
A new pattern of perceptual or ideational material derived from past experience.
The ability to differentiate tones.
Developmental abnormalities involving structures of the heart. These defects are present at birth but may be discovered later in life.
Tumors or cancer of the RETINA.
The thin layer of GRAY MATTER on the surface of the CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES that develops from the TELENCEPHALON and folds into gyri and sulchi. It reaches its highest development in humans and is responsible for intellectual faculties and higher mental functions.
The measurement of magnetic fields over the head generated by electric currents in the brain. As in any electrical conductor, electric fields in the brain are accompanied by orthogonal magnetic fields. The measurement of these fields provides information about the localization of brain activity which is complementary to that provided by ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY. Magnetoencephalography may be used alone or together with electroencephalography, for measurement of spontaneous or evoked activity, and for research or clinical purposes.
The process whereby auditory stimuli are selected, organized, and interpreted by the organism.
Dyneins that are responsible for ciliary and flagellar beating.
A malignant tumor arising from the nuclear layer of the retina that is the most common primary tumor of the eye in children. The tumor tends to occur in early childhood or infancy and may be present at birth. The majority are sporadic, but the condition may be transmitted as an autosomal dominant trait. Histologic features include dense cellularity, small round polygonal cells, and areas of calcification and necrosis. An abnormal pupil reflex (leukokoria); NYSTAGMUS, PATHOLOGIC; STRABISMUS; and visual loss represent common clinical characteristics of this condition. (From DeVita et al., Cancer: Principles and Practice of Oncology, 5th ed, p2104)
A condition of an inequality of refractive power of the two eyes.
Lower lateral part of the cerebral hemisphere responsible for auditory, olfactory, and semantic processing. It is located inferior to the lateral fissure and anterior to the OCCIPITAL LOBE.
A disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of paroxysmal brain dysfunction due to a sudden, disorderly, and excessive neuronal discharge. Epilepsy classification systems are generally based upon: (1) clinical features of the seizure episodes (e.g., motor seizure), (2) etiology (e.g., post-traumatic), (3) anatomic site of seizure origin (e.g., frontal lobe seizure), (4) tendency to spread to other structures in the brain, and (5) temporal patterns (e.g., nocturnal epilepsy). (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p313)
Use of sound to elicit a response in the nervous system.
Common name for perch-like fish of the family Cichlidae, belonging to the suborder Labroidei, order PERCIFORMES.
The heart of the fetus of any viviparous animal. It refers to the heart in the postembryonic period and is differentiated from the embryonic heart (HEART/embryology) only on the basis of time.
Proteins obtained from various species of Xenopus. Included here are proteins from the African clawed frog (XENOPUS LAEVIS). Many of these proteins have been the subject of scientific investigations in the area of MORPHOGENESIS and development.
A light-sensitive neuroendocrine organ attached to the roof of the THIRD VENTRICLE of the brain. The pineal gland secretes MELATONIN, other BIOGENIC AMINES and NEUROPEPTIDES.
Motion of an object in which either one or more points on a line are fixed. It is also the motion of a particle about a fixed point. (From McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
A technique of inputting two-dimensional images into a computer and then enhancing or analyzing the imagery into a form that is more useful to the human observer.
The coordination of a sensory or ideational (cognitive) process and a motor activity.
Any of the large interior organs in any one of the three great cavities of the body, especially in the abdomen.
Formation of differentiated cells and complicated tissue organization to provide specialized functions.
Bony structure of the mouth that holds the teeth. It consists of the MANDIBLE and the MAXILLA.
A front limb of a quadruped. (The Random House College Dictionary, 1980)
Recording of electric currents developed in the brain by means of electrodes applied to the scalp, to the surface of the brain, or placed within the substance of the brain.
The middle germ layer of an embryo derived from three paired mesenchymal aggregates along the neural tube.
Paired, segmented masses of MESENCHYME located on either side of the developing spinal cord (neural tube). Somites derive from PARAXIAL MESODERM and continue to increase in number during ORGANOGENESIS. Somites give rise to SKELETON (sclerotome); MUSCLES (myotome); and DERMIS (dermatome).
A technique that localizes specific nucleic acid sequences within intact chromosomes, eukaryotic cells, or bacterial cells through the use of specific nucleic acid-labeled probes.
A cognitive disorder marked by an impaired ability to comprehend or express language in its written or spoken form. This condition is caused by diseases which affect the language areas of the dominant hemisphere. Clinical features are used to classify the various subtypes of this condition. General categories include receptive, expressive, and mixed forms of aphasia.
Receptors for ACTIVINS are membrane protein kinases belonging to the family of PROTEIN-SERINE-THREONINE KINASES, thus also named activin receptor-like kinases (ALK's). Activin receptors also bind TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA. As those transmembrane receptors of the TGF-beta superfamily (RECEPTORS, TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA), ALK's consist of two different but related protein kinases, Type I and Type II. Activins initiate cellular signal transduction by first binding to the type II receptors (ACTIVIN RECEPTORS, TYPE II ) which then recruit and phosphorylate the type I receptors (ACTIVIN RECEPTORS, TYPE I ) with subsequent activation of the type I kinase activity.
A severe emotional disorder of psychotic depth characteristically marked by a retreat from reality with delusion formation, HALLUCINATIONS, emotional disharmony, and regressive behavior.
The observable response an animal makes to any situation.
A nonspecific symptom of hearing disorder characterized by the sensation of buzzing, ringing, clicking, pulsations, and other noises in the ear. Objective tinnitus refers to noises generated from within the ear or adjacent structures that can be heard by other individuals. The term subjective tinnitus is used when the sound is audible only to the affected individual. Tinnitus may occur as a manifestation of COCHLEAR DISEASES; VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR NERVE DISEASES; INTRACRANIAL HYPERTENSION; CRANIOCEREBRAL TRAUMA; and other conditions.
The time from the onset of a stimulus until a response is observed.
Includes both producing and responding to words, either written or spoken.
The common chimpanzee, a species of the genus Pan, family HOMINIDAE. It lives in Africa, primarily in the tropical rainforests. There are a number of recognized subspecies.
Tests designed to assess neurological function associated with certain behaviors. They are used in diagnosing brain dysfunction or damage and central nervous system disorders or injury.
The hollow, muscular organ that maintains the circulation of the blood.
Studies used to test etiologic hypotheses in which inferences about an exposure to putative causal factors are derived from data relating to characteristics of persons under study or to events or experiences in their past. The essential feature is that some of the persons under study have the disease or outcome of interest and their characteristics are compared with those of unaffected persons.
The part of the cerebral hemisphere anterior to the central sulcus, and anterior and superior to the lateral sulcus.
Subjectively experienced sensations in the absence of an appropriate stimulus, but which are regarded by the individual as real. They may be of organic origin or associated with MENTAL DISORDERS.
The developmental stage that follows BLASTULA or BLASTOCYST. It is characterized by the morphogenetic cell movements including invagination, ingression, and involution. Gastrulation begins with the formation of the PRIMITIVE STREAK, and ends with the formation of three GERM LAYERS, the body plan of the mature organism.
Proteins encoded by homeobox genes (GENES, HOMEOBOX) that exhibit structural similarity to certain prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA-binding proteins. Homeodomain proteins are involved in the control of gene expression during morphogenesis and development (GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION, DEVELOPMENTAL).
Upper central part of the cerebral hemisphere. It is located posterior to central sulcus, anterior to the OCCIPITAL LOBE, and superior to the TEMPORAL LOBES.
The development of anatomical structures to create the form of a single- or multi-cell organism. Morphogenesis provides form changes of a part, parts, or the whole organism.
A statistical technique that isolates and assesses the contributions of categorical independent variables to variation in the mean of a continuous dependent variable.
The distal part of the arm beyond the wrist in humans and primates, that includes the palm, fingers, and thumb.
Performance of complex motor acts.
The electric response evoked in the CEREBRAL CORTEX by ACOUSTIC STIMULATION or stimulation of the AUDITORY PATHWAYS.
Area of the FRONTAL LOBE concerned with primary motor control located in the dorsal PRECENTRAL GYRUS immediately anterior to the central sulcus. It is comprised of three areas: the primary motor cortex located on the anterior paracentral lobule on the medial surface of the brain; the premotor cortex located anterior to the primary motor cortex; and the supplementary motor area located on the midline surface of the hemisphere anterior to the primary motor cortex.
The detailed examination of observable activity or behavior associated with the execution or completion of a required function or unit of work.
'Abnormalities, Multiple' is a broad term referring to the presence of two or more structural or functional anomalies in an individual, which may be genetic or environmental in origin, and can affect various systems and organs of the body.
Those characteristics that distinguish one SEX from the other. The primary sex characteristics are the OVARIES and TESTES and their related hormones. Secondary sex characteristics are those which are masculine or feminine but not directly related to reproduction.
Family of the suborder HAPLORHINI (Anthropoidea) comprising bipedal primate MAMMALS. It includes modern man (HOMO SAPIENS) and the great apes: gorillas (GORILLA GORILLA), chimpanzees (PAN PANISCUS and PAN TROGLODYTES), and orangutans (PONGO PYGMAEUS).
Morphological and physiological development of EMBRYOS.
Non-invasive method of vascular imaging and determination of internal anatomy without injection of contrast media or radiation exposure. The technique is used especially in CEREBRAL ANGIOGRAPHY as well as for studies of other vascular structures.
One of the two types of ACTIVIN RECEPTORS or activin receptor-like kinases (ALK'S). There are several type I activin receptors. The major active ones are ALK-2 (ActR-IA) and ALK-4 (ActR-IB).
The region of the cerebral cortex that receives the auditory radiation from the MEDIAL GENICULATE BODY.
An aquatic genus of the family, Pipidae, occurring in Africa and distinguished by having black horny claws on three inner hind toes.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
The process of cumulative change over successive generations through which organisms acquire their distinguishing morphological and physiological characteristics.
A class of nerve fibers as defined by their structure, specifically the nerve sheath arrangement. The AXONS of the myelinated nerve fibers are completely encased in a MYELIN SHEATH. They are fibers of relatively large and varied diameters. Their NEURAL CONDUCTION rates are faster than those of the unmyelinated nerve fibers (NERVE FIBERS, UNMYELINATED). Myelinated nerve fibers are present in somatic and autonomic nerves.
An important regulator of GENE EXPRESSION during growth and development, and in NEOPLASMS. Tretinoin, also known as retinoic acid and derived from maternal VITAMIN A, is essential for normal GROWTH; and EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT. An excess of tretinoin can be teratogenic. It is used in the treatment of PSORIASIS; ACNE VULGARIS; and several other SKIN DISEASES. It has also been approved for use in promyelocytic leukemia (LEUKEMIA, PROMYELOCYTIC, ACUTE).
A characteristic symptom complex.
The science and art of collecting, summarizing, and analyzing data that are subject to random variation. The term is also applied to the data themselves and to the summarization of the data.
Investigative technique commonly used during ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY in which a series of bright light flashes or visual patterns are used to elicit brain activity.

Central peptidergic neurons are hyperactive during collateral sprouting and inhibition of activity suppresses sprouting. (1/6942)

Little is known regarding the effect of chronic changes in neuronal activity on the extent of collateral sprouting by identified CNS neurons. We have investigated the relationship between activity and sprouting in oxytocin (OT) and vasopressin (VP) neurons of the hypothalamic magnocellular neurosecretory system (MNS). Uninjured MNS neurons undergo a robust collateral-sprouting response that restores the axon population of the neural lobe (NL) after a lesion of the contralateral MNS (). Simultaneously, lesioned rats develop chronic urinary hyperosmolality indicative of heightened neurosecretory activity. We therefore tested the hypothesis that sprouting MNS neurons are hyperactive by measuring changes in cell and nuclear diameters, OT and VP mRNA pools, and axonal cytochrome oxidase activity (COX). Each of these measures was significantly elevated during the period of most rapid axonal growth between 1 and 4 weeks after the lesion, confirming that both OT and VP neurons are hyperactive while undergoing collateral sprouting. In a second study the hypothesis that chronic inhibition of neuronal activity would interfere with the sprouting response was tested. Chronic hyponatremia (CH) was induced 3 d before the hypothalamic lesion and sustained for 4 weeks to suppress neurosecretory activity. CH abolished the lesion-induced increases in OT and VP mRNA pools and virtually eliminated measurable COX activity in MNS terminals. Counts of the total number of axon profiles in the NL revealed that CH also prevented axonal sprouting from occurring. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that increased neuronal activity is required for denervation-induced collateral sprouting to occur in the MNS.  (+info)

Retinotopic mapping of lateral geniculate nucleus in humans using functional magnetic resonance imaging. (2/6942)

Subcortical nuclei in the thalamus, which play an important role in many functions of the human brain, provide challenging targets for functional mapping with neuroimaging techniques because of their small sizes and deep locations. In this study, we explore the capability of high-resolution functional magnetic resonance imaging at 4 Tesla for mapping the retinotopic organization in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN). Our results show that the hemifield visual stimulation only activates LGN in the contralateral hemisphere, and the lower-field and upper-field visual stimulations activate the superior and inferior portion of LGN, respectively. These results reveal a similar retinotopic organization between the human and nonhuman primate LGN and between LGN and the primary visual cortex. We conclude that high-resolution functional magnetic resonance imaging is capable of functional mapping of suborganizations in small nuclei together with cortical activation. This will have an impact for studying the thalamocortical networks in the human brain.  (+info)

Command-related distribution of regional cerebral blood flow during attempted handgrip. (3/6942)

To localize a central nervous feed-forward mechanism involved in cardiovascular regulation during exercise, brain activation patterns were measured in eight subjects by employing positron emission tomography and oxygen-15-labeled water. Scans were performed at rest and during rhythmic handgrip before and after axillary blockade with bupivacaine. After the blockade, handgrip strength was reduced to 25% (range 0-50%) of control values, whereas handgrip-induced heart rate and blood pressure increases were unaffected (13 +/- 3 beats/min and 12 +/- 5 mmHg, respectively; means +/- SE). Before regional anesthesia, handgrip caused increased activation in the contralateral sensory motor area, the supplementary motor area, and the ipsilateral cerebellum. We found no evidence for changes in the activation pattern due to an interaction between handgrip and regional anesthesia. This was true for both the blocked and unblocked arm. It remains unclear whether the activated areas are responsible for the increase in cardiovascular variables, but neural feedback from the contracting muscles was not necessary for the activation in the mentioned areas during rhythmic handgrip.  (+info)

Language processing is strongly left lateralized in both sexes. Evidence from functional MRI. (4/6942)

Functional MRI (fMRI) was used to examine gender effects on brain activation during a language comprehension task. A large number of subjects (50 women and 50 men) was studied to maximize the statistical power to detect subtle differences between the sexes. To estimate the specificity of findings related to sex differences, parallel analyses were performed on two groups of randomly assigned subjects. Men and women showed very similar, strongly left lateralized activation patterns. Voxel-wise tests for group differences in overall activation patterns demonstrated no significant differences between women and men. In further analyses, group differences were examined by region of interest and by hemisphere. No differences were found between the sexes in lateralization of activity in any region of interest or in intrahemispheric cortical activation patterns. These data argue against substantive differences between men and women in the large-scale neural organization of language processes.  (+info)

Selective horizontal dysmetropsia following prestriate lesion. (5/6942)

We describe a patient (P.S.) who, following a right prestriate lesion, reported that objects in the left visual field appeared distorted and smaller than those on the right. Other aspects of visual processing were remarkably unaffected. We carried out a series of size comparison tests using simple or complex stimuli and requiring different types of behavioural responses. We found that P.S. significantly underestimated the size of stimuli presented in her left visual field. When comparison tasks involved stimuli placed along the vertical axis or in the right visual field, P.S. performed well. The vertical and horizontal components of size distortion were found to be differentially affected. We conclude that size processing may be dissociated from other aspects of visual processing, such as form or colour processing, and depends critically on part of the occipital, prestriate areas (Brodmann areas 18-19).  (+info)

The role of ventral medial wall motor areas in bimanual co-ordination. A combined lesion and activation study. (6/6942)

Two patients with midline tumours and disturbances of bimanual co-ordination as the presenting symptoms were examined. Both reported difficulties whenever the two hands had to act together simultaneously, whereas they had no problems with unimanual dexterity or the use of both hands sequentially. In the first patient the lesion was confined to the cingulate gyrus; in the second it also invaded the corpus callosum and the supplementary motor area. Kinematic analysis of bimanual in-phase and anti-phase movements revealed an impairment of both the temporal adjustment between the hands and the independence of movements between the two hands. A functional imaging study in six volunteers, who performed the same bimanual in-phase and anti-phase tasks, showed strong activations of midline areas including the cingulate and ventral supplementary motor area. The prominent activation of the ventral medial wall motor areas in the volunteers in conjunction with the bimanual co-ordination disorder in the two patients with lesions compromising their function is evidence for their pivotal role in bimanual co-ordination.  (+info)

Multicentre European study of thalamic stimulation in parkinsonian and essential tremor. (7/6942)

OBJECTIVES: Thalamic stimulation has been proposed to treat disabling tremor. The aims of this multicentre study were to evaluate the efficacy and the morbidity of thalamic stimulation in a large number of patients with parkinsonian or essential tremor. METHODS: One hundred and eleven patients were included in the study and 110 were implanted either unilaterally or bilaterally. Patients were evaluated with clinical scales, before and up to 12 months after surgery. RESULTS: Upper and lower limb tremor scores were reduced in both groups. Eighty five per cent of the electrodes satisfied the arbitrary criteria of two point reduction in rest tremor reduction in the parkinsonian tremor group and 89% for postural tremor reduction in the essential tremor group. In the parkinsonian tremor group, limb akinesia and limb rigidity scores were moderately but significantly reduced. Axial scores were unchanged. In the essential tremor group, head tremor was significantly reduced only at 3 months and voice tremor was non-significantly reduced. Activities of daily living were improved in both groups. Changes in medication were moderate. Adverse effects related to the surgery were mild and reversible. CONCLUSIONS: Thalamic stimulation was shown to be an effective and relatively safe treatment for disabling tremor. This procedure initially applied in a very limited number of centres has been successfully used in 13 participating centres.  (+info)

Cognitive outcome after unilateral pallidal stimulation in Parkinson's disease. (8/6942)

OBJECTIVES: Chronic high frequency electrostimulation of the globus pallidus internus mimics pallidotomy and improves clinical symptoms in Parkinson's disease. The aim of this study was to investigate the cognitive consequences of unilateral deep brain stimulation. METHODS: Twenty non-demented patients with Parkinson's disease (age range 38-70 years) were neuropsychologically assessed 2 months before and 3 months after unilateral pallidal stimulation. The cognitive assessment included measures of memory, spatial behaviour, and executive and psychomotor function. In addition to group analysis of cognitive change, a cognitive impairment index (CII) was calculated for each individual patient representing the percentage of cognitive measures that fell more than 1 SD below the mean of a corresponding normative sample. RESULTS: Neurological assessment with the Hoehn and Yahr scale and the unified Parkinson's disease rating scale disclosed a significant postoperative reduction in average clinical Parkinson's disease symptomatology (p<0.001). Repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance (using right/left side of stimulation as a between subjects factor) showed no significant postoperative change in cognitive performance for the total patient group (main effect of operation). The side of stimulation did not show a significant differential effect on cognitive performance (main effect of lateralisation). There was no significant operation by lateralisation interaction effect. Although the patients experienced significant motor symptom relief after pallidal stimulation, they remained mildly depressed after surgery. Analysis of the individual CII changes showed a postoperative cognitive decline in 30% of the patients. These patients were significantly older and took higher preoperative doses of levodopa than patients showing no change or a postoperative cognitive improvement. CONCLUSIONS: Left or right pallidal stimulation for the relief of motor symptoms in Parkinson's disease seems relatively safe, although older patients and patients needing high preoperative doses of levodopa seem to be more vulnerable for cognitive decline after deep brain stimulation.  (+info)

Functional laterality, in a medical context, refers to the preferential use or performance of one side of the body over the other for specific functions. This is often demonstrated in hand dominance, where an individual may be right-handed or left-handed, meaning they primarily use their right or left hand for tasks such as writing, eating, or throwing.

However, functional laterality can also apply to other bodily functions and structures, including the eyes (ocular dominance), ears (auditory dominance), or legs. It's important to note that functional laterality is not a strict binary concept; some individuals may exhibit mixed dominance or no strong preference for one side over the other.

In clinical settings, assessing functional laterality can be useful in diagnosing and treating various neurological conditions, such as stroke or traumatic brain injury, where understanding any resulting lateralized impairments can inform rehabilitation strategies.

Cerebral dominance is a concept in neuropsychology that refers to the specialization of one hemisphere of the brain over the other for certain cognitive functions. In most people, the left hemisphere is dominant for language functions such as speaking and understanding spoken or written language, while the right hemisphere is dominant for non-verbal functions such as spatial ability, face recognition, and artistic ability.

Cerebral dominance does not mean that the non-dominant hemisphere is incapable of performing the functions of the dominant hemisphere, but rather that it is less efficient or specialized in those areas. The concept of cerebral dominance has been used to explain individual differences in cognitive abilities and learning styles, as well as the laterality of brain damage and its effects on cognition and behavior.

It's important to note that cerebral dominance is a complex phenomenon that can vary between individuals and can be influenced by various factors such as genetics, environment, and experience. Additionally, recent research has challenged the strict lateralization of functions and suggested that there is more functional overlap and interaction between the two hemispheres than previously thought.

A nodal protein, in the context of molecular biology and genetics, refers to a protein that plays a role in signal transmission within a cell at a node or junction point of a signaling pathway. These proteins are often involved in regulatory processes, such as activating or inhibiting downstream effectors in response to specific signals received by the cell. Nodal proteins can be activated or deactivated through various mechanisms, including phosphorylation, ubiquitination, and interactions with other signaling molecules.

In a more specific context, nodal proteins are also known as nodal factors, which are members of the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) superfamily of signaling molecules that play critical roles in embryonic development and tissue homeostasis. Nodal is a secreted protein that acts as a morphogen, inducing different cellular responses depending on its concentration gradient. It is involved in establishing left-right asymmetry during embryonic development and regulates various processes such as cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis.

In summary, nodal proteins can refer to any protein that functions at a node or junction point of a signaling pathway, but they are also specifically known as nodal factors, which are TGF-β superfamily members involved in embryonic development and tissue homeostasis.

Situs Inversus is a congenital condition in which the major visceral organs are situated in mirror-image positions to their normal locations. Instead of being on the left side, the heart and its large blood vessels are on the right side, while the liver is on the left side and the lungs are reversed. The stomach, spleen, and pancreas may also be affected. It's important to note that this condition is generally asymptomatic and often goes unnoticed unless there are complications or associated abnormalities.

There are two types of Situs Inversus: total (complete reversal of all organs) and partial (reversal of only some organs). Total Situs Inversus is also sometimes referred to as "mirror-image dextrocardia" because the heart, which is usually on the left side, is located on the right side in a mirrored position.

While Situs Inversus itself does not typically cause health problems, people with this condition may have an increased risk for certain medical conditions, such as congenital heart defects or primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD), which can lead to chronic respiratory infections and infertility.

"Body patterning" is a general term that refers to the process of forming and organizing various tissues and structures into specific patterns during embryonic development. This complex process involves a variety of molecular mechanisms, including gene expression, cell signaling, and cell-cell interactions. It results in the creation of distinct body regions, such as the head, trunk, and limbs, as well as the organization of internal organs and systems.

In medical terminology, "body patterning" may refer to specific developmental processes or abnormalities related to embryonic development. For example, in genetic disorders such as Poland syndrome or Holt-Oram syndrome, mutations in certain genes can lead to abnormal body patterning, resulting in the absence or underdevelopment of certain muscles, bones, or other structures.

It's important to note that "body patterning" is not a formal medical term with a specific definition, but rather a general concept used in developmental biology and genetics.

The epithalamus is a part of the brain that is located in the diencephalon, near the thalamus. It includes several small structures, such as the habenula and the pineal gland. The epithalamus plays a role in regulating sleep-wake cycles, hormone production, and emotional responses. It also has connections to other parts of the brain that are involved in vision, hearing, and movement.

The main function of the epithalamus is to regulate the release of hormones from the pituitary gland, which is located at the base of the brain. The epithalamus contains specialized cells called neurosecretory cells, which produce and release hormones that control various bodily functions, such as growth, development, and reproduction.

The epithalamus also plays a role in regulating mood and emotional responses. It has connections to the limbic system, which is a network of structures involved in emotion, behavior, and long-term memory. The habenula, which is part of the epithalamus, is thought to be involved in processing rewarding and aversive stimuli, and may play a role in addiction and depression.

In addition, the pineal gland, which is also part of the epithalamus, produces melatonin, a hormone that helps regulate sleep-wake cycles. The production of melatonin is influenced by light exposure, with higher levels produced at night and lower levels during the day.

Overall, the epithalamus is an important part of the brain that plays a role in various physiological and psychological processes. Dysfunction of the epithalamus has been implicated in several neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as Parkinson's disease, depression, and addiction.

Heterotaxy syndrome is a rare and complex congenital disorder characterized by the abnormal lateralization or arrangement of internal organs in the chest and abdomen. In this condition, the normal left-right (LR) asymmetry of the thoracic and abdominal organs is disrupted, resulting in either complete or partial reversal of the usual LR orientation. The term "heterotaxy" literally means "different arrangement."

Heterotaxy syndrome can be further classified into two main types:

1. **Ivemark's syndrome** (or left atrial isomerism): In this type, there is a mirror-image reversal of the normal LR organization of the thoracic and abdominal organs. This results in both sides of the body having structures that are typically found on the left side (left atrial isomerism). Common features include:
* Complete heart block or complex congenital heart defects, such as transposition of the great arteries, double outlet right ventricle, and total anomalous pulmonary venous return.
* Bilateral bilobed lungs with a central location of the liver (situs ambiguus).
* Bronchial malformations, including bilateral eparterial bronchi.
* Gastrointestinal tract abnormalities, such as intestinal malrotation and biliary atresia.
* Increased incidence of situs inversus totalis (complete mirror-image reversal of the normal LR arrangement).

2. **Right atrial isomerism** (or asplenia syndrome): In this type, there is a lack of normal LR organization, and both sides of the body have structures that are typically found on the right side (right atrial isomerism). Common features include:
* Complex congenital heart defects, such as single ventricle, double outlet right ventricle, pulmonary stenosis or atresia, and total anomalous pulmonary venous return.
* Absent or multiple spleens (polysplenia) with varying degrees of functional asplenia.
* Bilateral trilobed lungs with a right-sided location of the liver (situs ambiguus).
* Bronchial malformations, including bilateral hyperarterial bronchi.
* Gastrointestinal tract abnormalities, such as intestinal malrotation and biliary atresia.
* Increased incidence of congenital diaphragmatic hernia.

Both situs ambiguus and heterotaxy syndrome are associated with increased morbidity and mortality due to the complex congenital heart defects, gastrointestinal tract abnormalities, and immunological dysfunction in cases of asplenia or hyposplenia. Early diagnosis and management by a multidisciplinary team are crucial for improving outcomes in these patients.

A Beluga Whale, also known as Delphinapterus leucas, is a marine mammal that belongs to the family Monodontidae. It is easily recognizable by its distinctive white color and bulbous forehead, called melon. Beluga whales are found primarily in the Arctic Ocean and sub-Arctic waters. They are highly social animals, known for their vocalizations, which include a series of clicks, whistles, and squawks. Adult belugas can grow up to 13-20 feet in length and weigh between 1,500-3,500 pounds. They feed on fish and invertebrates and are considered to be top predators in their ecosystem. Beluga whales have a thick layer of blubber that helps them with buoyancy and insulation in cold waters. They are also known for their ability to adapt to changes in salinity and temperature, which allows them to survive in various aquatic habitats.

The habenula is a small, paired nucleus located in the epithalamus region of the brain. It plays a crucial role in the modulation of various functions such as mood, reward, and motivation. The habenula can be further divided into two subregions: the medial and lateral habenula.

The medial habenula is involved in the regulation of emotional behaviors, including responses to stress and anxiety. It receives inputs from several brain regions associated with emotion, such as the amygdala and hippocampus, and projects to the interpeduncular nucleus (IPN) in the midbrain.

The lateral habenula is primarily involved in processing aversive stimuli and modulating dopaminergic reward pathways. It receives inputs from various regions associated with motivation, learning, and memory, such as the prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia, and thalamus. The lateral habenula then projects to the midbrain's dopamine-producing neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc), which are critical components of the brain's reward system.

Dysfunction of the habenula has been implicated in several neurological and psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety, addiction, and schizophrenia.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Potoroidae" is not a medical term. It is a taxonomic family within the order Diprotodontia, which includes several species of rat-kangaroos that are native to Australia. These small marsupials are known for their hopping locomotion and nocturnal behavior. If you have any questions about veterinary or medical terminology, I would be happy to help with those!

"Left-right determination factors" refer to the genetic and molecular mechanisms that establish the left-right asymmetry during embryonic development. These factors determine which side of the body will become the left and which will become the right. The process is critical for the proper development and function of various organs, including the heart, lungs, and gut.

In humans, the primary left-right determination factor is a gene called NODAL, which is expressed on the left side of the embryo and initiates a cascade of molecular events that lead to the establishment of left-right asymmetry. Other genes, such as PITX2 and LEFTY2, are also involved in this process and help to amplify and maintain the left-right asymmetry.

Defects in left-right determination factors can result in a variety of congenital abnormalities, including heterotaxy syndrome, in which the organs are arranged in mirror-image patterns or randomly on both sides of the body.

Dichotic listening tests are a type of psychological and neurological assessment that measures the ability to process two different auditory stimuli presented simultaneously to each ear. In these tests, different speech sounds, tones, or other sounds are played at the same time, one to each ear, through headphones. The participant is then asked to repeat or identify the stimuli heard in each ear.

The test is designed to evaluate the functioning of the brain's hemispheres and their specialization for processing different types of information. Typically, the right ear is more efficient at sending information to the left hemisphere, which is specialized for language processing in most people. Therefore, speech sounds presented to the right ear are often identified more accurately than those presented to the left ear.

Dichotic listening tests can be used in various fields, including neuropsychology, audiology, and cognitive science, to assess brain function, laterality, attention, memory, and language processing abilities. These tests can also help identify any neurological impairments or deficits caused by injuries, diseases, or developmental disorders.

Conjoined twins, also known as Siamese twins, are a rare type of monozygotic (identical) twins who are born physically connected to each other. They develop from a single fertilized egg that fails to fully separate, resulting in various degrees of fusion between their bodies. The point of connection and the extent of sharing body parts can vary greatly between sets of conjoined twins. Some may be connected at the chest, abdomen, or hips, while others may share vital organs such as the heart or brain. Treatment options depend on the type of conjunction and whether separation is possible without causing harm to either twin. Conjoined twins occur in about 1 in every 200,000 live births.

A zebrafish is a freshwater fish species belonging to the family Cyprinidae and the genus Danio. Its name is derived from its distinctive striped pattern that resembles a zebra's. Zebrafish are often used as model organisms in scientific research, particularly in developmental biology, genetics, and toxicology studies. They have a high fecundity rate, transparent embryos, and a rapid development process, making them an ideal choice for researchers. However, it is important to note that providing a medical definition for zebrafish may not be entirely accurate or relevant since they are primarily used in biological research rather than clinical medicine.

In the context of medicine, particularly in neurolinguistics and speech-language pathology, language is defined as a complex system of communication that involves the use of symbols (such as words, signs, or gestures) to express and exchange information. It includes various components such as phonology (sound systems), morphology (word structures), syntax (sentence structure), semantics (meaning), and pragmatics (social rules of use). Language allows individuals to convey their thoughts, feelings, and intentions, and to understand the communication of others. Disorders of language can result from damage to specific areas of the brain, leading to impairments in comprehension, production, or both.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "New Caledonia" is not a medical term or concept. It is actually the name of a group of islands located in the southwest Pacific Ocean, east of Australia. The main island, Grande Terre, is known for its beautiful landscapes, which include mountains, beaches, and lagoons. New Caledonia is a special collectivity of France, and French is one of the official languages spoken there. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, I would be happy to help with those instead!

Zebrafish proteins refer to the diverse range of protein molecules that are produced by the organism Danio rerio, commonly known as the zebrafish. These proteins play crucial roles in various biological processes such as growth, development, reproduction, and response to environmental stimuli. They are involved in cellular functions like enzymatic reactions, signal transduction, structural support, and regulation of gene expression.

Zebrafish is a popular model organism in biomedical research due to its genetic similarity with humans, rapid development, and transparent embryos that allow for easy observation of biological processes. As a result, the study of zebrafish proteins has contributed significantly to our understanding of protein function, structure, and interaction in both zebrafish and human systems.

Some examples of zebrafish proteins include:

* Transcription factors that regulate gene expression during development
* Enzymes involved in metabolic pathways
* Structural proteins that provide support to cells and tissues
* Receptors and signaling molecules that mediate communication between cells
* Heat shock proteins that assist in protein folding and protect against stress

The analysis of zebrafish proteins can be performed using various techniques, including biochemical assays, mass spectrometry, protein crystallography, and computational modeling. These methods help researchers to identify, characterize, and understand the functions of individual proteins and their interactions within complex networks.

Growth Differentiation Factor 1 (GDF1), also known as Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor E (VEGE), is a protein that belongs to the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) superfamily. It plays crucial roles in embryonic development, including the regulation of cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis (programmed cell death). GDF1 is essential for proper patterning and morphogenesis during gastrulation and organogenesis. In adults, GDF1 expression is limited to certain tissues, such as the reproductive system, where it continues to regulate cellular processes.

Cilia are tiny, hair-like structures that protrude from the surface of many types of cells in the body. They are composed of a core bundle of microtubules surrounded by a protein matrix and are covered with a membrane. Cilia are involved in various cellular functions, including movement of fluid or mucus across the cell surface, detection of external stimuli, and regulation of signaling pathways.

There are two types of cilia: motile and non-motile. Motile cilia are able to move in a coordinated manner to propel fluids or particles across a surface, such as those found in the respiratory tract and reproductive organs. Non-motile cilia, also known as primary cilia, are present on most cells in the body and serve as sensory organelles that detect chemical and mechanical signals from the environment.

Defects in cilia structure or function can lead to a variety of diseases, collectively known as ciliopathies. These conditions can affect multiple organs and systems in the body, including the brain, kidneys, liver, and eyes. Examples of ciliopathies include polycystic kidney disease, Bardet-Biedl syndrome, and Meckel-Gruber syndrome.

Medical Definition:

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a non-invasive diagnostic imaging technique that uses a strong magnetic field and radio waves to create detailed cross-sectional or three-dimensional images of the internal structures of the body. The patient lies within a large, cylindrical magnet, and the scanner detects changes in the direction of the magnetic field caused by protons in the body. These changes are then converted into detailed images that help medical professionals to diagnose and monitor various medical conditions, such as tumors, injuries, or diseases affecting the brain, spinal cord, heart, blood vessels, joints, and other internal organs. MRI does not use radiation like computed tomography (CT) scans.

The Posterior Cerebral Artery (PCA) is one of the major arteries that supplies blood to the brain. It is a branch of the basilar artery, which is formed by the union of the two vertebral arteries. The PCA supplies oxygenated blood to the occipital lobe (responsible for visual processing), the temporal lobe (involved in auditory and memory functions), and the thalamus and midbrain (relay station for sensory and motor signals).

The PCA has two segments: the precommunicating segment (P1) and the postcommunicating segment (P2). The P1 segment runs posteriorly along the cerebral peduncle, while the P2 segment courses around the midbrain to reach the occipital lobe.

Atherosclerosis, embolism, or other vascular conditions can affect the PCA and lead to a variety of neurological symptoms, including visual loss, memory impairment, and difficulty with language processing.

Amobarbital is a barbiturate drug that is primarily used as a sedative and sleep aid. It works by depressing the central nervous system, which can lead to relaxation, drowsiness, and reduced anxiety. Amobarbital is also sometimes used as an anticonvulsant to help control seizures.

Like other barbiturates, amobarbital has a high potential for abuse and addiction, and it can be dangerous or even fatal when taken in large doses or mixed with alcohol or other drugs. It is typically prescribed only for short-term use due to the risk of tolerance and dependence.

It's important to note that the use of barbiturates like amobarbital has declined in recent years due to the development of safer and more effective alternatives, such as benzodiazepines and non-benzodiazepine sleep aids.

I am not aware of a medical term specifically referred to as "crows." The term "crows" is commonly used to refer to the bird species Corvus corone or Corvus brachyrhynchos, which are known for their black feathers and intelligent behavior. However, in a medical context, "crows feet" is a slang term that refers to the fine lines and wrinkles that can form around the outer corners of the eyes, often due to aging or repeated facial expressions.

If you meant something else by "Crows," please provide more context so I can give a more accurate answer.

I believe there may be some confusion in your question as "manufactured materials" is not a term commonly used in medical definitions. Instead, it is more related to the field of materials science and engineering. However, I can provide you with an example of how manufactured materials might be relevant in a medical context:

Manufactured materials refer to substances that are produced or synthesized through human-engineered processes, as opposed to naturally occurring materials. In the medical field, manufactured materials can include a wide range of products such as biomaterials, implants, medical devices, and pharmaceuticals. These materials are designed and created to interact with biological systems for various therapeutic or diagnostic purposes.

For instance, biomaterials like polymers, metals, ceramics, and composites can be used in the development of medical devices such as hip implants, stents, or contact lenses. Similarly, pharmaceutical companies manufacture drugs and medications using synthetic or semi-synthetic compounds to create active ingredients for various treatments.

In summary, while "manufactured materials" is not a formal medical term, it can refer to any synthetic or engineered substances designed and produced for medical applications, such as biomaterials, implants, medical devices, and pharmaceuticals.

Brain mapping is a broad term that refers to the techniques used to understand the structure and function of the brain. It involves creating maps of the various cognitive, emotional, and behavioral processes in the brain by correlating these processes with physical locations or activities within the nervous system. Brain mapping can be accomplished through a variety of methods, including functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), positron emission tomography (PET) scans, electroencephalography (EEG), and others. These techniques allow researchers to observe which areas of the brain are active during different tasks or thoughts, helping to shed light on how the brain processes information and contributes to our experiences and behaviors. Brain mapping is an important area of research in neuroscience, with potential applications in the diagnosis and treatment of neurological and psychiatric disorders.

Kartagener Syndrome is a rare genetic disorder that primarily affects the respiratory system. It is characterized by the triad of chronic sinusitis, bronchiectasis (damage and widening of the airways in the lungs), and situs inversus totalis - a condition where the major visceral organs are mirrored or reversed from their normal positions.

In Kartagener Syndrome, the cilia (tiny hair-like structures) lining the respiratory tract are abnormal or dysfunctional, which impairs their ability to clear mucus and other particles. This leads to recurrent respiratory infections, bronchiectasis, and ultimately, progressive lung damage.

The condition is inherited as an autosomal recessive trait, meaning that an individual must inherit two copies of the defective gene - one from each parent - to develop the syndrome. Kartagener Syndrome is a subtype of primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD), a group of disorders affecting ciliary structure and function.

A nonmammalian embryo refers to the developing organism in animals other than mammals, from the fertilized egg (zygote) stage until hatching or birth. In nonmammalian species, the developmental stages and terminology differ from those used in mammals. The term "embryo" is generally applied to the developing organism up until a specific stage of development that is characterized by the formation of major organs and structures. After this point, the developing organism is referred to as a "larva," "juvenile," or other species-specific terminology.

The study of nonmammalian embryos has played an important role in our understanding of developmental biology and evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo). By comparing the developmental processes across different animal groups, researchers can gain insights into the evolutionary origins and diversification of body plans and structures. Additionally, nonmammalian embryos are often used as model systems for studying basic biological processes, such as cell division, gene regulation, and pattern formation.

Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is a type of focal (localized) epilepsy that originates from the temporal lobes of the brain. The temporal lobes are located on each side of the brain and are involved in processing sensory information, memory, and emotion. TLE is characterized by recurrent seizures that originate from one or both temporal lobes.

The symptoms of TLE can vary depending on the specific area of the temporal lobe that is affected. However, common symptoms include auras (sensory or emotional experiences that occur before a seizure), strange smells or tastes, lip-smacking or chewing movements, and memory problems. Some people with TLE may also experience automatisms (involuntary movements such as picking at clothes or fumbling with objects) during their seizures.

Treatment for TLE typically involves medication to control seizures, although surgery may be recommended in some cases. The goal of treatment is to reduce the frequency and severity of seizures and improve quality of life.

Developmental gene expression regulation refers to the processes that control the activation or repression of specific genes during embryonic and fetal development. These regulatory mechanisms ensure that genes are expressed at the right time, in the right cells, and at appropriate levels to guide proper growth, differentiation, and morphogenesis of an organism.

Developmental gene expression regulation is a complex and dynamic process involving various molecular players, such as transcription factors, chromatin modifiers, non-coding RNAs, and signaling molecules. These regulators can interact with cis-regulatory elements, like enhancers and promoters, to fine-tune the spatiotemporal patterns of gene expression during development.

Dysregulation of developmental gene expression can lead to various congenital disorders and developmental abnormalities. Therefore, understanding the principles and mechanisms governing developmental gene expression regulation is crucial for uncovering the etiology of developmental diseases and devising potential therapeutic strategies.

An endocardial cushion defect is a type of congenital heart defect that affects the development of the heart's septum and valves. The endocardial cushions are a pair of tissue formations in the developing heart that eventually become part of the atrial and ventricular septums (the walls that divide the right and left chambers of the heart) as well as the tricuspid and mitral valves (which control blood flow between the chambers).

Endocardial cushion defects occur when these tissues fail to fuse properly during fetal development, resulting in abnormal openings or malformations of the septum and/or valves. This can lead to various heart-related symptoms and complications, such as:

* A hole between the right and left atria (atrial septal defect) or ventricles (ventricular septal defect)
* Improper functioning of the tricuspid or mitral valve, leading to leakage or regurgitation of blood
* Increased risk of infection in the heart (endocarditis) due to abnormal blood flow patterns

Endocardial cushion defects can range from mild to severe and may require medical intervention, such as surgery or medication, to correct. Symptoms may include shortness of breath, fatigue, poor feeding, and slow growth in infants and children. In some cases, endocardial cushion defects may not cause any noticeable symptoms until later in life.

The brain is the central organ of the nervous system, responsible for receiving and processing sensory information, regulating vital functions, and controlling behavior, movement, and cognition. It is divided into several distinct regions, each with specific functions:

1. Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions such as thinking, learning, memory, language, and perception. It is divided into two hemispheres, each controlling the opposite side of the body.
2. Cerebellum: Located at the back of the brain, it is responsible for coordinating muscle movements, maintaining balance, and fine-tuning motor skills.
3. Brainstem: Connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord, controlling vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. It also serves as a relay center for sensory information and motor commands between the brain and the rest of the body.
4. Diencephalon: A region that includes the thalamus (a major sensory relay station) and hypothalamus (regulates hormones, temperature, hunger, thirst, and sleep).
5. Limbic system: A group of structures involved in emotional processing, memory formation, and motivation, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus.

The brain is composed of billions of interconnected neurons that communicate through electrical and chemical signals. It is protected by the skull and surrounded by three layers of membranes called meninges, as well as cerebrospinal fluid that provides cushioning and nutrients.

In a medical context, "gestures" are not typically defined as they are a part of communication and behavior rather than specific medical terminology. However, in the field of physical therapy or rehabilitation, gestures may refer to purposeful movements made with the hands, arms, or body to express ideas or commands.

In neurology or neuropsychology, abnormal gestures may be a symptom of certain conditions such as apraxia, where patients have difficulty performing learned, purposeful movements despite having the physical ability to do so. In this context, "gestures" would refer to specific motor behaviors that are impaired due to brain damage or dysfunction.

A language test is not a medical term per se, but it is commonly used in the field of speech-language pathology, which is a medical discipline. A language test, in this context, refers to an assessment tool used by speech-language pathologists to evaluate an individual's language abilities. These tests typically measure various aspects of language, including vocabulary, grammar, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.

Language tests can be standardized or non-standardized and may be administered individually or in a group setting. The results of these tests help speech-language pathologists diagnose language disorders, develop treatment plans, and monitor progress over time. It is important to note that language testing should be conducted by a qualified professional who has experience in administering and interpreting language assessments.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "imagnation" is not a term typically used in medical definitions. Imagination generally refers to the ability to form mental images or concepts of things that are not present or have never been experienced. It involves the cognitive process of creating new ideas, scenarios, or concepts from existing knowledge and experiences.

However, if you meant to ask for a medical term related to imagination, one possibility could be "**productive thinking**" or **"generative cognitive processes"**. These terms are used in neuropsychology and cognitive science to describe the mental activities involved in creating new ideas, problem-solving, and generating novel responses.

If you had something specific in mind or if there's a different context you'd like me to consider, please provide more information, and I will do my best to help.

Pitch discrimination, in the context of audiology and neuroscience, refers to the ability to perceive and identify the difference in pitch between two or more sounds. It is the measure of how accurately an individual can distinguish between different frequencies or tones. This ability is crucial for various aspects of hearing, such as understanding speech, appreciating music, and localizing sound sources.

Pitch discrimination is typically measured using psychoacoustic tests, where a listener is presented with two sequential tones and asked to determine whether the second tone is higher or lower in pitch than the first one. The smallest detectable difference between the frequencies of these two tones is referred to as the "just noticeable difference" (JND) or the "difference limen." This value can be used to quantify an individual's pitch discrimination abilities and may vary depending on factors such as frequency, intensity, and age.

Deficits in pitch discrimination can have significant consequences for various aspects of daily life, including communication difficulties and reduced enjoyment of music. These deficits can result from damage to the auditory system due to factors like noise exposure, aging, or certain medical conditions, such as hearing loss or neurological disorders.

Congenital heart defects (CHDs) are structural abnormalities in the heart that are present at birth. They can affect any part of the heart's structure, including the walls of the heart, the valves inside the heart, and the major blood vessels that lead to and from the heart.

Congenital heart defects can range from mild to severe and can cause various symptoms depending on the type and severity of the defect. Some common symptoms of CHDs include cyanosis (a bluish tint to the skin, lips, and fingernails), shortness of breath, fatigue, poor feeding, and slow growth in infants and children.

There are many different types of congenital heart defects, including:

1. Septal defects: These are holes in the walls that separate the four chambers of the heart. The two most common septal defects are atrial septal defect (ASD) and ventricular septal defect (VSD).
2. Valve abnormalities: These include narrowed or leaky valves, which can affect blood flow through the heart.
3. Obstruction defects: These occur when blood flow is blocked or restricted due to narrowing or absence of a part of the heart's structure. Examples include pulmonary stenosis and coarctation of the aorta.
4. Cyanotic heart defects: These cause a lack of oxygen in the blood, leading to cyanosis. Examples include tetralogy of Fallot and transposition of the great arteries.

The causes of congenital heart defects are not fully understood, but genetic factors and environmental influences during pregnancy may play a role. Some CHDs can be detected before birth through prenatal testing, while others may not be diagnosed until after birth or later in childhood. Treatment for CHDs may include medication, surgery, or other interventions to improve blood flow and oxygenation of the body's tissues.

Retinal neoplasms are abnormal growths or tumors that develop in the retina, which is the light-sensitive tissue located at the back of the eye. These neoplasms can be benign or malignant and can have varying effects on vision depending on their size, location, and type.

Retinal neoplasms can be classified into two main categories: primary and secondary. Primary retinal neoplasms originate from the retina or its surrounding tissues, while secondary retinal neoplasms spread to the retina from other parts of the body.

The most common type of primary retinal neoplasm is a retinoblastoma, which is a malignant tumor that typically affects children under the age of five. Other types of primary retinal neoplasms include capillary hemangioma, cavernous hemangioma, and combined hamartoma of the retina and RPE (retinal pigment epithelium).

Secondary retinal neoplasms are usually metastatic tumors that spread to the eye from other parts of the body, such as the lung, breast, or skin. These tumors can cause vision loss, eye pain, or floaters, and may require treatment with radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or surgery.

It is important to note that retinal neoplasms are relatively rare, and any symptoms or changes in vision should be evaluated by an ophthalmologist as soon as possible to rule out other potential causes and develop an appropriate treatment plan.

The cerebral cortex is the outermost layer of the brain, characterized by its intricate folded structure and wrinkled appearance. It is a region of great importance as it plays a key role in higher cognitive functions such as perception, consciousness, thought, memory, language, and attention. The cerebral cortex is divided into two hemispheres, each containing four lobes: the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. These areas are responsible for different functions, with some regions specializing in sensory processing while others are involved in motor control or associative functions. The cerebral cortex is composed of gray matter, which contains neuronal cell bodies, and is covered by a layer of white matter that consists mainly of myelinated nerve fibers.

Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is a non-invasive functional neuroimaging technique used to measure the magnetic fields produced by electrical activity in the brain. These magnetic fields are detected by very sensitive devices called superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs), which are cooled to extremely low temperatures to enhance their sensitivity. MEG provides direct and real-time measurement of neural electrical activity with high temporal resolution, typically on the order of milliseconds, allowing for the investigation of brain function during various cognitive, sensory, and motor tasks. It is often used in conjunction with other neuroimaging techniques, such as fMRI, to provide complementary information about brain structure and function.

Auditory perception refers to the process by which the brain interprets and makes sense of the sounds we hear. It involves the recognition and interpretation of different frequencies, intensities, and patterns of sound waves that reach our ears through the process of hearing. This allows us to identify and distinguish various sounds such as speech, music, and environmental noises.

The auditory system includes the outer ear, middle ear, inner ear, and the auditory nerve, which transmits electrical signals to the brain's auditory cortex for processing and interpretation. Auditory perception is a complex process that involves multiple areas of the brain working together to identify and make sense of sounds in our environment.

Disorders or impairments in auditory perception can result in difficulties with hearing, understanding speech, and identifying environmental sounds, which can significantly impact communication, learning, and daily functioning.

Axonemal dyneins are motor proteins that are located in the axoneme of eukaryotic cilia and flagella. The axoneme is the internal structure of these cellular appendages, and it is composed of nine microtubule doublets arranged in a ring around two central single microtubules.

Dyneins are large protein complexes that use the energy from ATP hydrolysis to move along microtubules, generating force and motion. Axonemal dyneins are responsible for the sliding of the microtubule doublets relative to each other, which leads to the bending and movement of cilia and flagella.

There are several types of axonemal dyneins, classified based on their structure and function. The outer dynein arms are larger complexes that generate the power stroke for ciliary beating, while the inner dynein arms are smaller complexes involved in regulating the beat pattern and frequency.

Defects in axonemal dyneins can lead to a variety of genetic disorders known as ciliopathies, which affect the structure and function of cilia and flagella. These disorders can cause a range of symptoms, including respiratory problems, infertility, and developmental abnormalities.

Retinoblastoma is a rare type of eye cancer that primarily affects young children, typically developing in the retina (the light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye) before the age of 5. This malignancy originates from immature retinal cells called retinoblasts and can occur in one or both eyes (bilateral or unilateral).

There are two main types of Retinoblastoma: heritable and non-heritable. The heritable form is caused by a genetic mutation that can be inherited from a parent or may occur spontaneously during embryonic development. This type often affects both eyes and has an increased risk of developing other cancers. Non-heritable Retinoblastoma, on the other hand, occurs due to somatic mutations (acquired during life) that affect only the retinal cells in one eye.

Symptoms of Retinoblastoma may include a white pupil or glow in photographs, crossed eyes, strabismus (misalignment of the eyes), poor vision, redness, or swelling in the eye. Treatment options depend on various factors such as the stage and location of the tumor(s), patient's age, and overall health. These treatments may include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, laser therapy, cryotherapy (freezing), thermotherapy (heating), or enucleation (removal of the affected eye) in advanced cases.

Early detection and prompt treatment are crucial for improving the prognosis and preserving vision in children with Retinoblastoma. Regular eye examinations by a pediatric ophthalmologist or oncologist are recommended to monitor any changes and ensure timely intervention if necessary.

Anisometropia is a medical term that refers to a condition where there is a significant difference in the refractive power between the two eyes. In other words, one eye has a significantly different optical prescription compared to the other eye. This condition can cause issues with binocular vision and depth perception, and can sometimes lead to amblyopia (lazy eye) if not corrected early in life. It is typically diagnosed through a comprehensive eye examination and can be corrected with glasses or contact lenses.

The temporal lobe is one of the four main lobes of the cerebral cortex in the brain, located on each side of the head roughly level with the ears. It plays a major role in auditory processing, memory, and emotion. The temporal lobe contains several key structures including the primary auditory cortex, which is responsible for analyzing sounds, and the hippocampus, which is crucial for forming new memories. Damage to the temporal lobe can result in various neurological symptoms such as hearing loss, memory impairment, and changes in emotional behavior.

Epilepsy is a chronic neurological disorder characterized by recurrent, unprovoked seizures. These seizures are caused by abnormal electrical activity in the brain, which can result in a wide range of symptoms, including convulsions, loss of consciousness, and altered sensations or behaviors. Epilepsy can have many different causes, including genetic factors, brain injury, infection, or stroke. In some cases, the cause may be unknown.

There are many different types of seizures that can occur in people with epilepsy, and the specific type of seizure will depend on the location and extent of the abnormal electrical activity in the brain. Some people may experience only one type of seizure, while others may have several different types. Seizures can vary in frequency, from a few per year to dozens or even hundreds per day.

Epilepsy is typically diagnosed based on the patient's history of recurrent seizures and the results of an electroencephalogram (EEG), which measures the electrical activity in the brain. Imaging tests such as MRI or CT scans may also be used to help identify any structural abnormalities in the brain that may be contributing to the seizures.

While there is no cure for epilepsy, it can often be effectively managed with medication. In some cases, surgery may be recommended to remove the area of the brain responsible for the seizures. With proper treatment and management, many people with epilepsy are able to lead normal, productive lives.

Acoustic stimulation refers to the use of sound waves or vibrations to elicit a response in an individual, typically for the purpose of assessing or treating hearing, balance, or neurological disorders. In a medical context, acoustic stimulation may involve presenting pure tones, speech sounds, or other types of auditory signals through headphones, speakers, or specialized devices such as bone conduction transducers.

The response to acoustic stimulation can be measured using various techniques, including electrophysiological tests like auditory brainstem responses (ABRs) or otoacoustic emissions (OAEs), behavioral observations, or functional imaging methods like fMRI. Acoustic stimulation is also used in therapeutic settings, such as auditory training programs for hearing impairment or vestibular rehabilitation for balance disorders.

It's important to note that acoustic stimulation should be administered under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional to ensure safety and effectiveness.

Cichlids are a family (Cichlidae) of freshwater and brackish fish that include several well-known aquarium species. They are found primarily in tropical regions of Africa, Central America, and South America. Cichlids exhibit a wide range of body shapes, sizes, colors, and behaviors, making them popular among aquarists. Some cichlid species are also important sources of food in their native habitats. It is worth noting that cichlids are not typically classified as having medical relevance, but rather they are studied for their ecological, evolutionary, and ornamental significance.

The fetal heart is the cardiovascular organ that develops in the growing fetus during pregnancy. It starts to form around 22 days after conception and continues to develop throughout the first trimester. By the end of the eighth week of gestation, the fetal heart has developed enough to pump blood throughout the body.

The fetal heart is similar in structure to the adult heart but has some differences. It is smaller and more compact, with a four-chambered structure that includes two atria and two ventricles. The fetal heart also has unique features such as the foramen ovale, which is a hole between the right and left atria that allows blood to bypass the lungs, and the ductus arteriosus, a blood vessel that connects the pulmonary artery to the aorta and diverts blood away from the lungs.

The fetal heart is responsible for pumping oxygenated blood from the placenta to the rest of the body and returning deoxygenated blood back to the placenta for re-oxygenation. The rate of the fetal heartbeat is faster than that of an adult, typically ranging from 120 to 160 beats per minute. Fetal heart rate monitoring is a common method used during pregnancy and childbirth to assess the health and well-being of the developing fetus.

"Xenopus proteins" refer to the proteins that are expressed or isolated from the Xenopus species, which are primarily used as model organisms in biological and biomedical research. The most commonly used Xenopus species for research are the African clawed frogs, Xenopus laevis and Xenopus tropicalis. These proteins play crucial roles in various cellular processes and functions, and they serve as valuable tools to study different aspects of molecular biology, developmental biology, genetics, and biochemistry.

Some examples of Xenopus proteins that are widely studied include:

1. Xenopus Histones: These are the proteins that package DNA into nucleosomes, which are the fundamental units of chromatin in eukaryotic cells. They play a significant role in gene regulation and epigenetic modifications.
2. Xenopus Cyclins and Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs): These proteins regulate the cell cycle and control cell division, differentiation, and apoptosis.
3. Xenopus Transcription factors: These proteins bind to specific DNA sequences and regulate gene expression during development and in response to various stimuli.
4. Xenopus Signaling molecules: These proteins are involved in intracellular signaling pathways that control various cellular processes, such as cell growth, differentiation, migration, and survival.
5. Xenopus Cytoskeletal proteins: These proteins provide structural support to the cells and regulate their shape, motility, and organization.
6. Xenopus Enzymes: These proteins catalyze various biochemical reactions in the cell, such as metabolic pathways, DNA replication, transcription, and translation.

Overall, Xenopus proteins are essential tools for understanding fundamental biological processes and have contributed significantly to our current knowledge of molecular biology, genetics, and developmental biology.

The pineal gland, also known as the epiphysis cerebri, is a small endocrine gland located in the brain. It is shaped like a pinecone, hence its name, and is situated near the center of the brain, between the two hemispheres, attached to the third ventricle. The primary function of the pineal gland is to produce melatonin, a hormone that helps regulate sleep-wake cycles and circadian rhythms in response to light and darkness. Additionally, it plays a role in the onset of puberty and has been suggested to have other functions related to cognition, mood, and reproduction, although these are not as well understood.

In the context of medicine, particularly in anatomy and physiology, "rotation" refers to the movement of a body part around its own axis or the long axis of another structure. This type of motion is three-dimensional and can occur in various planes. A common example of rotation is the movement of the forearm bones (radius and ulna) around each other during pronation and supination, which allows the hand to be turned palm up or down. Another example is the rotation of the head during mastication (chewing), where the mandible moves in a circular motion around the temporomandibular joint.

Computer-assisted image processing is a medical term that refers to the use of computer systems and specialized software to improve, analyze, and interpret medical images obtained through various imaging techniques such as X-ray, CT (computed tomography), MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), ultrasound, and others.

The process typically involves several steps, including image acquisition, enhancement, segmentation, restoration, and analysis. Image processing algorithms can be used to enhance the quality of medical images by adjusting contrast, brightness, and sharpness, as well as removing noise and artifacts that may interfere with accurate diagnosis. Segmentation techniques can be used to isolate specific regions or structures of interest within an image, allowing for more detailed analysis.

Computer-assisted image processing has numerous applications in medical imaging, including detection and characterization of lesions, tumors, and other abnormalities; assessment of organ function and morphology; and guidance of interventional procedures such as biopsies and surgeries. By automating and standardizing image analysis tasks, computer-assisted image processing can help to improve diagnostic accuracy, efficiency, and consistency, while reducing the potential for human error.

Psychomotor performance refers to the integration and coordination of mental processes (cognitive functions) with physical movements. It involves the ability to perform complex tasks that require both cognitive skills, such as thinking, remembering, and perceiving, and motor skills, such as gross and fine motor movements. Examples of psychomotor performances include driving a car, playing a musical instrument, or performing surgical procedures.

In a medical context, psychomotor performance is often used to assess an individual's ability to perform activities of daily living (ADLs) and instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs), such as bathing, dressing, cooking, cleaning, and managing medications. Deficits in psychomotor performance can be a sign of neurological or psychiatric disorders, such as dementia, Parkinson's disease, or depression.

Assessment of psychomotor performance may involve tests that measure reaction time, coordination, speed, precision, and accuracy of movements, as well as cognitive functions such as attention, memory, and problem-solving skills. These assessments can help healthcare professionals develop appropriate treatment plans and monitor the progression of diseases or the effectiveness of interventions.

Viscera is a medical term that refers to the internal organs of the body, specifically those contained within the chest and abdominal cavities. These include the heart, lungs, liver, pancreas, spleen, kidneys, and intestines. In some contexts, it may also refer to the reproductive organs. The term viscera is often used in anatomical or surgical descriptions, and is derived from the Latin word "viscus," meaning "an internal organ."

Organogenesis is the process of formation and development of organs during embryonic growth. It involves the complex interactions of cells, tissues, and signaling molecules that lead to the creation of specialized structures in the body. This process begins in the early stages of embryonic development, around week 4-8, and continues until birth. During organogenesis, the three primary germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) differentiate into various cell types and organize themselves into specific structures that will eventually form the functional organs of the body. Abnormalities in organogenesis can result in congenital disorders or birth defects.

In medical terms, the jaw is referred to as the mandible (in humans and some other animals), which is the lower part of the face that holds the lower teeth in place. It's a large, horseshoe-shaped bone that forms the lower jaw and serves as a attachment point for several muscles that are involved in chewing and moving the lower jaw.

In addition to the mandible, the upper jaw is composed of two bones known as the maxillae, which fuse together at the midline of the face to form the upper jaw. The upper jaw holds the upper teeth in place and forms the roof of the mouth, as well as a portion of the eye sockets and nasal cavity.

Together, the mandible and maxillae allow for various functions such as speaking, eating, and breathing.

A forelimb is a term used in animal anatomy to refer to the upper limbs located in the front of the body, primarily involved in movement and manipulation of the environment. In humans, this would be equivalent to the arms, while in quadrupedal animals (those that move on four legs), it includes the structures that are comparable to both the arms and legs of humans, such as the front legs of dogs or the forepaws of cats. The bones that make up a typical forelimb include the humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges.

Electroencephalography (EEG) is a medical procedure that records electrical activity in the brain. It uses small, metal discs called electrodes, which are attached to the scalp with paste or a specialized cap. These electrodes detect tiny electrical charges that result from the activity of brain cells, and the EEG machine then amplifies and records these signals.

EEG is used to diagnose various conditions related to the brain, such as seizures, sleep disorders, head injuries, infections, and degenerative diseases like Alzheimer's or Parkinson's. It can also be used during surgery to monitor brain activity and ensure that surgical procedures do not interfere with vital functions.

EEG is a safe and non-invasive procedure that typically takes about 30 minutes to an hour to complete, although longer recordings may be necessary in some cases. Patients are usually asked to relax and remain still during the test, as movement can affect the quality of the recording.

In medical and embryological terms, the mesoderm is one of the three primary germ layers in the very early stages of embryonic development. It forms between the ectoderm and endoderm during gastrulation, and it gives rise to a wide variety of cell types, tissues, and organs in the developing embryo.

The mesoderm contributes to the formation of structures such as:

1. The connective tissues (including tendons, ligaments, and most of the bones)
2. Muscular system (skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles)
3. Circulatory system (heart, blood vessels, and blood cells)
4. Excretory system (kidneys and associated structures)
5. Reproductive system (gonads, including ovaries and testes)
6. Dermis of the skin
7. Parts of the eye and inner ear
8. Several organs in the urogenital system

Dysfunctions or abnormalities in mesoderm development can lead to various congenital disorders and birth defects, highlighting its importance during embryogenesis.

Somites are transient, segmentally repeated embryonic structures that form along the anterior-posterior body axis during vertebrate development. They are derived from the paraxial mesoderm and give rise to various tissues, including the sclerotome (which forms the vertebrae and ribs), myotome (which forms the skeletal muscles of the back and limbs), and dermatome (which forms the dermis of the skin).

Each somite is a block-like structure that is arranged in a repeating pattern along the notochord, which is a flexible rod-like structure that provides mechanical support to the developing embryo. The formation of somites is a critical step in the development of the vertebrate body plan, as they help to establish the segmental organization of the musculoskeletal system and contribute to the formation of other important structures such as the dermis and the circulatory system.

The process of somitogenesis, or the formation of somites, is a highly regulated and coordinated event that involves the interaction of various signaling molecules and genetic pathways. Defects in somite formation can lead to a range of developmental abnormalities, including spinal deformities, muscle weakness, and skin defects.

In situ hybridization (ISH) is a molecular biology technique used to detect and localize specific nucleic acid sequences, such as DNA or RNA, within cells or tissues. This technique involves the use of a labeled probe that is complementary to the target nucleic acid sequence. The probe can be labeled with various types of markers, including radioisotopes, fluorescent dyes, or enzymes.

During the ISH procedure, the labeled probe is hybridized to the target nucleic acid sequence in situ, meaning that the hybridization occurs within the intact cells or tissues. After washing away unbound probe, the location of the labeled probe can be visualized using various methods depending on the type of label used.

In situ hybridization has a wide range of applications in both research and diagnostic settings, including the detection of gene expression patterns, identification of viral infections, and diagnosis of genetic disorders.

Aphasia is a medical condition that affects a person's ability to communicate. It is caused by damage to the language areas of the brain, most commonly as a result of a stroke or head injury. Aphasia can affect both spoken and written language, making it difficult for individuals to express their thoughts, understand speech, read, or write.

There are several types of aphasia, including:

1. Expressive aphasia (also called Broca's aphasia): This type of aphasia affects a person's ability to speak and write clearly. Individuals with expressive aphasia know what they want to say but have difficulty forming the words or sentences to communicate their thoughts.
2. Receptive aphasia (also called Wernicke's aphasia): This type of aphasia affects a person's ability to understand spoken or written language. Individuals with receptive aphasia may struggle to follow conversations, comprehend written texts, or make sense of the words they hear or read.
3. Global aphasia: This is the most severe form of aphasia and results from extensive damage to the language areas of the brain. People with global aphasia have significant impairments in both their ability to express themselves and understand language.
4. Anomic aphasia: This type of aphasia affects a person's ability to recall the names of objects, people, or places. Individuals with anomic aphasia can speak in complete sentences but often struggle to find the right words to convey their thoughts.

Treatment for aphasia typically involves speech and language therapy, which aims to help individuals regain as much communication ability as possible. The success of treatment depends on various factors, such as the severity and location of the brain injury, the individual's motivation and effort, and the availability of support from family members and caregivers.

Activin receptors are a type of serine/threonine kinase receptor that play a crucial role in various biological processes, including cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. They are activated by members of the TGF-β (transforming growth factor-beta) superfamily, particularly activins.

There are two main types of activin receptors: ActR-I and ActR-II. ActR-I exists in two isoforms, ALK2 and ALK4, while ActR-II has two isoforms, ActR-IIA and ActR-IIB. Activation of these receptors leads to the phosphorylation of intracellular signaling molecules, which then translocate to the nucleus and regulate gene expression.

Abnormalities in activin receptor function have been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, fibrosis, and developmental disorders. Therefore, activin receptors are an important target for therapeutic intervention in these conditions.

Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder characterized by disturbances in thought, perception, emotion, and behavior. It often includes hallucinations (usually hearing voices), delusions, paranoia, and disorganized speech and behavior. The onset of symptoms typically occurs in late adolescence or early adulthood. Schizophrenia is a complex, chronic condition that requires ongoing treatment and management. It significantly impairs social and occupational functioning, and it's often associated with reduced life expectancy due to comorbid medical conditions. The exact causes of schizophrenia are not fully understood, but research suggests that genetic, environmental, and neurodevelopmental factors play a role in its development.

'Animal behavior' refers to the actions or responses of animals to various stimuli, including their interactions with the environment and other individuals. It is the study of the actions of animals, whether they are instinctual, learned, or a combination of both. Animal behavior includes communication, mating, foraging, predator avoidance, and social organization, among other things. The scientific study of animal behavior is called ethology. This field seeks to understand the evolutionary basis for behaviors as well as their physiological and psychological mechanisms.

Tinnitus is the perception of ringing or other sounds in the ears or head when no external sound is present. It can be described as a sensation of hearing sound even when no actual noise is present. The sounds perceived can vary widely, from a whistling, buzzing, hissing, swooshing, to a pulsating sound, and can be soft or loud.

Tinnitus is not a disease itself but a symptom that can result from a wide range of underlying causes, such as hearing loss, exposure to loud noises, ear infections, earwax blockage, head or neck injuries, circulatory system disorders, certain medications, and age-related hearing loss.

Tinnitus can be temporary or chronic, and it may affect one or both ears. While tinnitus is not usually a sign of a serious medical condition, it can significantly impact quality of life and interfere with daily activities, sleep, and concentration.

Reaction time, in the context of medicine and physiology, refers to the time period between the presentation of a stimulus and the subsequent initiation of a response. This complex process involves the central nervous system, particularly the brain, which perceives the stimulus, processes it, and then sends signals to the appropriate muscles or glands to react.

There are different types of reaction times, including simple reaction time (responding to a single, expected stimulus) and choice reaction time (choosing an appropriate response from multiple possibilities). These measures can be used in clinical settings to assess various aspects of neurological function, such as cognitive processing speed, motor control, and alertness.

However, it is important to note that reaction times can be influenced by several factors, including age, fatigue, attention, and the use of certain medications or substances.

In the context of medical and clinical psychology, particularly in the field of applied behavior analysis (ABA), "verbal behavior" is a term used to describe the various functions or purposes of spoken language. It was first introduced by the psychologist B.F. Skinner in his 1957 book "Verbal Behavior."

Skinner proposed that verbal behavior could be classified into several categories based on its function, including:

1. Mand: A verbal operant in which a person requests or demands something from another person. For example, saying "I would like a glass of water" is a mand.
2. Tact: A verbal operant in which a person describes or labels something in their environment. For example, saying "That's a red apple" is a tact.
3. Echoic: A verbal operant in which a person repeats or imitates what they have heard. For example, saying "Hello" after someone says hello to you is an echoic.
4. Intraverbal: A verbal operant in which a person responds to another person's verbal behavior with their own verbal behavior, without simply repeating or imitating what they have heard. For example, answering a question like "What's the capital of France?" is an intraverbal.
5. Textual: A verbal operant in which a person reads or writes text. For example, reading a book or writing a letter are textual.

Understanding the function of verbal behavior can be helpful in assessing and treating communication disorders, such as those seen in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). By identifying the specific functions of a child's verbal behavior, therapists can develop targeted interventions to help them communicate more effectively.

"Pan troglodytes" is the scientific name for a species of great apes known as the Common Chimpanzee. They are native to tropical rainforests in Western and Central Africa. Common Chimpanzees are our closest living relatives, sharing about 98.6% of our DNA. They are highly intelligent and social animals, capable of using tools, exhibiting complex behaviors, and displaying a range of emotions.

Here is a medical definition for 'Pan troglodytes':

The scientific name for the Common Chimpanzee species (genus Pan), a highly intelligent and social great ape native to tropical rainforests in Western and Central Africa. They are our closest living relatives, sharing approximately 98.6% of our DNA. Known for their complex behaviors, tool use, and emotional expression, Common Chimpanzees have been extensively studied in the fields of anthropology, psychology, and primatology to better understand human evolution and behavior.

Neuropsychological tests are a type of psychological assessment that measures cognitive functions, such as attention, memory, language, problem-solving, and perception. These tests are used to help diagnose and understand the cognitive impact of neurological conditions, including dementia, traumatic brain injury, stroke, Parkinson's disease, and other disorders that affect the brain.

The tests are typically administered by a trained neuropsychologist and can take several hours to complete. They may involve paper-and-pencil tasks, computerized tasks, or interactive activities. The results of the tests are compared to normative data to help identify any areas of cognitive weakness or strength.

Neuropsychological testing can provide valuable information for treatment planning, rehabilitation, and assessing response to treatment. It can also be used in research to better understand the neural basis of cognition and the impact of neurological conditions on cognitive function.

In medical terms, the heart is a muscular organ located in the thoracic cavity that functions as a pump to circulate blood throughout the body. It's responsible for delivering oxygen and nutrients to the tissues and removing carbon dioxide and other wastes. The human heart is divided into four chambers: two atria on the top and two ventricles on the bottom. The right side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs, while the left side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it out to the rest of the body. The heart's rhythmic contractions and relaxations are regulated by a complex electrical conduction system.

Retrospective studies, also known as retrospective research or looking back studies, are a type of observational study that examines data from the past to draw conclusions about possible causal relationships between risk factors and outcomes. In these studies, researchers analyze existing records, medical charts, or previously collected data to test a hypothesis or answer a specific research question.

Retrospective studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying trends, but they have limitations compared to prospective studies, which follow participants forward in time from exposure to outcome. Retrospective studies are subject to biases such as recall bias, selection bias, and information bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, retrospective studies should be interpreted with caution and used primarily to generate hypotheses for further testing in prospective studies.

The frontal lobe is the largest lobes of the human brain, located at the front part of each cerebral hemisphere and situated in front of the parietal and temporal lobes. It plays a crucial role in higher cognitive functions such as decision making, problem solving, planning, parts of social behavior, emotional expressions, physical reactions, and motor function. The frontal lobe is also responsible for what's known as "executive functions," which include the ability to focus attention, understand rules, switch focus, plan actions, and inhibit inappropriate behaviors. It is divided into five areas, each with its own specific functions: the primary motor cortex, premotor cortex, Broca's area, prefrontal cortex, and orbitofrontal cortex. Damage to the frontal lobe can result in a wide range of impairments, depending on the location and extent of the injury.

A hallucination is a perception in the absence of external stimuli. They are sensory experiences that feel real, but are generated from inside the mind rather than by external reality. Hallucinations can occur in any of the senses, causing individuals to hear sounds, see visions, or smell odors that aren't actually present. They can range from relatively simple experiences, such as seeing flashes of light, to complex experiences like seeing and interacting with people or objects that aren't there. Hallucinations are often associated with certain medical conditions, mental health disorders, or the use of certain substances.

A gastrula is a stage in the early development of many animals, including humans, that occurs following fertilization and cleavage of the zygote. During this stage, the embryo undergoes a process called gastrulation, which involves a series of cell movements that reorganize the embryo into three distinct layers: the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. These germ layers give rise to all the different tissues and organs in the developing organism.

The gastrula is characterized by the presence of a central cavity called the archenteron, which will eventually become the gut or gastrointestinal tract. The opening of the archenteron is called the blastopore, which will give rise to either the mouth or anus, depending on the animal group.

In summary, a gastrula is a developmental stage in which an embryo undergoes gastrulation to form three germ layers and a central cavity, which will eventually develop into various organs and tissues of the body.

Homeodomain proteins are a group of transcription factors that play crucial roles in the development and differentiation of cells in animals and plants. They are characterized by the presence of a highly conserved DNA-binding domain called the homeodomain, which is typically about 60 amino acids long. The homeodomain consists of three helices, with the third helix responsible for recognizing and binding to specific DNA sequences.

Homeodomain proteins are involved in regulating gene expression during embryonic development, tissue maintenance, and organismal growth. They can act as activators or repressors of transcription, depending on the context and the presence of cofactors. Mutations in homeodomain proteins have been associated with various human diseases, including cancer, congenital abnormalities, and neurological disorders.

Some examples of homeodomain proteins include PAX6, which is essential for eye development, HOX genes, which are involved in body patterning, and NANOG, which plays a role in maintaining pluripotency in stem cells.

The parietal lobe is a region of the brain that is located in the posterior part of the cerebral cortex, covering the upper and rear portions of the brain. It is involved in processing sensory information from the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain, as well as spatial awareness and perception, visual-spatial cognition, and the integration of different senses.

The parietal lobe can be divided into several functional areas, including the primary somatosensory cortex (which receives tactile information from the body), the secondary somatosensory cortex (which processes more complex tactile information), and the posterior parietal cortex (which is involved in spatial attention, perception, and motor planning).

Damage to the parietal lobe can result in various neurological symptoms, such as neglect of one side of the body, difficulty with spatial orientation, problems with hand-eye coordination, and impaired mathematical and language abilities.

Morphogenesis is a term used in developmental biology and refers to the process by which cells give rise to tissues and organs with specific shapes, structures, and patterns during embryonic development. This process involves complex interactions between genes, cells, and the extracellular environment that result in the coordinated movement and differentiation of cells into specialized functional units.

Morphogenesis is a dynamic and highly regulated process that involves several mechanisms, including cell proliferation, death, migration, adhesion, and differentiation. These processes are controlled by genetic programs and signaling pathways that respond to environmental cues and regulate the behavior of individual cells within a developing tissue or organ.

The study of morphogenesis is important for understanding how complex biological structures form during development and how these processes can go awry in disease states such as cancer, birth defects, and degenerative disorders.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a statistical technique used to compare the means of two or more groups and determine whether there are any significant differences between them. It is a way to analyze the variance in a dataset to determine whether the variability between groups is greater than the variability within groups, which can indicate that the groups are significantly different from one another.

ANOVA is based on the concept of partitioning the total variance in a dataset into two components: variance due to differences between group means (also known as "between-group variance") and variance due to differences within each group (also known as "within-group variance"). By comparing these two sources of variance, ANOVA can help researchers determine whether any observed differences between groups are statistically significant, or whether they could have occurred by chance.

ANOVA is a widely used technique in many areas of research, including biology, psychology, engineering, and business. It is often used to compare the means of two or more experimental groups, such as a treatment group and a control group, to determine whether the treatment had a significant effect. ANOVA can also be used to compare the means of different populations or subgroups within a population, to identify any differences that may exist between them.

In medical terms, a hand is the part of the human body that is attached to the forearm and consists of the carpus (wrist), metacarpus, and phalanges. It is made up of 27 bones, along with muscles, tendons, ligaments, and other soft tissues. The hand is a highly specialized organ that is capable of performing a wide range of complex movements and functions, including grasping, holding, manipulating objects, and communicating through gestures. It is also richly innervated with sensory receptors that provide information about touch, temperature, pain, and proprioception (the sense of the position and movement of body parts).

Motor skills are defined as the abilities required to plan, control and execute physical movements. They involve a complex interplay between the brain, nerves, muscles, and the environment. Motor skills can be broadly categorized into two types: fine motor skills, which involve small, precise movements (such as writing or picking up small objects), and gross motor skills, which involve larger movements using the arms, legs, and torso (such as crawling, walking, or running).

Motor skills development is an essential aspect of child growth and development, and it continues to evolve throughout adulthood. Difficulties with motor skills can impact a person's ability to perform daily activities and can be associated with various neurological and musculoskeletal conditions.

Auditory evoked potentials (AEP) are medical tests that measure the electrical activity in the brain in response to sound stimuli. These tests are often used to assess hearing function and neural processing in individuals, particularly those who cannot perform traditional behavioral hearing tests.

There are several types of AEP tests, including:

1. Brainstem Auditory Evoked Response (BAER) or Brainstem Auditory Evoked Potentials (BAEP): This test measures the electrical activity generated by the brainstem in response to a click or tone stimulus. It is often used to assess the integrity of the auditory nerve and brainstem pathways, and can help diagnose conditions such as auditory neuropathy and retrocochlear lesions.
2. Middle Latency Auditory Evoked Potentials (MLAEP): This test measures the electrical activity generated by the cortical auditory areas of the brain in response to a click or tone stimulus. It is often used to assess higher-level auditory processing, and can help diagnose conditions such as auditory processing disorders and central auditory dysfunction.
3. Long Latency Auditory Evoked Potentials (LLAEP): This test measures the electrical activity generated by the cortical auditory areas of the brain in response to a complex stimulus, such as speech. It is often used to assess language processing and cognitive function, and can help diagnose conditions such as learning disabilities and dementia.

Overall, AEP tests are valuable tools for assessing hearing and neural function in individuals who cannot perform traditional behavioral hearing tests or who have complex neurological conditions.

The motor cortex is a region in the frontal lobe of the brain that is responsible for controlling voluntary movements. It is involved in planning, initiating, and executing movements of the limbs, body, and face. The motor cortex contains neurons called Betz cells, which have large cell bodies and are responsible for transmitting signals to the spinal cord to activate muscles. Damage to the motor cortex can result in various movement disorders such as hemiplegia or paralysis on one side of the body.

'Task Performance and Analysis' is not a commonly used medical term, but it can be found in the field of rehabilitation medicine and ergonomics. It refers to the process of evaluating and understanding how a specific task is performed, in order to identify any physical or cognitive demands placed on an individual during the performance of that task. This information can then be used to inform the design of interventions, such as workplace modifications or rehabilitation programs, aimed at improving task performance or reducing the risk of injury.

In a medical context, task performance and analysis may be used in the assessment and treatment of individuals with disabilities or injuries, to help them return to work or other activities of daily living. The analysis involves breaking down the task into its component parts, observing and measuring the physical and cognitive demands of each part, and evaluating the individual's ability to perform those demands. Based on this analysis, recommendations may be made for modifications to the task or the environment, training or education, or assistive devices that can help the individual perform the task more safely and efficiently.

Overall, task performance and analysis is a valuable tool in promoting safe and effective task performance, reducing the risk of injury, and improving functional outcomes for individuals with disabilities or injuries.

'Abnormalities, Multiple' is a broad term that refers to the presence of two or more structural or functional anomalies in an individual. These abnormalities can be present at birth (congenital) or can develop later in life (acquired). They can affect various organs and systems of the body and can vary greatly in severity and impact on a person's health and well-being.

Multiple abnormalities can occur due to genetic factors, environmental influences, or a combination of both. Chromosomal abnormalities, gene mutations, exposure to teratogens (substances that cause birth defects), and maternal infections during pregnancy are some of the common causes of multiple congenital abnormalities.

Examples of multiple congenital abnormalities include Down syndrome, Turner syndrome, and VATER/VACTERL association. Acquired multiple abnormalities can result from conditions such as trauma, infection, degenerative diseases, or cancer.

The medical evaluation and management of individuals with multiple abnormalities depend on the specific abnormalities present and their impact on the individual's health and functioning. A multidisciplinary team of healthcare professionals is often involved in the care of these individuals to address their complex needs.

"Sex characteristics" refer to the anatomical, chromosomal, and genetic features that define males and females. These include both primary sex characteristics (such as reproductive organs like ovaries or testes) and secondary sex characteristics (such as breasts or facial hair) that typically develop during puberty. Sex characteristics are primarily determined by the presence of either X or Y chromosomes, with XX individuals usually developing as females and XY individuals usually developing as males, although variations and exceptions to this rule do occur.

Hominidae, also known as the "great apes," is a family of primates that includes humans (Homo sapiens), orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus), gorillas (Gorilla gorilla and Gorilla beringei), bonobos (Pan paniscus), and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). This family is characterized by their upright walking ability, although not all members exhibit this trait. Hominidae species are known for their high intelligence, complex social structures, and expressive facial features. They share a common ancestor with the Old World monkeys, and fossil records suggest that this split occurred around 25 million years ago.

Embryonic development is the series of growth and developmental stages that occur during the formation and early growth of the embryo. In humans, this stage begins at fertilization (when the sperm and egg cell combine) and continues until the end of the 8th week of pregnancy. During this time, the fertilized egg (now called a zygote) divides and forms a blastocyst, which then implants into the uterus. The cells in the blastocyst begin to differentiate and form the three germ layers: the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. These germ layers will eventually give rise to all of the different tissues and organs in the body.

Embryonic development is a complex and highly regulated process that involves the coordinated interaction of genetic and environmental factors. It is characterized by rapid cell division, migration, and differentiation, as well as programmed cell death (apoptosis) and tissue remodeling. Abnormalities in embryonic development can lead to birth defects or other developmental disorders.

It's important to note that the term "embryo" is used to describe the developing organism from fertilization until the end of the 8th week of pregnancy in humans, after which it is called a fetus.

Magnetic Resonance Angiography (MRA) is a non-invasive medical imaging technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of the blood vessels or arteries within the body. It is a type of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) that focuses specifically on the circulatory system.

MRA can be used to diagnose and evaluate various conditions related to the blood vessels, such as aneurysms, stenosis (narrowing of the vessel), or the presence of plaques or tumors. It can also be used to plan for surgeries or other treatments related to the vascular system. The procedure does not use radiation and is generally considered safe, although people with certain implants like pacemakers may not be able to have an MRA due to safety concerns.

Activin receptors, type I are serine/threonine kinase receptors that play a crucial role in the activin signaling pathway. There are two types of activin receptors, Type I (ALK2, ALK4, and ALK7) and Type II (ActRII and ActRIIB). Activin receptors, type I are transmembrane proteins that bind to activins, which are cytokines belonging to the TGF-β superfamily.

Once activated by binding to activins, activin receptors, type I recruit and phosphorylate type II receptors, leading to the activation of downstream signaling pathways, including SMAD proteins. Activated SMAD proteins then translocate to the nucleus and regulate gene expression, thereby mediating various cellular responses such as proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, and migration.

Mutations in activin receptors, type I have been implicated in several human diseases, including cancer, fibrosis, and developmental disorders. Therefore, understanding the structure and function of activin receptors, type I is essential for developing novel therapeutic strategies to treat these diseases.

The auditory cortex is the region of the brain that is responsible for processing and analyzing sounds, including speech. It is located in the temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex, specifically within the Heschl's gyrus and the surrounding areas. The auditory cortex receives input from the auditory nerve, which carries sound information from the inner ear to the brain.

The auditory cortex is divided into several subregions that are responsible for different aspects of sound processing, such as pitch, volume, and location. These regions work together to help us recognize and interpret sounds in our environment, allowing us to communicate with others and respond appropriately to our surroundings. Damage to the auditory cortex can result in hearing loss or difficulty understanding speech.

"Xenopus" is not a medical term, but it is a genus of highly invasive aquatic frogs native to sub-Saharan Africa. They are often used in scientific research, particularly in developmental biology and genetics. The most commonly studied species is Xenopus laevis, also known as the African clawed frog.

In a medical context, Xenopus might be mentioned when discussing their use in research or as a model organism to study various biological processes or diseases.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Biological evolution is the change in the genetic composition of populations of organisms over time, from one generation to the next. It is a process that results in descendants differing genetically from their ancestors. Biological evolution can be driven by several mechanisms, including natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, and mutation. These processes can lead to changes in the frequency of alleles (variants of a gene) within populations, resulting in the development of new species and the extinction of others over long periods of time. Biological evolution provides a unifying explanation for the diversity of life on Earth and is supported by extensive evidence from many different fields of science, including genetics, paleontology, comparative anatomy, and biogeography.

Myelinated nerve fibers are neuronal processes that are surrounded by a myelin sheath, a fatty insulating substance that is produced by Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system and oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system. This myelin sheath helps to increase the speed of electrical impulse transmission, also known as action potentials, along the nerve fiber. The myelin sheath has gaps called nodes of Ranvier where the electrical impulses can jump from one node to the next, which also contributes to the rapid conduction of signals. Myelinated nerve fibers are typically found in the peripheral nerves and the optic nerve, but not in the central nervous system (CNS) tracts that are located within the brain and spinal cord.

Tretinoin is a form of vitamin A that is used in the treatment of acne vulgaris, fine wrinkles, and dark spots caused by aging or sun damage. It works by increasing the turnover of skin cells, helping to unclog pores and promote the growth of new skin cells. Tretinoin is available as a cream, gel, or liquid, and is usually applied to the affected area once a day in the evening. Common side effects include redness, dryness, and peeling of the skin. It is important to avoid sunlight and use sunscreen while using tretinoin, as it can make the skin more sensitive to the sun.

A syndrome, in medical terms, is a set of symptoms that collectively indicate or characterize a disease, disorder, or underlying pathological process. It's essentially a collection of signs and/or symptoms that frequently occur together and can suggest a particular cause or condition, even though the exact physiological mechanisms might not be fully understood.

For example, Down syndrome is characterized by specific physical features, cognitive delays, and other developmental issues resulting from an extra copy of chromosome 21. Similarly, metabolic syndromes like diabetes mellitus type 2 involve a group of risk factors such as obesity, high blood pressure, high blood sugar, and abnormal cholesterol or triglyceride levels that collectively increase the risk of heart disease, stroke, and diabetes.

It's important to note that a syndrome is not a specific diagnosis; rather, it's a pattern of symptoms that can help guide further diagnostic evaluation and management.

Statistics, as a topic in the context of medicine and healthcare, refers to the scientific discipline that involves the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of numerical data or quantifiable data in a meaningful and organized manner. It employs mathematical theories and models to draw conclusions, make predictions, and support evidence-based decision-making in various areas of medical research and practice.

Some key concepts and methods in medical statistics include:

1. Descriptive Statistics: Summarizing and visualizing data through measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) and dispersion (range, variance, standard deviation).
2. Inferential Statistics: Drawing conclusions about a population based on a sample using hypothesis testing, confidence intervals, and statistical modeling.
3. Probability Theory: Quantifying the likelihood of events or outcomes in medical scenarios, such as diagnostic tests' sensitivity and specificity.
4. Study Designs: Planning and implementing various research study designs, including randomized controlled trials (RCTs), cohort studies, case-control studies, and cross-sectional surveys.
5. Sampling Methods: Selecting a representative sample from a population to ensure the validity and generalizability of research findings.
6. Multivariate Analysis: Examining the relationships between multiple variables simultaneously using techniques like regression analysis, factor analysis, or cluster analysis.
7. Survival Analysis: Analyzing time-to-event data, such as survival rates in clinical trials or disease progression.
8. Meta-Analysis: Systematically synthesizing and summarizing the results of multiple studies to provide a comprehensive understanding of a research question.
9. Biostatistics: A subfield of statistics that focuses on applying statistical methods to biological data, including medical research.
10. Epidemiology: The study of disease patterns in populations, which often relies on statistical methods for data analysis and interpretation.

Medical statistics is essential for evidence-based medicine, clinical decision-making, public health policy, and healthcare management. It helps researchers and practitioners evaluate the effectiveness and safety of medical interventions, assess risk factors and outcomes associated with diseases or treatments, and monitor trends in population health.

Photic stimulation is a medical term that refers to the exposure of the eyes to light, specifically repetitive pulses of light, which is used as a method in various research and clinical settings. In neuroscience, it's often used in studies related to vision, circadian rhythms, and brain function.

In a clinical context, photic stimulation is sometimes used in the diagnosis of certain medical conditions such as seizure disorders (like epilepsy). By observing the response of the brain to this light stimulus, doctors can gain valuable insights into the functioning of the brain and the presence of any neurological disorders.

However, it's important to note that photic stimulation should be conducted under the supervision of a trained healthcare professional, as improper use can potentially trigger seizures in individuals who are susceptible to them.

Functional and structural differences between left and right brain hemispheres can be found in many other vertebrates and also ... This has been called the "laterality-valence hypothesis". One sub-set of laterality in animals is limb dominance. Preferential ... testing for laterality can be a useful predictor of a successful guide dog. Knowing a guide dog's laterality can also be useful ... causing strains to differ in the degree of laterality of its individuals. Long-term memory of previously gained laterality in ...
Gur RE, Chin S (1999). "Laterality in functional brain imaging studies of schizophrenia". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 25 (1): 141- ... Similarly, there is now evidence to suggest there may be a number of functional and structural anomalies in the brains of some ... Some functional neuroimaging studies have also shown that, after taking amphetamine, patients diagnosed with schizophrenia show ... Arinami T, Gao M, Hamaguchi H, Toru M (April 1997). "A functional polymorphism in the promoter region of the dopamine D2 ...
Conditions include leftward functional hemispheric lateralization, loss of laterality for language comprehension, a reduction ... Split-brain Laterality Lateralization of brain function Alien hand syndrome Michael Gazzaniga Roger Wolcott Sperry Nielsen, J. ... Studies have found that individuals with schizophrenia have a lack in brain asymmetry thus reducing the functional efficiency ... right-brain hypothesis with resting state functional connectivity magnetic resonance imaging. PLOS ONE, 8(8), e71275. LeMay M ( ...
Wainwright, P. C. (2006). "Functional Morphology of the Pharyngeal Jaw Apparatus". In Shadwick, R. E.; Lauder, G. V. (eds.). ... development and a genetic locus for jaw laterality in Lake Tanganyika scale-eating cichlids". BMC Biology. 8 (1): 8. doi: ... Mehta, Rita S.; Wainwright, Peter C. (May 2008). "Functional morphology of the pharyngeal jaw apparatus in moray eels". Journal ... Stewart, T. A.; Albertson, R. C. (2010). "Evolution of a unique predatory feeding apparatus: functional anatomy, ...
cite web}}: ,author= has generic name (help) Janovetz, Jeff (2005). "Functional morphology of feeding in the scale-eating ... development and a genetic locus for jaw laterality in Lake Tanganyika scale-eating cichlids". BMC Biology. 8 (1): 8. doi: ... Stewart, T. A.; Albertson, R. C. (2010). "Evolution of a unique predatory feeding apparatus: functional anatomy, ...
Stewart, T.A.; Albertson, R.C. (2010). "Evolution of a unique predatory feeding apparatus: functional anatomy, development and ... a genetic locus for jaw laterality in Lake Tanganyika scale-eating cichlids". BMC Biology. 8 (1): 8. doi:10.1186/1741-7007-8-8 ...
Right-handed snakes: convergent evolution of asymmetry for functional specialization. Biology Letters 3:169-172. Hoso M, Hori M ... development and a genetic locus for jaw laterality in Lake Tanganyika scale-eating cichlids". BMC Biology. 8 (1): 8. doi: ... Stewart, T. A.; Albertson, R. C. (2010). "Evolution of a unique predatory feeding apparatus: functional anatomy, ... "Post-autotomy claw regrowth and functional recovery in the snapping shrimp Alpheus angulosus". Marine and Freshwater Behaviour ...
... and Roger Wolcott Sperry in the 1960s on split-brain patients led to an even greater understanding of functional laterality. ... Because of this functional division of the left and right sides of the body and of the space that surrounds it, the processing ... Furthermore, the functional map of the motor and sensory cortices is fairly consistent from person to person; Penfield and ... Plasticity and Functional Recovery of the brain after trauma". Psychology Hub. Retrieved 10 January 2023. "Lateralization of ...
Mazzarello, Paolo (2011). "Cesare Lombroso: an anthropologist between evolution and degeneration". Functional Neurology. 26 (2 ... Laterality: Asymmetries of Body, Brain and Cognition. 18 (4): 416-436. doi:10.1080/1357650x.2012.697171. PMID 22757625. S2CID ... Laterality. 18 (4): 416-436. doi:10.1080/1357650X.2012.697171. PMID 22757625. S2CID 30990112. Bailey, Frankie Y. (Winter 2005 ...
2002). "Sex differences in functional brain activation during a lexical visual field task". Brain and Language. 80 (1): 97-105 ... 2006). "Sex differences in cerebral laterality of language and visuospatial processing". Brain and Language. 98 (2): 150-158. ... 2003). "Sex differences in semantic language processing: A functional MRI study". Brain and Language. 84 (2): 264-272. doi: ... 1995). "Sex differences in the functional organization of the brain for language". Nature. 373 (6515): 607-609. Bibcode: ...
He founded the journal Laterality in 1995 and co-edited it until 2008. He also was a member of numerous editorial boards and ... doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.10.016 Milivojevic, B., Hamm, J. P., & Corballis, M. C. (2009). "Functional neuroanatomy of ... Nelson-Hall (1983) Human Laterality, Academic Press (1984) Memory Mechanisms: A Tribute to Graham Goddard with Cliff Abraham ... doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0301 245 citations (Semantic Scholar/DOI) [2022-07-25]. Corballis, Michael C. (1989). Laterality and ...
The unusual functional laterality in speech production (e.g. right hemisphere auditory processing) found in some individuals ...
Stewart, T. A. and Albertson, R. C. (2010) "Evolution of a unique predatory feeding apparatus: functional anatomy, development ... and a genetic locus for jaw laterality in Lake Tanganyika scale-eating cichlids" BMC Biology, 8 (1): 8. doi:10.1186/1741-7007-8 ...
... reflecting a significant sex difference in the magnitude of laterality effects, with men obtaining larger laterality effects ... Kimura, Doreen (1967). "Functional Asymmetry of the Brain in Dichotic Listening". Cortex. 3 (2): 163-178. doi:10.1016/S0010- ... In order to obtain results, a Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was used by Jancke et al. (2001) to determine the ... In 1994, M.F. Green and colleagues tried to relate "the functional integration of the left hemisphere in hallucinating and ...
While developed for functional status evaluation, the HCS prototype ultimately led to the discovery of the brain vital signs ... March 15, 2012). "Spatial MEG Laterality maps for language: Clinical applications in epilepsy." Human Brain Mapping. Vol. 34:8 ... Gawryluk JR, Mazerolle EL and D'Arcy RCN (August 8, 2014) "Does functional MRI detect activation in white matter? A review of ... Gawryluk, Jodie R.; Mazerolle, Erin L.; Beyea, Steven D.; D'Arcy, Ryan C. N. (2014-08-04). "Functional MRI activation in white ...
Evidence supports its use in treating pain and edema associated with CRPS, but it does not seem to increase functional ability ... laterality reconstruction, (b) motor imagery, and (c) mirror therapy. Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation (TENS) ... After capturing a set of baseline images, some labs further require the patient to undergo cold-water autonomic-functional- ... a functional MRI study". Pain. 114 (1-2): 93-103. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2004.12.001. PMID 15733635. S2CID 19187294. Howard W (2012 ...
Green S (2020-05-03). "Dyslexia and neuroscience: the geschwind-galaburda hypothesis 30 years later". Laterality. 25 (3): 390- ... "Atypical cerebral lateralisation in adults with compensated developmental dyslexia demonstrated using functional transcranial ...
A 2021 meta-synthesis of existing literature found that sex accounted for 1% of the brain's structure or laterality, finding ... studies indicates that male and female brains cannot always be assumed to be identical from either a structural or functional ...
Further studies have asked if there is a topological or functional advantage of the decussations. The visual map theory was ... Laterality, 19 (3): 325-339, doi:10.1080/1357650X.2013.824461, PMID 23931149, S2CID 30077243 Ramón y Cajal, Santiago (1898). " ... Llinás, R.R. (2003). "The contribution of Santiago Ramón y Cajal to functional neuroscience". Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 4 (1): 77-80 ...
Recently, work has shown that the Nodal-Pitx2 pathway is present and functional in the non-vertebrate deuterostomes (tunicates ... mutations that affect cilia formation do not cause laterality defects in chicken. Instead, chickens establish LR asymmetry ...
McClure MM, Harvey PD, Bowie CR, Iacoviello B, Siever LJ (March 2013). "Functional outcomes, functional capacity, and cognitive ... evidence for gender and laterality effects". Schizophrenia Research. 115 (2-3): 290-292. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2009.04.028. PMC ... People with StPD are more likely to only have a high school education, to be unemployed, and to have significant functional ... February 2002). "Functional impairment in patients with schizotypal, borderline, avoidant, or obsessive-compulsive personality ...
Functional neuroimaging methods such as PET and fMRI are used to study the complex neural mechanisms of the human language ... Most neuroimaging studies show no laterality differences between monolingual and bilingual speakers, supporting the hypothesis ... Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), representations of L1 and L2 have been found in spatially isolated parts of ... Functional imaging methods have revealed that holding proficiency constant leads to age of acquisition not having a large ...
Xenakis, Ioannis; Arnellos, Argyris; Darzentas, John (1 August 2012). "The functional role of emotions in aesthetic judgment". ... Powell, W. Ryan; Schirillo, James A. (1 August 2011). "Hemispheric laterality measured in Rembrandt's portraits using pupil ...
A 2021 meta-synthesis of existing literature found that sex accounted for 1% of the brain's structure or laterality, finding ... studies indicates that male and female brains cannot always be assumed to be identical from either a structural or functional ... A 2021 meta-synthesis of existing literature found that sex accounted for 1% of the brain's structure or laterality, finding ...
Laterality, 11, 373-393. Jeffery, G. (2001). Architecture of the optic chiasm and the mechanisms that sculpt its development. ... A critical assumption has been that differences in performance with lateralized stimuli nearly always reflect functional ... Banich, M.T. (2003). The divided visual field technique in laterality and interhemispheric integration. In K. Hughdahl (Ed.), ... if a cerebral hemisphere has functional advantages with some aspect of a particular task, an experimenter might observe ...
Anatomo-functional study of the temporo-parieto-occipital region: dissection, tractographic and brain mapping evidence from a ... A Quantitative Tractography Study Into the Connectivity, Segmentation and Laterality of the Human Inferior Longitudinal ... Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. Feb 4;111(5):1981-6. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1324037111 Herbet G, Zemmoura I, Duffau H. Functional Anatomy ... Based on these recent findings ILF can be described as a multi-functional white matter pathway involved in visually guided ...
The valence-specific laterality effect in free viewing conditions: The influence of sex, handedness, and response bias. Brain ... Functional asymmetry of emotions in primates: new findings in chimpanzees. Brain Research Bulletin. 57: 561-564, 2002. Vytal, K ... Below are a few regions and structure involved in emotional processing that show functional lateralization. Using a PET scan, ... The vast majority of the data comes from functional imaging, skin conductance response (SCR), standardized tests ranging from ...
Functional approaches rely on understanding what roles emotions play in humans and examining that role in animals. A widely ... This has been called the "laterality-valence hypothesis". In humans, a distinction is sometimes made between "basic" and " ... Mendl, M.; Burman, O.H.P.; Paul, E.S. (2010). "An integrative and functional framework for the study of animal emotion and mood ... Dawkins suggests that merely mechanistic or functional research will provide the answer on its own, but suggests that a mixture ...
There is little functional plasticity observed in partial and complete callosotomies; however, much more plasticity can be seen ... Farah, Martha J. (1986). "The laterality of mental image generation: A test with normal subjects". Neuropsychologia. 24 (4): ... There is little functional plasticity observed in partial and complete callosotomies on adults, the most neuroplasticity is ... Funnell M. G.; Corballis P. M.; Gazzaniga M. S. (2000). "Insights into the functional specificity of the human corpus callosum ...
Data from magnetic resonance imaging and functional magnetic resonance imaging has shown that a smaller volume of the fusiform ... Smith WM (July 2000). "Hemispheric and facial asymmetry: gender differences". Laterality. 5 (3): 251-8. doi:10.1080/713754376. ... Haxby, JV; Horwitz, B; Ungerleider, LG; Maisog, JM; Pietrini, P; Grady, CL (1 November 1994). "The functional organization of ... Gorno-Tempini, M. L.; Price, CJ (1 October 2001). "Identification of famous faces and buildings: A functional neuroimaging ...
Exposure of postnatal rats to a static magnetic field of 0.14 T influences functional laterality of the hippocampal high- ... The results suggest functional specialization of both hippocampi in rats. Choline carriers could be involved as secondary ...
In future research we suggest that consistency of laterality across tasks might have more functional significance than strength ... Language laterality has mostly been studied with fTCD using a word generation task, but it is not clear whether this is optimal ... Subtracting list generation LI from sentence generation LI did not affect the strength of the laterality index. Conclusions: ... The comparison list generation task was not systematically lateralised, but nevertheless laterality indices (LIs) from this ...
SM, LF and NK performed and analysed all functional studies. All authors assisted in the assembly and editing of the manuscript ... A human laterality disorder associated with recessive CCDC11 mutation. J Med Genet 2012;49:386-90. doi:10.1136/jmedgenet-2011- ... Loss-of-function mutations in the EGF-CFC gene CFC1 are associated with human left-right laterality defects. Nat Genet 2000;26: ... Background Laterality in the vertebrate embryo is determined by left-right asymmetric gene expression driven by the flow of ...
2023) Generalized models for quantifying laterality using functional transcranial Doppler ultrasound. Human Brain Mapping, 44 ( ... WRAP-generalized-models-quantifying-laterality-using-functional-transcranial-Doppler-ultrasound-Thompson-2022.pdf - Published ... We consider how analysis of brain lateralization using functional transcranial Doppler ultrasound (fTCD) data can be brought in ... Brain -- Magnetic resonance imaging, Transcranial Doppler ultrasonography, Laterality, Linear models (Statistics), ...
Functional Laterality* * Macaca radiata* * Male * Task Performance and Analysis* Grants and funding * RR05321/RR/NCRR NIH HHS/ ...
The development of a pyramidotomy lesion model in mice, together with behavioural tests which can reliably measure functional ...
... anthropometrical and functional spinal. Author. Zurita Ortega, F.; Fernández García, R.; Rojas Ruiz, F.J.; Cepero González, M. ... Lateralidad manual y variables geográficas, antropométricas, funcionales y raquídeas/ Manual laterality and geographic ...
Functional and structural differences between left and right brain hemispheres can be found in many other vertebrates and also ... This has been called the "laterality-valence hypothesis". One sub-set of laterality in animals is limb dominance. Preferential ... testing for laterality can be a useful predictor of a successful guide dog. Knowing a guide dogs laterality can also be useful ... causing strains to differ in the degree of laterality of its individuals. Long-term memory of previously gained laterality in ...
We calculated functional connectivity patterns of whole-brain intrinsic networks and examined whether a sparse linear ... Subjects underwent resting-state functional MRI and a short period of training (80-90 min) in a working memory task on separate ... Therefore, we hypothesized that learning performance is determined by functional connections among intrinsic networks that ... Individual learning performance of cognitive function is related to functional connections within task-activated regions ...
The linguistic comparison of 2 cases subsequent to surgically induced functional inhibition of the Subthalamic Nucleus (STN) in ... Whelan, B-M, Murdoch, BE, Theodoros, DG, Hall, B & Silburn, PA 2003, Exploring the notion of subthalamic laterality: The ... title = "Exploring the notion of subthalamic laterality: The linguistic comparison of 2 cases subsequent to surgically induced ... Exploring the notion of subthalamic laterality: The linguistic comparison of 2 cases subsequent to surgically induced ...
Functional Laterality • Herpesvirus 6, Human • Infant • Infant, Newborn • Motion • Motion Perception • Neural Pathways • ... Functional architecture of the visual cortex; role of sensory experience in development One important goal of neuroscience is ... NEUROSCI 380L.01L, FUNCTIONAL NEUROANATOMY Synopsis LSRC B029, M 03:20 PM-05:50 PM (also cross-listed as EVANTH 337L.01L, PSY ... It is precisely this increase in neural capacity that makes possible the rich repertoire of behavior associated with functional ...
Scientists uncover a crucial component for restoring functional activity after spinal cord injury In a new study in mice, a ... Scientists identify key proteins that regulate organ laterality In order to keep track of their environment, cells use cilia, ... Associate Director in the Functional Genomics department at AstraZeneca about the application of arrayed CRISPR screening for ... and Harvard University have uncovered a crucial component for restoring functional activity after spinal cord injury. ...
An element of great interest in functional connectivity is homotopic connectivity (HC), namely the connectivity between two ... Tomasi D, Volkow ND (2012) Laterality patterns of brain functional connectivity: Gender effects. Cereb Cortex 22:1455-1462. ... 2020). Furthermore, hormonal fluctuation during the menstrual cycle also influences functional laterality (Hausmann et al. 2002 ... Jin X, Liang X, Gong G (2020) Functional integration between the two brain hemispheres: evidence from the homotopic functional ...
Functional MRI of memory in the hippocampus: Laterality indices may be more meaningful if calculated from whole voxel ... Quantitative comparison of functional MRI and direct electrocortical stimulation for functional mapping. Int J Med Robot. 2007 ... Effect of disease and recovery on functional anatomy in brain tumor patients: insights from functional MRI and diffusion tensor ... Functional imaging. Preface. Neurosurg Clin N Am. 2011 Apr; 22(2):xiii-xiv.. View in: PubMed. Development of a clinical ...
This may suggest that the atypical functional laterality in autism results from altered developmental trajectories. In ... they show subtle changes in the asymmetry of the brain structure and a lower laterality of functional activation, in terms of ... The researchers found that there are large differences in the asymmetry of functional organization in autistic and non-autistic ... The researchers found that there are large differences in the asymmetry of functional organization in autistic and non-autistic ...
What functional imaging of the human brain can tell about handedness and language - Volume 26 Issue 2 ... Anatomo-functional studies in humans point out that handedness and language-related functional laterality are not correlated - ... What functional imaging of the human brain can tell about handedness and language. Published online by Cambridge University ... What functional imaging of the human brain can tell about handedness and language ...
We categorized cerebral lateralization as left, right or bilateral, and compared proportions with each type of laterality with ... We used functional transcranial Doppler ultrasound (fTCD) to assess cerebral blood flow during language production in 57 four- ... Figure 2: Language laterality index on functional transcranial Doppler ultrasound by language status.. Download full-size image ... Language laterality measures from functional transcranial Doppler ultrasound and handedness indices compared for four age ...
This may suggest that the atypical functional laterality in autism results from altered developmental trajectories. In ... they show subtle changes in the asymmetry of the brain structure and a lower laterality of functional activation, in terms of ... The researchers found that there are large differences in the asymmetry of functional organization in autistic and non-autistic ... The researchers found that there are large differences in the asymmetry of functional organization in autistic and non-autistic ...
Ta-Shma, A., Perles, Z., Yaacov, B., Werner, M., Frumkin, A., Rein, A.J.J.T., and Elpeleg, O. (2015). A human laterality ... Data from the functional screens are available in the main text or the supplemental tables. Code for functional assays are ... Functional unknomics: closing the knowledge gap to accelerate biomedical research. Joao Rocha, Satish Arcot Jayaram, Tim J. ... Functional unknomics: closing the knowledge gap to accelerate biomedical research Message Subject (Your Name) has forwarded a ...
Edinburgh Handedness Inventory laterality quotients (Oldfield, 1971) ranged from 58 to 100, indicating strong right-hand ... For each functional time series, t tests were conducted at each voxel to measure changes in signal intensity between comparison ... 1994) Activation of the prefrontal cortex in a nonspatial working memory task with functional MRI. Hum Brain Mapp 1:293-304. ... 1994) Functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI) of the human brain. J Neurosci Methods 54:171-187. ...
Corpus callosum white matter microstructures links to cognitive performance and functional laterality in preterm and term born ...
Francks, C. (2020). Peer Review Report For: Heritability of language laterality assessed by functional transcranial Doppler ... Francks, C. (2019). Peer Review Report For: Negligible heritability of language laterality assessed by functional transcranial ...
Investigating the functional role of NFXL1 in the developing brain and how it relates to speech and language development. ... data suggest that the biology underlying the patterning of structural asymmetries may also contribute to behavioural laterality ... Our functional characterization suggested that the rare variant influences the ATPase activity of SPCA2. Thus, our results ... First, we compared the groups on measures of overall CNV burden: number of CNVs, total span of CNVs, and likely functional ...
Functional connectivity and laterality of the motor and sensory components in the volitional swallowing network. Experimental ... FMRI functional connectivity of the inferior frontal gyrus Neuroimage. 11: S294. DOI: 10.1016/S1053-8119(00)91226-6 0.729. ... Neural modeling and functional neuroimaging. Human Brain Mapping. 1: 269-83. PMID 24591196 DOI: 10.1002/Hbm.460010405 0.365. ... The pattern of functional coupling of brain regions in the awake rat. Brain Research. 369: 1-11. PMID 3697734 DOI: 10.1016/0006 ...
More studies are needed to better investigate social laterality, possibly distinguishing more categories of social interaction ... Social laterality in non-human primates has started to attract attention in recent years. The positioning of individuals during ... Fernández-Carriba, S.; Loeches, A.; Morcillo, A.; Hopkins, W.D. Functional asymmetry of emotions in primates: New findings in ... Deckel, W.A. Laterality of aggressive responses in Anolis. J. Exp. Zool. 1995, 272, 194-200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] ...
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) can be used to non-invasively map language function in the human brain. However ... An fMRI study of the relative laterality of dominant and non-dominant hand sensory function. Proc. Intl. Soc. Mag. Reson. Med. ... The method was first implemented and made publicly available in a software package called the iBrain Laterality Toolbox. This ... The method can also be applied to quantitatively assess laterality of other brain functions. ...
Other functional elements, which do not bind Bru and are positioned close to the 3 end of the RNA, act in the oocyte and are ... Planar cell polarity signalling regulates cell adhesion properties in progenitors of the zebrafish laterality organ.. ... Morphological and functional analysis of heart tubes revealed smaller luminal areas and thicker walls accompanied by moderately ... Expression of this module from the Acf1 genomic locus leads to packaging defects in the absence of functional ACF1, suggesting ...
Further investigation is needed to demonstrate functional gait asymmetry and its relationship to laterality, taking into ... laterality has been cited as an explanation for the existence of functional differences between the lower extremities, although ... These functional differences were probably related to the contribution of each limb in carrying out the tasks of propulsion and ... Symmetry or asymmetry in the actions of the lower extremities during walking and the possible effect of laterality on gait are ...
Discussion of functional neuroanatomy and laterality, as well as clinical implications of dysfunction of these networks with ... Functional Endocrinology. Review of the physiology and the key concepts in functional endocrinology. Information is provided on ... Functional Endocrinology. Review of the physiology and the key concepts in functional endocrinology. Information is provided on ... Functional Endocrinology. Review of the physiology and the key concepts in functional endocrinology. Information on the effects ...
Preprocessing of functional data. Request a detailed protocol Functional data were analysed using FMRIBs expert analysis tool ... B) To spatially identify regions of increased white-matter laterality, laterality indices were computed for each slice along ... Decreased functional asymmetry in hand region functional connectivity during rest is associated with increased residual arm ... To study functional changes in one-handers, voxel-wise alterations in resting-state functional connectivity to the missing ...
  • The term laterality refers to the preference most humans show for one side of their body over the other. (wikipedia.org)
  • Speech-induced striatal dopamine release is left lateralized and coupled to functional striatal circuits in healthy humans: A combined PET, fMRI and DTI study , Neuroimage, 70: 21-32, 2013. (nih.gov)
  • Thus, one in five persons has a handedness that is the opposite for which they are wired (per laterality of command center or brainedness, as determined by reaction time study mentioned above). (wikipedia.org)
  • Because the relationship between handedness and language laterality is subtle (e.g. (frontiersin.org)
  • Four functional preferences (handedness, footedness, eyedness, earedness) and three postural lateral preferences (hand-clasping, arm-folding, leg-crossing) were assessed in 628 Germans (252 men, 376 women) aged between19 and 90 years. (wayne.edu)
  • Handedness as a major determinant of functional cradling bias. (bvsalud.org)
  • Overall a right laterality preference in vestibular processing could be observed from both functional and structural data. (uni-muenchen.de)
  • Laterality: Functional Asymmetry in the Intact Brain. (scirp.org)
  • 18. Network asymmetry of motor areas revealed by resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging. (nih.gov)
  • In contrast, few studies have investigated functional asymmetry of the ANS. (atlasofscience.org)
  • They were presented with gaming pictures and the paired mosaic pictures while undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scanning. (nih.gov)
  • Many studies, (in functional magnetic resonance imaging [fMRI] in particular), have avoided any controversy (or, theoretically, unnecessary additional variance) by restricting analysis to dextrals (e.g. (frontiersin.org)
  • 19. Alteration of functional connectivity within visuospatial working memory-related brain network in patients with right temporal lobe epilepsy: a resting-state fMRI study. (nih.gov)
  • It was not clear, whether the MVS effect occurs during functional MRI (fMRI) scanning and whether it affects the BOLD signal or the brain connectivity. (uni-muenchen.de)
  • Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) specific imaging information. (nih.gov)
  • We measured brain activity in seven healthy volunteers by using positron emission tomography (PET) and in eight healthy volunteers by using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). (ox.ac.uk)
  • Functional ultrasound imaging (fUS) is an emerging neuroimaging approach that allows, through the measurement of cerebral blood volume, the study of brain functional connectivity or functional activations with excellent spatial (100 μm) and temporal (1 msec) resolutions and a high sensitivity. (lww.com)
  • Laterality (2021) 26 (5): 564. (mit.edu)
  • [ 9 ] While terminology plays a key role in distinguishing from malingering or feigning symptoms, an accurate term has been challenging because of a limited understanding of the underlying physiology of functional disorders. (medscape.com)
  • The scores were used to test how severity of ADHD symptomatology is associated with valid behavioral indices of functional brain laterality, interhemispheric interaction speed (using the divided visual field paradigm), state regulation, and error-processing. (rug.nl)
  • Coren, S & Porac, C 1980, ' Birth factors and laterality: Effects of birth order, parental age, and birth stress on four indices of lateral preference ', Behavior Genetics , vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 123-138. (psu.edu)
  • A subsidiary hypothesis was that laterality indices will cluster according to two underlying factors corresponding to whether they involve generation of words or sentences, vs. receptive language. (lincoln.ac.uk)
  • The congenital hypothesis has been the predominant theory for kissing laterality, though recent investigations challenge this theory. (springer.com)
  • We hypothesized that mutations altering sites critical to this regulation would lead to functional or developmental abnormalities of the heart. (nih.gov)
  • Imaging in functional movement disorders has increasingly identified structural and functional abnormalities that implicate hypoactivation of the cortical and subcortical motor pathways and increased modulation by the limbic system. (medscape.com)
  • Overall, our findings provide a normative template with which to evaluate potential abnormalities of corticostriatal laterality in addiction and other forms of psychopathology. (nih.gov)
  • PreSMA stimulation changes task-free functional connectivity in the fronto-basal-ganglia that correlates with response inhibition efficiency , Hum Brain Mapp 37(9):3236-49, doi: 10.1002/hbm.23236, 2016. (nih.gov)
  • Detecting functional connectivity during audiovisual integration with MEG: A comparison of connectivity metrics , Brain Connectivity 5: 336-348, 2015. (nih.gov)
  • Interpreting the effects of altered brain anatomical connectivity on functional connectivity: A role for computational neural modeling , Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 7: 649, doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00649, 2013. (nih.gov)
  • 1. Altered functional connectivity differs in stroke survivors with impaired touch sensation following left and right hemisphere lesions. (nih.gov)
  • 4. Changes in Functional Connectivity of Default Mode Network with Auditory and Right Frontoparietal Networks in Poststroke Aphasia. (nih.gov)
  • 5. Discrete Patterns of Cross-Hemispheric Functional Connectivity Underlie Impairments of Spatial Cognition after Stroke. (nih.gov)
  • 9. Reduced thalamocortical functional connectivity in temporal lobe epilepsy. (nih.gov)
  • 10. Abnormal resting-state functional connectivity study in unilateral pulsatile tinnitus patients with single etiology: A seed-based functional connectivity study. (nih.gov)
  • 12. Improvement in Touch Sensation after Stroke is Associated with Resting Functional Connectivity Changes. (nih.gov)
  • 13. Functional connectivity and laterality of the motor and sensory components in the volitional swallowing network. (nih.gov)
  • 16. Transcutaneous Spinal Direct Current Stimulation Alters Resting-State Functional Connectivity. (nih.gov)
  • The structural CVC was characterized by a strong connectivity within each hemisphere, whereas the functional connectome emphasized a substantial synchronicity for homotopic nodes. (uni-muenchen.de)
  • The third project of this thesis investigated whether the resting state functional MRI BOLD signal or the functional connectivity is altered by the magnetic field of the MRI. (uni-muenchen.de)
  • Comparing rsfMRI with and without visual fixation, functional connectivity only differed in visual occipital areas and cerebellar regions. (uni-muenchen.de)
  • We also review the imaging advances in functional neurological disorders, particularly highlighting their insights into the functional and structural connectivity in this condition. (medscape.com)
  • A resting-state functional connectivity fingerprinting approach (n = 261) identified "laterality hotspots"-loci whose profiles of connectivity with ipsilateral and contralateral frontal cortex were disproportionately dissimilar-in the right rostral ventral putamen, left rostral central caudate, and bilateral caudal ventral caudate. (nih.gov)
  • In sum, we find robust and reproducible evidence for striatal loci with disproportionately lateralized connectivity profiles where interindividual differences in laterality magnitude are associated with behavioral capacities on lateralized functions. (nih.gov)
  • Shtyrov, Y., Pihko, E. & Pulvermüller, F. 2005: Determinants of dominance: Is language laterality explained by physical or linguistic features of speech? (fu-berlin.de)
  • Exploring the effect of TCC on hemodynamic modulation in body movements has become possible with the development of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) technique. (nature.com)
  • Functional movement disorders (FMDs) describe involuntary movements and posturing that are not in keeping with a known neurological cause. (medscape.com)
  • These activities will help to develop accurate visual tracking skills, visually guided fine motor movements, directionality and laterality. (fdmvisioncare.com)
  • In other words, laterality in accuracy of force exertion might differ according to the body parts exerting strength and the method of exertion, even in various movements of the same upper limb. (scirp.org)
  • The four functional lateralities are significantly interrelated. (wayne.edu)
  • Differences in the structure and connections of the right and left hemispheres (i.e., "lateralities") help to facilitate these functional specialties. (nih.gov)
  • Logistic regression models indicate no interaction between age and sex for each laterality measure. (wayne.edu)
  • It is well known that 1) neural circuits that control a limb can be affected by a simple contraction of one muscle group in other limbs, and 2) there is a functional interaction between the upper and lower extremity. (atlasofscience.org)
  • These terms imply that the symptoms are derived from a psychological trigger, which is not a requirement to diagnose functional disorders. (medscape.com)
  • are left and right processes lateralized through causal influences, or is the laterality of each function independently influenced? (scirp.org)
  • Does a Causal Relation Exist between the Functional Hemispheric Asymmetries of Visual Processing Subsystems? (scirp.org)
  • 20. Neural correlates of visuospatial bias in patients with left hemisphere stroke: a causal functional contribution analysis based on game theory. (nih.gov)
  • Increasing research in this field has revealed that functional neurological disorders are associated with distinctive imaging changes, which has further informed several theories about its underlying pathophysiology. (medscape.com)
  • Normative quantitation of the dissimilarity between striatal loci's hemispheric connection profiles and its spatial variance across the striatum, and assessment of how interindividual differences relate to function, stands to further the understanding of the role of corticostriatal circuits in lateralized functions and the role of abnormal corticostriatal laterality in neurodevelopmental and other neuropsychiatric disorders. (nih.gov)
  • Until Dr. Horwitz's retirement in 2017, his laboratory studied the neural basis of human cognition, especially auditory and language function, using functional brain imaging and computational neural modeling. (nih.gov)
  • Neuromodeling, functional brain imaging, and language. (nih.gov)
  • The functional overlap of executive control and language processing in bilinguals , Bilingualism 19(3):471-488, doi: 10.1017/S1366728915000188, 2016. (nih.gov)
  • This contrasting pattern raises the question of whether and how language laterality may fractionate within individuals. (lincoln.ac.uk)
  • Neither the online nor fTCD measures supported the notion of a single language laterality factor. (lincoln.ac.uk)
  • Establishing language laterality: does resting-state functional MRI help? (elsevierpure.com)
  • Moreover, at these so-called "laterality hotspots", the magnitude of connectional laterality in a given individual was significantly associated with his/her performance on tasks that gauge lateralized functions (i.e., inhibitory control and language). (nih.gov)
  • Across subjects, greater rightward connectional laterality at the right ventral putamen hotspot and greater leftward connectional laterality at the left rostral caudate hotspot were associated with higher performance on tasks engaging lateralized functions (i.e., response inhibition and language, respectively). (nih.gov)
  • The best known example of brain laterality is that the language center is located in the left hemisphere of the human brain. (atlasofscience.org)
  • 11. Activation of Bilateral Secondary Somatosensory Cortex With Right Hand Touch Stimulation: A Meta-Analysis of Functional Neuroimaging Studies. (nih.gov)
  • This study hypothesize that TCC has altered brain function and aims to explore the effects of TCC on functional connection and effective connection of the prefrontal cortex (PFC), motor cortex (MC), and occipital cortex (OC). (nature.com)
  • Functional Neuroanatomy and Neurophysiology of the Cortex and Brodmann areas. (uschirodirectory.com)
  • In this paper, NIDA scientists provide a normative description of laterality in the circuits that connect the frontal cortex to the striatum - a system centrally implicated in addiction. (nih.gov)
  • Large-scale functional ultrasound imaging of the spinal cord. (lww.com)
  • Functional ultrasound imaging characterizes key components of the mesoscopic spinal hemodynamic response induced by natural or electrically stimulated afferent fibers, and its amplification in inflammatory condition. (lww.com)
  • At Step 2, functional transcranial Doppler ultrasound (fTCD) was used with 230 of these individuals (51% left-handers). (lincoln.ac.uk)
  • The functional connectome of speech control , PloS Biology 13: e1002209. (nih.gov)
  • Statistical Determination of Degree of Laterality. (scirp.org)
  • Discussion of specific objective functional testing to quantify and isolate specific functional lesions. (uschirodirectory.com)
  • report some subtle anatomical differences between dextrals and adextrals, but find no functional activation contrasts in a large sample. (frontiersin.org)
  • Dr. Horwitz's work focused on developing methods for using positron emission tomography and other functional neuroimaging data to determine how different brain regions interact in human subjects. (nih.gov)
  • Certified centers for stroke care have proven to have better outcomes in terms of morbidity, mortality, and eventual functional outcome relative to those without such specialization. (medscape.com)
  • This effort to maximize functional outcome and independence and targeting expensive resources to patients who will benefit is a very important role for physiatrists and other rehabilitation specialists. (medscape.com)
  • Comparison to subacute rehabilitation, typically provided in a skilled nursing facility, in terms of functional outcome, is discussed later in this article. (medscape.com)
  • Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction and Clinically Defined Heart Failure to Predict 90-Day Functional Outcome After Ischemic Stroke. (umassmed.edu)
  • Impact of Leukoaraiosis Severity on the Association of Time to Successful Reperfusion with 90-Day Functional Outcome After Large Vessel Occlusion Stroke. (umassmed.edu)
  • Penumbral imaging and functional outcome in patients with anterior circulation ischaemic stroke treated with endovascular thrombectomy versus medical therapy: a meta-analysis of individual patient-level data. (umassmed.edu)
  • Effect of general anaesthesia on functional outcome in patients with anterior circulation ischaemic stroke having endovascular thrombectomy versus standard care: a meta-analysis of individual patient data. (umassmed.edu)
  • Can quantum probability help analyze the behavior of functional brain networks? (nih.gov)
  • Logistic regression analyses considering age, sex, and interactions between variables were applied to analyze combined effects on laterality measures. (wayne.edu)
  • The aim of this review is to analyze the efficacy of the PBBT as a neuromuscular re-education method of choice for the recovery of functional capacity in individuals with ACL knee rupture. (apunts.org)
  • Structural and functional corticocortical vestibular connectomes (CVC) were derived from state-of-the-art multi-modal neuroimaging data. (uni-muenchen.de)
  • The Structural and Functional Signature of Action Control. (ifado.de)
  • To correlate the structural-vascular-functional changes in type 2 non-proliferative macular telangiectasia (MacTel) using optical coherence tomography (OCT) angiography (OCTA). (biomedcentral.com)
  • For this purpose we study how reward circuits modulate executive function (self-control), interoception, and motivation in the normal human brain including an understanding of the role of brain dopamine signaling, functional brain network interactions and genetics. (nih.gov)
  • The purpose of this article is to highlight the importance of using three functional measures: Auditory Developmental Scale (0-6 years), Caregiver Intake Interview, and Infant-Directed Speech Checklist in SLT. (rrttlc.ro)
  • Approximate statistics are below: Favoring right hand: 88.2% Favoring right foot: 81.0% Favoring right eye: 71.1% Favoring right ear: 59.1% Same hand and foot: 84% Same ear and eye: 61.8% Laterality of motor and sensory control has been the subject of a recent intense study and review. (wikipedia.org)
  • Dopamine transporter single-photon emission computer tomography (DAT-SPECT), detects presynaptic dopaminergic deficit, and can distinguish degenerative parkinsonism from mimics such as essential tremor, drug-induced parkinsonism, and functional parkinsonism with high sensitivity and specificity. (medscape.com)
  • enhanced brain functional connections and relayed the ability of TCC to improve cognition and the anti-memory decline potential. (nature.com)
  • Dichotic Laterality Effects Obtained with Emotional Words. (scirp.org)
  • Simultaneous Verbal and Affective Laterality Effects. (scirp.org)
  • Synopses of all Brodmann and subcortical areas and relation to specific functional networks and hubs. (uschirodirectory.com)
  • If accessible, it compensates for the limitations of the clinical exam and is especially useful where there is overlap of functional symptoms with classical presentations of disease. (medscape.com)
  • The present thesis aimed to address functional brain laterality and symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in adults, from a dimensional perspective. (rug.nl)
  • In sum, findings underline the role of atypical brain laterality in heterogeneous ADHD symptoms in adults. (rug.nl)
  • In contrast to the extensive molecular and functional characterization of blood vascular cells, little is known about the mechanisms that regulate the formation and lineage specific differentiation of lymphatic vascular cells. (nih.gov)
  • During development, molecular markers dictate organ laterality and are essential for organ morphogenesis and function. (nih.gov)
  • This update summarizes the literature to date and explores the role of imaging in the diagnosis of functional movement disorders and in detecting its underlying molecular network. (medscape.com)
  • Functional disorders can either occur independently or accompany classical illness, which makes the distinction challenging with examination alone. (medscape.com)
  • Neuroimaging has been pivotal in identifying and reframing our understanding of functional movement disorders. (medscape.com)
  • This framework challenges our traditional understanding of functional movement disorders as distinct from the deceptive term of 'organic' diseases and proposes that these conditions are not considered as mutually exclusive. (medscape.com)
  • Functional disorders have been previously referenced as psychogenic, somatization or conversion disorder. (medscape.com)
  • Imaging can play a vital role in the diagnosis of functional movement disorders, especially when diagnostic clarity cannot be obtained with clinical exam alone. (medscape.com)
  • Cognitive Decline and Dementia Strategies using a Functional Neurology/Medicine Model. (uschirodirectory.com)
  • Mind, Mood, Mobility: Supporting Independence Among Rural Older Adults at Risk for Functional Decline. (bu.edu)
  • We discuss the potential role of context and emotional lateralization on kissing laterality, and propose future directions to test these predictions. (springer.com)
  • In her role as a research fellow at Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, she worked with a team of geriatrics researchers, primary care clinicians, and community-based organizations to conduct a pilot feasibility trial of a community health worker (CHW)-delivered intervention for older adults with functional limitations in rural northern New England. (bu.edu)
  • When a person is forced to use the hand opposite of the hand that they would naturally use, this is known as forced laterality, or more specifically forced dextrality. (wikipedia.org)
  • Three studies are presented which explore the laterality of not only hand but also foot, eye, and ear, in a total of 5161 individuals, in an attempt to assess any relationship to birth stress. (psu.edu)
  • Laterality is found particularly in functions of fingers, for instance, using a spoon or writing letters, and results from preferential, frequent use of one hand in daily life activities. (scirp.org)
  • reported that an error between demand (50% MVC) and exertion value in pinch strength was less in the dominant than in the non-dominant hand, and laterality was found in its accuracy. (scirp.org)
  • Based on a study by Stone and colleagues, [ 10 ] the term 'functional' was the most preferred by patients. (medscape.com)
  • This study examined laterality and accuracy of force exertion in elbow flexion. (scirp.org)
  • Therefore, this study examined the accuracy of force exertion in elbow flexion on each demand value and laterality. (scirp.org)
  • All subjects showed near-exclusive individual laterality, but there was no overall bias in either direction (five were left-lateralized and five were right-lateralized). (ox.ac.uk)