Species- or subspecies-specific DNA (including COMPLEMENTARY DNA; conserved genes, whole chromosomes, or whole genomes) used in hybridization studies in order to identify microorganisms, to measure DNA-DNA homologies, to group subspecies, etc. The DNA probe hybridizes with a specific mRNA, if present. Conventional techniques used for testing for the hybridization product include dot blot assays, Southern blot assays, and DNA:RNA hybrid-specific antibody tests. Conventional labels for the DNA probe include the radioisotope labels 32P and 125I and the chemical label biotin. The use of DNA probes provides a specific, sensitive, rapid, and inexpensive replacement for cell culture techniques for diagnosing infections.
Widely used technique which exploits the ability of complementary sequences in single-stranded DNAs or RNAs to pair with each other to form a double helix. Hybridization can take place between two complimentary DNA sequences, between a single-stranded DNA and a complementary RNA, or between two RNA sequences. The technique is used to detect and isolate specific sequences, measure homology, or define other characteristics of one or both strands. (Kendrew, Encyclopedia of Molecular Biology, 1994, p503)
A group of atoms or molecules attached to other molecules or cellular structures and used in studying the properties of these molecules and structures. Radioactive DNA or RNA sequences are used in MOLECULAR GENETICS to detect the presence of a complementary sequence by NUCLEIC ACID HYBRIDIZATION.
Synthetic or natural oligonucleotides used in hybridization studies in order to identify and study specific nucleic acid fragments, e.g., DNA segments near or within a specific gene locus or gene. The probe hybridizes with a specific mRNA, if present. Conventional techniques used for testing for the hybridization product include dot blot assays, Southern blot assays, and DNA:RNA hybrid-specific antibody tests. Conventional labels for the probe include the radioisotope labels 32P and 125I and the chemical label biotin.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
DNA probes specific for the human leukocyte antigen genes, which represent the major histocompatibility determinants in humans. The four known loci are designated as A, B, C, and D. Specific antigens are identified by a locus notation and number, e.g., HLA-A11. The inheritance of certain HLA alleles is associated with increased risk for certain diseases (e.g., insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus).
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of bacteria.
3 beta,12 beta,14-Trihydroxy-5 beta-card-20(22)-enolide. A cardenolide which is the aglycon of digoxin. Can be obtained by hydrolysis of digoxin or from Digitalis orientalis L. and Digitalis lanata Ehrh.
A type of IN SITU HYBRIDIZATION in which target sequences are stained with fluorescent dye so their location and size can be determined using fluorescence microscopy. This staining is sufficiently distinct that the hybridization signal can be seen both in metaphase spreads and in interphase nuclei.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
A method (first developed by E.M. Southern) for detection of DNA that has been electrophoretically separated and immobilized by blotting on nitrocellulose or other type of paper or nylon membrane followed by hybridization with labeled NUCLEIC ACID PROBES.
The use of devices which use detector molecules to detect, investigate, or analyze other molecules, macromolecules, molecular aggregates, or organisms.
The insertion of recombinant DNA molecules from prokaryotic and/or eukaryotic sources into a replicating vehicle, such as a plasmid or virus vector, and the introduction of the resultant hybrid molecules into recipient cells without altering the viability of those cells.
In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.
Variation occurring within a species in the presence or length of DNA fragment generated by a specific endonuclease at a specific site in the genome. Such variations are generated by mutations that create or abolish recognition sites for these enzymes or change the length of the fragment.
A deoxyribonucleotide polymer that is the primary genetic material of all cells. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms normally contain DNA in a double-stranded state, yet several important biological processes transiently involve single-stranded regions. DNA, which consists of a polysugar-phosphate backbone possessing projections of purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine), forms a double helix that is held together by hydrogen bonds between these purines and pyrimidines (adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine).
Studies determining the effectiveness or value of processes, personnel, and equipment, or the material on conducting such studies. For drugs and devices, CLINICAL TRIALS AS TOPIC; DRUG EVALUATION; and DRUG EVALUATION, PRECLINICAL are available.
RNA, usually prepared by transcription from cloned DNA, which complements a specific mRNA or DNA and is generally used for studies of virus genes, distribution of specific RNA in tissues and cells, integration of viral DNA into genomes, transcription, etc. Whereas DNA PROBES are preferred for use at a more macroscopic level for detection of the presence of DNA/RNA from specific species or subspecies, RNA probes are preferred for genetic studies. Conventional labels for the RNA probe include radioisotope labels 32P and 125I and the chemical label biotin. RNA probes may be further divided by category into plus-sense RNA probes, minus-sense RNA probes, and antisense RNA probes.
Agents that emit light after excitation by light. The wave length of the emitted light is usually longer than that of the incident light. Fluorochromes are substances that cause fluorescence in other substances, i.e., dyes used to mark or label other compounds with fluorescent tags.
The restriction of a characteristic behavior, anatomical structure or physical system, such as immune response; metabolic response, or gene or gene variant to the members of one species. It refers to that property which differentiates one species from another but it is also used for phylogenetic levels higher or lower than the species.
DNA probes specific for the identification of human papilloma virus.
A water-soluble, enzyme co-factor present in minute amounts in every living cell. It occurs mainly bound to proteins or polypeptides and is abundant in liver, kidney, pancreas, yeast, and milk.
Binary classification measures to assess test results. Sensitivity or recall rate is the proportion of true positives. Specificity is the probability of correctly determining the absence of a condition. (From Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 2d ed)
The functional hereditary units of BACTERIA.
A tick-borne septicemic disease of domestic and wild ruminants caused by EHRLICHIA RUMINANTIUM.
Any method used for determining the location of and relative distances between genes on a chromosome.
Nucleic acid which complements a specific mRNA or DNA molecule, or fragment thereof; used for hybridization studies in order to identify microorganisms and for genetic studies.
Enzymes that are part of the restriction-modification systems. They catalyze the endonucleolytic cleavage of DNA sequences which lack the species-specific methylation pattern in the host cell's DNA. Cleavage yields random or specific double-stranded fragments with terminal 5'-phosphates. The function of restriction enzymes is to destroy any foreign DNA that invades the host cell. Most have been studied in bacterial systems, but a few have been found in eukaryotic organisms. They are also used as tools for the systematic dissection and mapping of chromosomes, in the determination of base sequences of DNAs, and have made it possible to splice and recombine genes from one organism into the genome of another. EC 3.21.1.
Staining of bands, or chromosome segments, allowing the precise identification of individual chromosomes or parts of chromosomes. Applications include the determination of chromosome rearrangements in malformation syndromes and cancer, the chemistry of chromosome segments, chromosome changes during evolution, and, in conjunction with cell hybridization studies, chromosome mapping.
A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria (GRAM-NEGATIVE FACULTATIVELY ANAEROBIC RODS) commonly found in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals. It is usually nonpathogenic, but some strains are known to produce DIARRHEA and pyogenic infections. Pathogenic strains (virotypes) are classified by their specific pathogenic mechanisms such as toxins (ENTEROTOXIGENIC ESCHERICHIA COLI), etc.
Use of restriction endonucleases to analyze and generate a physical map of genomes, genes, or other segments of DNA.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of viruses.
The female sex chromosome, being the differential sex chromosome carried by half the male gametes and all female gametes in human and other male-heterogametic species.
The sequential correspondence of nucleotides in one nucleic acid molecule with those of another nucleic acid molecule. Sequence homology is an indication of the genetic relatedness of different organisms and gene function.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
A species of gram-negative bacteria in the family ANAPLASMATACEAE, that causes HEARTWATER DISEASE in ruminants.
A category of nucleic acid sequences that function as units of heredity and which code for the basic instructions for the development, reproduction, and maintenance of organisms.
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
Extrachromosomal, usually CIRCULAR DNA molecules that are self-replicating and transferable from one organism to another. They are found in a variety of bacterial, archaeal, fungal, algal, and plant species. They are used in GENETIC ENGINEERING as CLONING VECTORS.
A technique that localizes specific nucleic acid sequences within intact chromosomes, eukaryotic cells, or bacterial cells through the use of specific nucleic acid-labeled probes.
The male sex chromosome, being the differential sex chromosome carried by half the male gametes and none of the female gametes in humans and in some other male-heterogametic species in which the homologue of the X chromosome has been retained.
Ribonucleic acid in bacteria having regulatory and catalytic roles as well as involvement in protein synthesis.
Mapping of the KARYOTYPE of a cell.
Techniques used for determining the values of photometric parameters of light resulting from LUMINESCENCE.
Sequences of DNA or RNA that occur in multiple copies. There are several types: INTERSPERSED REPETITIVE SEQUENCES are copies of transposable elements (DNA TRANSPOSABLE ELEMENTS or RETROELEMENTS) dispersed throughout the genome. TERMINAL REPEAT SEQUENCES flank both ends of another sequence, for example, the long terminal repeats (LTRs) on RETROVIRUSES. Variations may be direct repeats, those occurring in the same direction, or inverted repeats, those opposite to each other in direction. TANDEM REPEAT SEQUENCES are copies which lie adjacent to each other, direct or inverted (INVERTED REPEAT SEQUENCES).
A phenotypically recognizable genetic trait which can be used to identify a genetic locus, a linkage group, or a recombination event.
A toxin produced by certain pathogenic strains of ESCHERICHIA COLI such as ESCHERICHIA COLI O157. It is closely related to SHIGA TOXIN produced by SHIGELLA DYSENTERIAE.
Electrophoresis in which agar or agarose gel is used as the diffusion medium.
Biologically active DNA which has been formed by the in vitro joining of segments of DNA from different sources. It includes the recombination joint or edge of a heteroduplex region where two recombining DNA molecules are connected.
Commercially prepared reagent sets, with accessory devices, containing all of the major components and literature necessary to perform one or more designated diagnostic tests or procedures. They may be for laboratory or personal use.
Abnormal number or structure of chromosomes. Chromosome aberrations may result in CHROMOSOME DISORDERS.
Polymers made up of a few (2-20) nucleotides. In molecular genetics, they refer to a short sequence synthesized to match a region where a mutation is known to occur, and then used as a probe (OLIGONUCLEOTIDE PROBES). (Dorland, 28th ed)
Techniques used in studying bacteria.
Toxic substances formed in or elaborated by bacteria; they are usually proteins with high molecular weight and antigenicity; some are used as antibiotics and some to skin test for the presence of or susceptibility to certain diseases.
Actual loss of portion of a chromosome.
The biosynthesis of RNA carried out on a template of DNA. The biosynthesis of DNA from an RNA template is called REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION.
Constituent of 30S subunit prokaryotic ribosomes containing 1600 nucleotides and 21 proteins. 16S rRNA is involved in initiation of polypeptide synthesis.
Abnormal number or structure of the SEX CHROMOSOMES. Some sex chromosome aberrations are associated with SEX CHROMOSOME DISORDERS and SEX CHROMOSOME DISORDERS OF SEX DEVELOPMENT.
The co-inheritance of two or more non-allelic GENES due to their being located more or less closely on the same CHROMOSOME.
"In the context of medical records, 'archives' refers to the storage and preservation of inactive patient records that are no longer in regular use but are required to be kept for legal, administrative, or historical purposes."
DNA sequences encoding RIBOSOMAL RNA and the segments of DNA separating the individual ribosomal RNA genes, referred to as RIBOSOMAL SPACER DNA.
The most abundant form of RNA. Together with proteins, it forms the ribosomes, playing a structural role and also a role in ribosomal binding of mRNA and tRNAs. Individual chains are conventionally designated by their sedimentation coefficients. In eukaryotes, four large chains exist, synthesized in the nucleolus and constituting about 50% of the ribosome. (Dorland, 28th ed)
An increased liquidity or decreased consistency of FECES, such as running stool. Fecal consistency is related to the ratio of water-holding capacity of insoluble solids to total water, rather than the amount of water present. Diarrhea is not hyperdefecation or increased fecal weight.
Hybridization of a nucleic acid sample to a very large set of OLIGONUCLEOTIDE PROBES, which have been attached individually in columns and rows to a solid support, to determine a BASE SEQUENCE, or to detect variations in a gene sequence, GENE EXPRESSION, or for GENE MAPPING.
Short sequences (generally about 10 base pairs) of DNA that are complementary to sequences of messenger RNA and allow reverse transcriptases to start copying the adjacent sequences of mRNA. Primers are used extensively in genetic and molecular biology techniques.
A specific pair of human chromosomes in group A (CHROMOSOMES, HUMAN, 1-3) of the human chromosome classification.
Highly repetitive DNA sequences found in HETEROCHROMATIN, mainly near centromeres. They are composed of simple sequences (very short) (see MINISATELLITE REPEATS) repeated in tandem many times to form large blocks of sequence. Additionally, following the accumulation of mutations, these blocks of repeats have been repeated in tandem themselves. The degree of repetition is on the order of 1000 to 10 million at each locus. Loci are few, usually one or two per chromosome. They were called satellites since in density gradients, they often sediment as distinct, satellite bands separate from the bulk of genomic DNA owing to a distinct BASE COMPOSITION.
Substances that are toxic to cells; they may be involved in immunity or may be contained in venoms. These are distinguished from CYTOSTATIC AGENTS in degree of effect. Some of them are used as CYTOTOXIC ANTIBIOTICS. The mechanism of action of many of these are as ALKYLATING AGENTS or MITOSIS MODULATORS.
The interval between two successive CELL DIVISIONS during which the CHROMOSOMES are not individually distinguishable. It is composed of the G phases (G1 PHASE; G0 PHASE; G2 PHASE) and S PHASE (when DNA replication occurs).
A multistage process that includes cloning, physical mapping, subcloning, determination of the DNA SEQUENCE, and information analysis.
The chromosomal constitution of cells which deviate from the normal by the addition or subtraction of CHROMOSOMES, chromosome pairs, or chromosome fragments. In a normally diploid cell (DIPLOIDY) the loss of a chromosome pair is termed nullisomy (symbol: 2N-2), the loss of a single chromosome is MONOSOMY (symbol: 2N-1), the addition of a chromosome pair is tetrasomy (symbol: 2N+2), the addition of a single chromosome is TRISOMY (symbol: 2N+1).
Compounds that contain three methine groups. They are frequently used as cationic dyes used for differential staining of biological materials.
Procedures for identifying types and strains of bacteria. The most frequently employed typing systems are BACTERIOPHAGE TYPING and SEROTYPING as well as bacteriocin typing and biotyping.
Measurement of the intensity and quality of fluorescence.
A genus of bacteria found in the reproductive organs, intestinal tract, and oral cavity of animals and man. Some species are pathogenic.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
DNA analogs containing neutral amide backbone linkages composed of aminoethyl glycine units instead of the usual phosphodiester linkage of deoxyribose groups. Peptide nucleic acids have high biological stability and higher affinity for complementary DNA or RNA sequences than analogous DNA oligomers.
Excrement from the INTESTINES, containing unabsorbed solids, waste products, secretions, and BACTERIA of the DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.
A complex that includes several strains of M. avium. M. intracellulare is not easily distinguished from M. avium and therefore is included in the complex. These organisms are most frequently found in pulmonary secretions from persons with a tuberculous-like mycobacteriosis. Strains of this complex have also been associated with childhood lymphadenitis and AIDS; M. avium alone causes tuberculosis in a variety of birds and other animals, including pigs.
Any cell, other than a ZYGOTE, that contains elements (such as NUCLEI and CYTOPLASM) from two or more different cells, usually produced by artificial CELL FUSION.
Any of a variety of procedures which use biomolecular probes to measure the presence or concentration of biological molecules, biological structures, microorganisms, etc., by translating a biochemical interaction at the probe surface into a quantifiable physical signal.
Any technique by which an unknown color is evaluated in terms of standard colors. The technique may be visual, photoelectric, or indirect by means of spectrophotometry. It is used in chemistry and physics. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
A technique for identifying individuals of a species that is based on the uniqueness of their DNA sequence. Uniqueness is determined by identifying which combination of allelic variations occur in the individual at a statistically relevant number of different loci. In forensic studies, RESTRICTION FRAGMENT LENGTH POLYMORPHISM of multiple, highly polymorphic VNTR LOCI or MICROSATELLITE REPEAT loci are analyzed. The number of loci used for the profile depends on the ALLELE FREQUENCY in the population.
Enzyme systems containing a single subunit and requiring only magnesium for endonucleolytic activity. The corresponding modification methylases are separate enzymes. The systems recognize specific short DNA sequences and cleave either within, or at a short specific distance from, the recognition sequence to give specific double-stranded fragments with terminal 5'-phosphates. Enzymes from different microorganisms with the same specificity are called isoschizomers. EC 3.1.21.4.
Uracil nucleotides which contain deoxyribose as the sugar moiety.
A type of chromosome aberration characterized by CHROMOSOME BREAKAGE and transfer of the broken-off portion to another location, often to a different chromosome.
A selective increase in the number of copies of a gene coding for a specific protein without a proportional increase in other genes. It occurs naturally via the excision of a copy of the repeating sequence from the chromosome and its extrachromosomal replication in a plasmid, or via the production of an RNA transcript of the entire repeating sequence of ribosomal RNA followed by the reverse transcription of the molecule to produce an additional copy of the original DNA sequence. Laboratory techniques have been introduced for inducing disproportional replication by unequal crossing over, uptake of DNA from lysed cells, or generation of extrachromosomal sequences from rolling circle replication.
A species of gram-negative bacteria in the genus PORPHYROMONAS, family Porphyromonadaceae. It is a key pathogen in endodontic infections.
So-called atypical species of the genus MYCOBACTERIUM that do not cause tuberculosis. They are also called tuberculoid bacilli, i.e.: M. buruli, M. chelonae, M. duvalii, M. flavescens, M. fortuitum, M. gilvum, M. gordonae, M. intracellulare (see MYCOBACTERIUM AVIUM COMPLEX;), M. kansasii, M. marinum, M. obuense, M. scrofulaceum, M. szulgai, M. terrae, M. ulcerans, M. xenopi.
Domesticated bovine animals of the genus Bos, usually kept on a farm or ranch and used for the production of meat or dairy products or for heavy labor.
A genus of gram-negative, anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria. Its organisms are normal inhabitants of the oral, respiratory, intestinal, and urogenital cavities of humans, animals, and insects. Some species may be pathogenic.
A foul-smelling accumulation of SEBUM and desquaminated epidermal cells, especially the cheesy substance found under the foreskin of the penis and at the base of the labia minor near the clitoris.
Process of determining and distinguishing species of bacteria or viruses based on antigens they share.
One of the Type II site-specific deoxyribonucleases (EC 3.1.21.4). It recognizes and cleaves the sequence G/AATTC at the slash. EcoRI is from E coliRY13. Several isoschizomers have been identified. EC 3.1.21.-.
The property of emitting radiation while being irradiated. The radiation emitted is usually of longer wavelength than that incident or absorbed, e.g., a substance can be irradiated with invisible radiation and emit visible light. X-ray fluorescence is used in diagnosis.
Infections with bacteria of the species ESCHERICHIA COLI.
A genus of gram-positive, aerobic bacteria. Most species are free-living in soil and water, but the major habitat for some is the diseased tissue of warm-blooded hosts.
The record of descent or ancestry, particularly of a particular condition or trait, indicating individual family members, their relationships, and their status with respect to the trait or condition.
Agents which affect CELL DIVISION and the MITOTIC SPINDLE APPARATUS resulting in the loss or gain of whole CHROMOSOMES, thereby inducing an ANEUPLOIDY.
A group of deoxyribonucleotides (up to 12) in which the phosphate residues of each deoxyribonucleotide act as bridges in forming diester linkages between the deoxyribose moieties.
The presence of bacteria, viruses, and fungi in water. This term is not restricted to pathogenic organisms.
A polynucleotide consisting essentially of chains with a repeating backbone of phosphate and ribose units to which nitrogenous bases are attached. RNA is unique among biological macromolecules in that it can encode genetic information, serve as an abundant structural component of cells, and also possesses catalytic activity. (Rieger et al., Glossary of Genetics: Classical and Molecular, 5th ed)
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of fungi.
Proteins found in any species of bacterium.
Very long DNA molecules and associated proteins, HISTONES, and non-histone chromosomal proteins (CHROMOSOMAL PROTEINS, NON-HISTONE). Normally 46 chromosomes, including two sex chromosomes are found in the nucleus of human cells. They carry the hereditary information of the individual.
Detection of RNA that has been electrophoretically separated and immobilized by blotting on nitrocellulose or other type of paper or nylon membrane followed by hybridization with labeled NUCLEIC ACID PROBES.
A form of GENE LIBRARY containing the complete DNA sequences present in the genome of a given organism. It contrasts with a cDNA library which contains only sequences utilized in protein coding (lacking introns).
A specific pair of GROUP C CHROMOSOMES of the human chromosome classification.
Substances that are toxic to the intestinal tract causing vomiting, diarrhea, etc.; most common enterotoxins are produced by bacteria.
Acridines are heterocyclic aromatic organic compounds containing two nitrogen atoms at positions 1 and 3 of a planar, unsaturated ring system, which have been widely used in chemotherapy and have also found applications in dye industries and fluorescence microscopy.
In a prokaryotic cell or in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell, a structure consisting of or containing DNA which carries the genetic information essential to the cell. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)
Laboratory techniques that involve the in-vitro synthesis of many copies of DNA or RNA from one original template.
One of the three domains of life (the others being Eukarya and ARCHAEA), also called Eubacteria. They are unicellular prokaryotic microorganisms which generally possess rigid cell walls, multiply by cell division, and exhibit three principal forms: round or coccal, rodlike or bacillary, and spiral or spirochetal. Bacteria can be classified by their response to OXYGEN: aerobic, anaerobic, or facultatively anaerobic; by the mode by which they obtain their energy: chemotrophy (via chemical reaction) or PHOTOTROPHY (via light reaction); for chemotrophs by their source of chemical energy: CHEMOLITHOTROPHY (from inorganic compounds) or chemoorganotrophy (from organic compounds); and by their source for CARBON; NITROGEN; etc.; HETEROTROPHY (from organic sources) or AUTOTROPHY (from CARBON DIOXIDE). They can also be classified by whether or not they stain (based on the structure of their CELL WALLS) with CRYSTAL VIOLET dye: gram-negative or gram-positive.
A bacterium causing tuberculosis in domestic fowl and other birds. In pigs, it may cause localized and sometimes disseminated disease. The organism occurs occasionally in sheep and cattle. It should be distinguished from the M. avium complex, which infects primarily humans.
Plasmids containing at least one cos (cohesive-end site) of PHAGE LAMBDA. They are used as cloning vehicles.
DNA present in neoplastic tissue.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
A 60-kDa extracellular protein of Streptomyces avidinii with four high-affinity biotin binding sites. Unlike AVIDIN, streptavidin has a near neutral isoelectric point and is free of carbohydrate side chains.
The clear constricted portion of the chromosome at which the chromatids are joined and by which the chromosome is attached to the spindle during cell division.
A large collection of DNA fragments cloned (CLONING, MOLECULAR) from a given organism, tissue, organ, or cell type. It may contain complete genomic sequences (GENOMIC LIBRARY) or complementary DNA sequences, the latter being formed from messenger RNA and lacking intron sequences.
A nitrocellulose solution in ether and alcohol. Collodion has a wide range of uses in industry including applications in the manufacture of photographic film, in fibers, in lacquers, and in engraving and lithography. In medicine it is used as a drug solvent and a wound sealant.
A specific protein in egg albumin that interacts with BIOTIN to render it unavailable to mammals, thereby producing biotin deficiency.
The study of microorganisms living in a variety of environments (air, soil, water, etc.) and their pathogenic relationship to other organisms including man.
Acute infectious disease characterized by primary invasion of the urogenital tract. The etiologic agent, NEISSERIA GONORRHOEAE, was isolated by Neisser in 1879.
Europium. An element of the rare earth family of metals. It has the atomic symbol Eu, atomic number 63, and atomic weight 152. Europium is used in the form of its salts as coatings for cathode ray tubes and in the form of its organic derivatives as shift reagents in NMR spectroscopy.
A subdiscipline of genetics which deals with the cytological and molecular analysis of the CHROMOSOMES, and location of the GENES on chromosomes, and the movements of chromosomes during the CELL CYCLE.
One of the Type II site-specific deoxyribonucleases (EC 3.1.21.4). It recognizes and cleaves the sequence G/GATCC at the slash. BamHI is from Bacillus amyloliquefaciens N. Numerous isoschizomers have been identified. EC 3.1.21.-.
Identification of genetic carriers for a given trait.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.

Telomeric repeats on small polydisperse circular DNA (spcDNA) and genomic instability. (1/5773)

Small polydisperse circular DNA (spcDNA) is a heterogeneous population of extrachromosomal circular molecules present in a large variety of eukaryotic cells. Elevated amounts of total spcDNA are related to endogenous and induced genomic instability in rodent and human cells. We suggested spcDNA as a novel marker for genomic instability, and speculated that spcDNA might serve as a mutator. In this study, we examine the presence of telomeric sequences on spcDNA. We report for the first time the appearance of telomeric repeats in spcDNA molecules (tel-spcDNA) in rodent and human cells. Restriction enzyme analysis indicates that tel-spcDNA molecules harbor mostly, if not exclusively, telomeric repeats. In rodent cells, tel-spcDNA levels are higher in transformed than in normal cells and are enhanced by treatment with carcinogen. Tel-spcDNA is also detected in some human tumors and cell lines, but not in others. We suggest, that its levels in human cells may be primarily related to the amount of the chromosomal telomeric sequences. Tel-spcDNA may serve as a unique mutator, through specific mechanisms related to the telomeric repeats, which distinguish it from the total heterogeneous spcDNA population. It may affect telomere dynamics and genomic instability by clastogenic events, alterations of telomere size and sequestration of telomeric proteins.  (+info)

Polynucleotide probes that target a hypervariable region of 16S rRNA genes to identify bacterial isolates corresponding to bands of community fingerprints. (2/5773)

Temperature gradient gel electrophoresis (TGGE) is well suited for fingerprinting bacterial communities by separating PCR-amplified fragments of 16S rRNA genes (16S ribosomal DNA [rDNA]). A strategy was developed and was generally applicable for linking 16S rDNA from community fingerprints to pure culture isolates from the same habitat. For this, digoxigenin-labeled polynucleotide probes were generated by PCR, using bands excised from TGGE community fingerprints as a template, and applied in hybridizations with dot blotted 16S rDNA amplified from bacterial isolates. Within 16S rDNA, the hypervariable V6 region, corresponding to positions 984 to 1047 (Escherichia coli 16S rDNA sequence), which is a subset of the region used for TGGE (positions 968 to 1401), best met the criteria of high phylogenetic variability, required for sufficient probe specificity, and closely flanking conserved priming sites for amplification. Removal of flanking conserved bases was necessary to enable the differentiation of closely related species. This was achieved by 5' exonuclease digestion, terminated by phosphorothioate bonds which were synthesized into the primers. The remaining complementary strand was removed by single-strand-specific digestion. Standard hybridization with truncated probes allowed differentiation of bacteria which differed by only two bases within the probe target site and 1.2% within the complete 16S rDNA. However, a truncated probe, derived from an excised TGGE band of a rhizosphere community, hybridized with three phylogenetically related isolates with identical V6 sequences. Only one of the isolates comigrated with the excised band in TGGE, which was shown to be due to identical sequences, demonstrating the utility of a combined TGGE and V6 probe approach.  (+info)

The role of interleukin 12 in the development of atherosclerosis in ApoE-deficient mice. (3/5773)

The cytokine profile of atherosclerotic aortas from apoE-deficient mice was assessed by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction. The results clearly showed that the expression of mRNA for IL-12p40 was evident in aortas from 3-month-old apoE-deficient mice. The mRNA for IL-10 was detected in aorta from these mice at the age of 6 months, indicating that expression of IL-12 is earlier than that of IL-10 in these animals. Concurrent with IL-12p40, the mRNA for the T-cell cytokine IFN-gamma, but not IL-4, was detected in aortas of mice at young and old ages. Both in situ hybridization and immunostaining further demonstrated the localization of IL-12 in macrophages of atherosclerotic lesions. Immunohistochemistry also demonstrated the expression of costimulatory molecules B7-1 and B7-2 in macrophages, suggesting that activation of T lymphocytes by macrophages may occur via surface antigens in lesions. When the immunoglobulin isotype of the antioxidized LDL antibodies in sera of apoE-deficient mice was determined, it revealed that both IgM and IgG were present. Furthermore, IgG2a is predominant and comprises approximately 50% of the antioxidized LDL IgG in sera from young mice (3 months), but decreased to lower levels (35%) in older mice (6 months). Daily administration of IL-12 led to an increase in serum levels of antioxidized LDL antibodies and accelerated atherosclerosis in young apoE-deficient mice compared with control mice injected with PBS alone. Taken together, these data suggest that IL-12 plays an active role in regulating the immune response during the early phase of atherosclerosis in apoE-deficient mice.  (+info)

Species identification and strain differentiation of dermatophyte fungi by analysis of ribosomal-DNA intergenic spacer regions. (4/5773)

Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) identified in the ribosomal-DNA (rDNA) repeat were used for molecular strain differentiation of the dermatophyte fungus Trichophyton rubrum. The polymorphisms were detected by hybridization of EcoRI-digested T. rubrum genomic DNAs with a probe amplified from the small-subunit (18S) rDNA and adjacent internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions. The rDNA RFLPs mapped to the nontranscribed spacer (NTS) region of the rDNA repeat and appeared similar to those caused by short repetitive sequences in the intergenic spacers of other fungi. Fourteen individual RFLP patterns (DNA types A to N) were recognized among 50 random clinical isolates of T. rubrum. A majority of strains (19 of 50 [38%]) were characterized by one RFLP pattern (DNA type A), and four types (DNA types A to D) accounted for 78% (39 of 50) of all strains. The remaining types (DNA types E to N) were represented by one or two isolates only. A rapid and simple method was also developed for molecular species identification of dermatophyte fungi. The contiguous ITS and 5.8S rDNA regions were amplified from 17 common dermatophyte species by using the universal primers ITS 1 and ITS 4. Digestion of the amplified ITS products with the restriction endonuclease MvaI produced unique and easily identifiable fragment patterns for a majority of species. However, some closely related taxon pairs, such as T. rubrum-T. soudanense and T. quinkeanum-T. schoenlenii could not be distinguished. We conclude that RFLP analysis of the NTS and ITS intergenic regions of the rDNA repeat is a valuable technique both for molecular strain differentiation of T. rubrum and for species identification of common dermatophyte fungi.  (+info)

Identification of Mycobacterium kansasii by using a DNA probe (AccuProbe) and molecular techniques. (5/5773)

The newly formulated Mycobacterium kansasii AccuProbe was evaluated, and the results obtained with the new version were compared to the results obtained with the old version of this test by using 116 M. kansasii strains, 1 Mycobacterium gastri strain, and 19 strains of several mycobacterial species. The sensitivity of this new formulation was 97.4% and the specificity was 100%. Still, three M. kansasii strains were missed by this probe. To evaluate the variability within the species, genetic analyses of the hsp65 gene, the spacer sequence between the 16S and 23S rRNA genes, and the 16S rRNA gene of several M. kansasii AccuProbe-positive strains as well as all AccuProbe-negative strains were performed. Genetic analyses of the one M. gastri strain from the comparative assay and of two further M. gastri strains were included because of the identity of the 16S rRNA gene in M. gastri to that in M. kansasii. The data confirmed the genetic heterogeneity of M. kansasii. Furthermore, a subspecies with an unpublished hsp65 restriction pattern and spacer sequence was described. The genetic data indicate that all M. kansasii strains missed by the AccuProbe test belong to one subspecies, the newly described subspecies VI, as determined by the hsp65 restriction pattern and the spacer sequence. Since the M. kansasii strains that are missed are rare and all M. gastri strains are correctly negative, the new formulated AccuProbe provides a useful tool for the identification of M. kansasii.  (+info)

Development and characterization of complex DNA fingerprinting probes for the infectious yeast Candida dubliniensis. (6/5773)

Using a strategy to clone large genomic sequences containing repetitive elements from the infectious yeast Candida dubliniensis, the three unrelated sequences Cd1, Cd24, and Cd25, with respective molecular sizes of 15,500, 10,000, and 16,000 bp, were cloned and analyzed for their efficacy as DNA fingerprinting probes. Each generated a complex Southern blot hybridization pattern with endonuclease-digested genomic DNA. Cd1 generated an extremely variable pattern that contained all of the bands of the pattern generated by the repeat element RPS of Candida albicans. We demonstrated that Cd1 does not contain RPS but does contain a repeat element associated with RPS throughout the C. dubliniensis genome. The Cd1 pattern was the least stable over time both in vitro and in vivo and for that reason proved most effective in assessing microevolution. Cd24, which did not exhibit microevolution in vitro, was highly variable in vivo, suggesting in vivo-dependent microevolution. Cd25 was deemed the best probe for broad epidemiological studies, since it was the most stable over time, was the only truly C. dubliniensis-specific probe of the three, generated the most complex pattern, was distributed throughout all C. dubliniensis chromosomes, and separated a worldwide collection of 57 C. dubliniensis isolates into two distinct groups. The presence of a species-specific repetitive element in Cd25 adds weight to the already substantial evidence that C. dubliniensis represents a bona fide species.  (+info)

Molecular evidence for the existence of additional members of the order Chlamydiales. (7/5773)

Respiratory tract infections in man may be caused by several members of the genus Chlamydia and also by two Chlamydia-like strains, 'Simkania negevensis' (Z-agent) and 'Parachlamydia acanthamoebae' (Bng). To facilitate diagnostic procedures a PCR assay able to detect all known Chlamydiaceae sequences in one reaction was developed. For this purpose, primers were selected to amplify a fragment of the 16S rRNA gene. Characterization of the amplified fragments was done by hybridization with specific probes and by sequencing. PCR assays were carried out using DNA isolated from nose/throat specimens or from peripheral blood mononuclear cells of patients with respiratory tract infections, and from vessel wall specimens of abdominal aneurysms. Six of the 42 nose/throat swab specimens analysed yielded strong bands and one yielded a faint band. Three of these bands were identified as Chlamydia pneumoniae and one as Chlamydia trachomatis by sequencing. Analysis of the three other bands yielded two different new sequences. DNA isolated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells of one patient yielded a third new sequence. DNA isolated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells of four healthy controls was negative. One of the abdominal aneurysm specimens also yielded a strong band. Sequencing revealed a fourth new sequence. All negative controls included during specimen processing and PCR analysis remained negative. The typical secondary structure of microbial 16S genes was present in all four new sequences indicating the validity of the sequence data. All four new sequences were distinct from other bacteria and clustered together with known Chlamydiaceae sequences. Phylogenetic analysis suggested a new lineage, separating the four new sequences, 'S. negevensis' and 'P. acanthamoebae' from the genus Chlamydia with the four known chlamydial species. In conclusion, this study provides evidence for the existence of several new members of the order Chlamydiales. Since the source of the Chlamydia-like strains has not been identified and serological and/or molecular cross-reactivities may be expected, results of identification of infecting recognized organisms should be interpreted cautiously.  (+info)

Preimplantation diagnosis by fluorescence in situ hybridization using 13-, 16-, 18-, 21-, 22-, X-, and Y-chromosome probes. (8/5773)

PURPOSE: Our purpose was to select the proper chromosomes for preimplantation diagnosis based on aneuploidy distribution in abortuses and to carry out a feasibility study of preimplantation diagnosis for embryos using multiple-probe fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) on the selected chromosomes of biopsied blastomeres. METHODS: After determining the frequency distribution of aneuploidy found in abortuses, seven chromosomes were selected for FISH probes. Blastomeres were obtained from 33 abnormal or excess embryos. The chromosome complements of both the biopsied blastomeres and the remaining sibling blastomeres in each embryo were determined by FISH and compared to evaluate their preimplantation diagnostic potential. RESULTS: Chromosomes (16, 22, X, Y) and (13, 18, 21) were selected on the basis of the high aneuploid prevalence in abortuses for the former group and the presence of trisomy in the newborn for the latter. Thirty-six (72%) of 50 blastomeres gave signals to permit a diagnosis. Diagnoses made from biopsied blastomeres were consistent with the diagnoses made from the remaining sibling blastomeres in 18 embryos. In only 2 of 20 cases did the biopsied blastomere diagnosis and the embryo diagnosis not match. CONCLUSIONS: If FISH of biopsied blastomere was successful, a preimplantation diagnosis could be made with 10% error. When a combination of chromosome-13, -16, -18, -21, -22, -X, and -Y probes was used, up to 65% of the embryos destined to be aborted could be detected.  (+info)

A DNA probe is a single-stranded DNA molecule that contains a specific sequence of nucleotides, and is labeled with a detectable marker such as a radioisotope or a fluorescent dye. It is used in molecular biology to identify and locate a complementary sequence within a sample of DNA. The probe hybridizes (forms a stable double-stranded structure) with its complementary sequence through base pairing, allowing for the detection and analysis of the target DNA. This technique is widely used in various applications such as genetic testing, diagnosis of infectious diseases, and forensic science.

Nucleic acid hybridization is a process in molecular biology where two single-stranded nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) with complementary sequences pair together to form a double-stranded molecule through hydrogen bonding. The strands can be from the same type of nucleic acid or different types (i.e., DNA-RNA or DNA-cDNA). This process is commonly used in various laboratory techniques, such as Southern blotting, Northern blotting, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and microarray analysis, to detect, isolate, and analyze specific nucleic acid sequences. The hybridization temperature and conditions are critical to ensure the specificity of the interaction between the two strands.

Molecular probes, also known as bioprobes or molecular tracers, are molecules that are used to detect and visualize specific biological targets or processes within cells, tissues, or organisms. These probes can be labeled with a variety of detection methods such as fluorescence, radioactivity, or enzymatic activity. They can bind to specific biomolecules such as DNA, RNA, proteins, or lipids and are used in various fields including molecular biology, cell biology, diagnostic medicine, and medical research.

For example, a fluorescent molecular probe may be designed to bind specifically to a certain protein in a living cell. When the probe binds to its target, it emits a detectable signal that can be observed under a microscope, allowing researchers to track the location and behavior of the protein within the cell.

Molecular probes are valuable tools for understanding biological systems at the molecular level, enabling researchers to study complex processes such as gene expression, signal transduction, and metabolism in real-time. They can also be used in clinical settings for diagnostic purposes, such as detecting specific biomarkers of disease or monitoring the effectiveness of therapies.

An oligonucleotide probe is a short, single-stranded DNA or RNA molecule that contains a specific sequence of nucleotides designed to hybridize with a complementary sequence in a target nucleic acid (DNA or RNA). These probes are typically 15-50 nucleotides long and are used in various molecular biology techniques, such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), DNA sequencing, microarray analysis, and blotting methods.

Oligonucleotide probes can be labeled with various reporter molecules, like fluorescent dyes or radioactive isotopes, to enable the detection of hybridized targets. The high specificity of oligonucleotide probes allows for the precise identification and quantification of target nucleic acids in complex biological samples, making them valuable tools in diagnostic, research, and forensic applications.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

DNA probes for HLA (Human Leukocyte Antigen) are specific DNA sequences that are used in laboratory tests to detect and identify the presence or absence of particular HLA genes or alleles in an individual's genetic material. HLAs are proteins found on the surface of cells that play a critical role in the immune system's ability to distinguish between "self" and "non-self."

DNA probes for HLA are typically composed of short, single-stranded DNA molecules that are complementary to a specific region of the HLA gene. These probes are labeled with a detectable marker, such as a radioactive isotope or a fluorescent dye, allowing them to be visualized and detected during laboratory testing.

When a DNA probe for HLA is hybridized to a sample of an individual's genetic material, it will bind specifically to the complementary sequence of the target HLA gene, if present. The presence or absence of the probe-target hybrid can then be detected and used to identify the specific HLA allele.

DNA probes for HLA are used in a variety of applications, including diagnostic testing, tissue typing for transplantation, and research into the genetic basis of diseases that are associated with particular HLA types.

Bacterial DNA refers to the genetic material found in bacteria. It is composed of a double-stranded helix containing four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) - that are linked together by phosphodiester bonds. The sequence of these bases in the DNA molecule carries the genetic information necessary for the growth, development, and reproduction of bacteria.

Bacterial DNA is circular in most bacterial species, although some have linear chromosomes. In addition to the main chromosome, many bacteria also contain small circular pieces of DNA called plasmids that can carry additional genes and provide resistance to antibiotics or other environmental stressors.

Unlike eukaryotic cells, which have their DNA enclosed within a nucleus, bacterial DNA is present in the cytoplasm of the cell, where it is in direct contact with the cell's metabolic machinery. This allows for rapid gene expression and regulation in response to changing environmental conditions.

Digoxigenin is a steroidal glycoside compound that is derived from the digitalis plant, which includes foxglove species. This compound is known for its cardiotonic properties and has been used in the treatment of various heart conditions, such as congestive heart failure and atrial arrhythmias.

In a medical or scientific context, digoxigenin is often used in research and diagnostic applications due to its ability to bind to specific antibodies or other molecules. This binding property makes it useful for techniques like immunohistochemistry, where it can be used to label and visualize specific proteins or structures within cells or tissues.

It's important to note that digoxigenin itself is not a medication or treatment, but rather a component derived from a plant that has been used in the development of certain medications and research tools.

In situ hybridization, fluorescence (FISH) is a type of molecular cytogenetic technique used to detect and localize the presence or absence of specific DNA sequences on chromosomes through the use of fluorescent probes. This technique allows for the direct visualization of genetic material at a cellular level, making it possible to identify chromosomal abnormalities such as deletions, duplications, translocations, and other rearrangements.

The process involves denaturing the DNA in the sample to separate the double-stranded molecules into single strands, then adding fluorescently labeled probes that are complementary to the target DNA sequence. The probe hybridizes to the complementary sequence in the sample, and the location of the probe is detected by fluorescence microscopy.

FISH has a wide range of applications in both clinical and research settings, including prenatal diagnosis, cancer diagnosis and monitoring, and the study of gene expression and regulation. It is a powerful tool for identifying genetic abnormalities and understanding their role in human disease.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Southern blotting is a type of membrane-based blotting technique that is used in molecular biology to detect and locate specific DNA sequences within a DNA sample. This technique is named after its inventor, Edward M. Southern.

In Southern blotting, the DNA sample is first digested with one or more restriction enzymes, which cut the DNA at specific recognition sites. The resulting DNA fragments are then separated based on their size by gel electrophoresis. After separation, the DNA fragments are denatured to convert them into single-stranded DNA and transferred onto a nitrocellulose or nylon membrane.

Once the DNA has been transferred to the membrane, it is hybridized with a labeled probe that is complementary to the sequence of interest. The probe can be labeled with radioactive isotopes, fluorescent dyes, or chemiluminescent compounds. After hybridization, the membrane is washed to remove any unbound probe and then exposed to X-ray film (in the case of radioactive probes) or scanned (in the case of non-radioactive probes) to detect the location of the labeled probe on the membrane.

The position of the labeled probe on the membrane corresponds to the location of the specific DNA sequence within the original DNA sample. Southern blotting is a powerful tool for identifying and characterizing specific DNA sequences, such as those associated with genetic diseases or gene regulation.

Molecular probe techniques are analytical methods used in molecular biology and medicine to detect, analyze, and visualize specific biological molecules or cellular structures within cells, tissues, or bodily fluids. These techniques typically involve the use of labeled probes that bind selectively to target molecules, allowing for their detection and quantification.

A molecular probe is a small molecule or biomacromolecule (such as DNA, RNA, peptide, or antibody) that has been tagged with a detectable label, such as a fluorescent dye, radioisotope, enzyme, or magnetic particle. The probe is designed to recognize and bind to a specific target molecule, such as a gene, protein, or metabolite, through complementary base pairing, antigen-antibody interactions, or other forms of molecular recognition.

Molecular probe techniques can be broadly classified into two categories:

1. In situ hybridization (ISH): This technique involves the use of labeled DNA or RNA probes to detect specific nucleic acid sequences within cells or tissues. The probes are designed to complement the target sequence and, upon hybridization, allow for the visualization of the location and quantity of the target molecule using various detection methods, such as fluorescence microscopy, brightfield microscopy, or radioisotopic imaging.
2. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) and immunofluorescence (IF): These techniques utilize antibodies as probes to detect specific proteins within cells or tissues. Primary antibodies are raised against a target protein and, upon binding, can be detected using various methods, such as enzyme-linked secondary antibodies, fluorescent dyes, or gold nanoparticles. IHC is typically used for brightfield microscopy, while IF is used for fluorescence microscopy.

Molecular probe techniques have numerous applications in basic research, diagnostics, and therapeutics, including gene expression analysis, protein localization, disease diagnosis, drug development, and targeted therapy.

Molecular cloning is a laboratory technique used to create multiple copies of a specific DNA sequence. This process involves several steps:

1. Isolation: The first step in molecular cloning is to isolate the DNA sequence of interest from the rest of the genomic DNA. This can be done using various methods such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction), restriction enzymes, or hybridization.
2. Vector construction: Once the DNA sequence of interest has been isolated, it must be inserted into a vector, which is a small circular DNA molecule that can replicate independently in a host cell. Common vectors used in molecular cloning include plasmids and phages.
3. Transformation: The constructed vector is then introduced into a host cell, usually a bacterial or yeast cell, through a process called transformation. This can be done using various methods such as electroporation or chemical transformation.
4. Selection: After transformation, the host cells are grown in selective media that allow only those cells containing the vector to grow. This ensures that the DNA sequence of interest has been successfully cloned into the vector.
5. Amplification: Once the host cells have been selected, they can be grown in large quantities to amplify the number of copies of the cloned DNA sequence.

Molecular cloning is a powerful tool in molecular biology and has numerous applications, including the production of recombinant proteins, gene therapy, functional analysis of genes, and genetic engineering.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a laboratory technique used to amplify specific regions of DNA. It enables the production of thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence in a rapid and efficient manner, making it an essential tool in various fields such as molecular biology, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and research.

The PCR process involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling to separate the DNA strands, allow primers (short sequences of single-stranded DNA) to attach to the target regions, and extend these primers using an enzyme called Taq polymerase, resulting in the exponential amplification of the desired DNA segment.

In a medical context, PCR is often used for detecting and quantifying specific pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites) in clinical samples, identifying genetic mutations or polymorphisms associated with diseases, monitoring disease progression, and evaluating treatment effectiveness.

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) is a term used in molecular biology and genetics. It refers to the presence of variations in DNA sequences among individuals, which can be detected by restriction enzymes. These enzymes cut DNA at specific sites, creating fragments of different lengths.

In RFLP analysis, DNA is isolated from an individual and treated with a specific restriction enzyme that cuts the DNA at particular recognition sites. The resulting fragments are then separated by size using gel electrophoresis, creating a pattern unique to that individual's DNA. If there are variations in the DNA sequence between individuals, the restriction enzyme may cut the DNA at different sites, leading to differences in the length of the fragments and thus, a different pattern on the gel.

These variations can be used for various purposes, such as identifying individuals, diagnosing genetic diseases, or studying evolutionary relationships between species. However, RFLP analysis has largely been replaced by more modern techniques like polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based methods and DNA sequencing, which offer higher resolution and throughput.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the genetic material present in the cells of organisms where it is responsible for the storage and transmission of hereditary information. DNA is a long molecule that consists of two strands coiled together to form a double helix. Each strand is made up of a series of four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - that are linked together by phosphate and sugar groups. The sequence of these bases along the length of the molecule encodes genetic information, with A always pairing with T and C always pairing with G. This base-pairing allows for the replication and transcription of DNA, which are essential processes in the functioning and reproduction of all living organisms.

"Evaluation studies" is a broad term that refers to the systematic assessment or examination of a program, project, policy, intervention, or product. The goal of an evaluation study is to determine its merits, worth, and value by measuring its effects, efficiency, and impact. There are different types of evaluation studies, including formative evaluations (conducted during the development or implementation of a program to provide feedback for improvement), summative evaluations (conducted at the end of a program to determine its overall effectiveness), process evaluations (focusing on how a program is implemented and delivered), outcome evaluations (assessing the short-term and intermediate effects of a program), and impact evaluations (measuring the long-term and broad consequences of a program).

In medical contexts, evaluation studies are often used to assess the safety, efficacy, and cost-effectiveness of new treatments, interventions, or technologies. These studies can help healthcare providers make informed decisions about patient care, guide policymakers in developing evidence-based policies, and promote accountability and transparency in healthcare systems. Examples of evaluation studies in medicine include randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that compare the outcomes of a new treatment to those of a standard or placebo treatment, observational studies that examine the real-world effectiveness and safety of interventions, and economic evaluations that assess the costs and benefits of different healthcare options.

RNA probes are specialized biomolecules used in molecular biology to detect and localize specific RNA sequences within cells or tissues. They are typically single-stranded RNA molecules that have been synthesized with a modified nucleotide, such as digoxigenin or biotin, which can be detected using antibodies or streptavidin conjugates.

RNA probes are used in techniques such as in situ hybridization (ISH) and Northern blotting to identify the spatial distribution of RNA transcripts within cells or tissues, or to quantify the amount of specific RNA present in a sample. The probe is designed to be complementary to the target RNA sequence, allowing it to bind specifically to its target through base-pairing interactions.

RNA probes can be labeled with various reporter molecules, such as radioactive isotopes or fluorescent dyes, which enable their detection and visualization using techniques such as autoradiography or microscopy. The use of RNA probes has proven to be a valuable tool in the study of gene expression, regulation, and localization in various biological systems.

Fluorescent dyes are substances that emit light upon excitation by absorbing light of a shorter wavelength. In a medical context, these dyes are often used in various diagnostic tests and procedures to highlight or mark certain structures or substances within the body. For example, fluorescent dyes may be used in imaging techniques such as fluorescence microscopy or fluorescence angiography to help visualize cells, tissues, or blood vessels. These dyes can also be used in flow cytometry to identify and sort specific types of cells. The choice of fluorescent dye depends on the specific application and the desired properties, such as excitation and emission spectra, quantum yield, and photostability.

Species specificity is a term used in the field of biology, including medicine, to refer to the characteristic of a biological entity (such as a virus, bacterium, or other microorganism) that allows it to interact exclusively or preferentially with a particular species. This means that the biological entity has a strong affinity for, or is only able to infect, a specific host species.

For example, HIV is specifically adapted to infect human cells and does not typically infect other animal species. Similarly, some bacterial toxins are species-specific and can only affect certain types of animals or humans. This concept is important in understanding the transmission dynamics and host range of various pathogens, as well as in developing targeted therapies and vaccines.

DNA probes for HPV (Human Papillomavirus) are specific DNA sequences that are used in diagnostic tests to detect and identify the presence of HPV DNA in a sample. HPV is a viral infection that can cause various types of cancer, including cervical, anal, and oropharyngeal cancers.

DNA probes for HPV work by binding to complementary sequences of HPV DNA in the sample. This binding can be detected and measured using various methods, such as hybridization, amplification, or labeling techniques. The use of DNA probes for HPV can help identify the specific type of HPV that is present in a sample, which can inform clinical management and treatment decisions.

It's important to note that not all HPV infections lead to cancer, and most HPV infections resolve on their own without causing any harm. However, certain high-risk types of HPV are more strongly associated with an increased risk of developing cancer, so identifying the presence and type of HPV infection can be useful for monitoring and managing patients who may be at higher risk.

Biotin is a water-soluble vitamin, also known as Vitamin B7 or Vitamin H. It is a cofactor for several enzymes involved in metabolism, particularly in the synthesis and breakdown of fatty acids, amino acids, and carbohydrates. Biotin plays a crucial role in maintaining healthy skin, hair, nails, nerves, and liver function. It is found in various foods such as nuts, seeds, whole grains, milk, and vegetables. Biotin deficiency is rare but can occur in people with malnutrition, alcoholism, pregnancy, or certain genetic disorders.

Sensitivity and specificity are statistical measures used to describe the performance of a diagnostic test or screening tool in identifying true positive and true negative results.

* Sensitivity refers to the proportion of people who have a particular condition (true positives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true positive rate" or "recall." A highly sensitive test will identify most or all of the people with the condition, but may also produce more false positives.
* Specificity refers to the proportion of people who do not have a particular condition (true negatives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true negative rate." A highly specific test will identify most or all of the people without the condition, but may also produce more false negatives.

In medical testing, both sensitivity and specificity are important considerations when evaluating a diagnostic test. High sensitivity is desirable for screening tests that aim to identify as many cases of a condition as possible, while high specificity is desirable for confirmatory tests that aim to rule out the condition in people who do not have it.

It's worth noting that sensitivity and specificity are often influenced by factors such as the prevalence of the condition in the population being tested, the threshold used to define a positive result, and the reliability and validity of the test itself. Therefore, it's important to consider these factors when interpreting the results of a diagnostic test.

A bacterial gene is a segment of DNA (or RNA in some viruses) that contains the genetic information necessary for the synthesis of a functional bacterial protein or RNA molecule. These genes are responsible for encoding various characteristics and functions of bacteria such as metabolism, reproduction, and resistance to antibiotics. They can be transmitted between bacteria through horizontal gene transfer mechanisms like conjugation, transformation, and transduction. Bacterial genes are often organized into operons, which are clusters of genes that are transcribed together as a single mRNA molecule.

It's important to note that the term "bacterial gene" is used to describe genetic elements found in bacteria, but not all genetic elements in bacteria are considered genes. For example, some DNA sequences may not encode functional products and are therefore not considered genes. Additionally, some bacterial genes may be plasmid-borne or phage-borne, rather than being located on the bacterial chromosome.

Heartwater disease is not a human condition, but rather a tick-borne illness that affects ruminants, particularly cattle, sheep, and goats. It's primarily found in sub-Saharan Africa and the Caribbean. Here is a veterinary medical definition:

Heartwater disease, also known as Cowdria disease, is a rickettsial infection caused by the intracellular bacterium Ehrlichia ruminantium. The disease is transmitted through the bite of infected ticks, primarily of the genus Amblyomma.

The name "heartwater" refers to the accumulation of fluid in the lungs and around the heart that can occur as a result of the infection. Initial symptoms may include fever, depression, loss of appetite, and swelling of the legs and brisket. As the disease progresses, it can lead to neurological signs such as aimless wandering, muscle twitching, and difficulty swallowing. If left untreated, heartwater disease is often fatal.

Prevention strategies include tick control measures, such as the use of acaricides (chemicals that kill ticks), and vaccination.

Chromosome mapping, also known as physical mapping, is the process of determining the location and order of specific genes or genetic markers on a chromosome. This is typically done by using various laboratory techniques to identify landmarks along the chromosome, such as restriction enzyme cutting sites or patterns of DNA sequence repeats. The resulting map provides important information about the organization and structure of the genome, and can be used for a variety of purposes, including identifying the location of genes associated with genetic diseases, studying evolutionary relationships between organisms, and developing genetic markers for use in breeding or forensic applications.

Nucleic acid probes are specialized single-stranded DNA or RNA molecules that are used in molecular biology to identify and detect specific nucleic acid sequences, such as genes or fragments of DNA or RNA. These probes are typically labeled with a marker, such as a radioactive isotope or a fluorescent dye, which allows them to be detected and visualized.

Nucleic acid probes work by binding or "hybridizing" to their complementary target sequence through base-pairing interactions between the nucleotides that make up the probe and the target. This specificity of hybridization allows for the detection and identification of specific sequences within a complex mixture of nucleic acids, such as those found in a sample of DNA or RNA from a biological specimen.

Nucleic acid probes are used in a variety of applications, including gene expression analysis, genetic mapping, diagnosis of genetic disorders, and detection of pathogens, among others. They are an essential tool in modern molecular biology research and have contributed significantly to our understanding of genetics and disease.

DNA restriction enzymes, also known as restriction endonucleases, are a type of enzyme that cut double-stranded DNA at specific recognition sites. These enzymes are produced by bacteria and archaea as a defense mechanism against foreign DNA, such as that found in bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria).

Restriction enzymes recognize specific sequences of nucleotides (the building blocks of DNA) and cleave the phosphodiester bonds between them. The recognition sites for these enzymes are usually palindromic, meaning that the sequence reads the same in both directions when facing the opposite strands of DNA.

Restriction enzymes are widely used in molecular biology research for various applications such as genetic engineering, genome mapping, and DNA fingerprinting. They allow scientists to cut DNA at specific sites, creating precise fragments that can be manipulated and analyzed. The use of restriction enzymes has been instrumental in the development of recombinant DNA technology and the Human Genome Project.

Chromosome banding is a technique used in cytogenetics to identify and describe the physical structure and organization of chromosomes. This method involves staining the chromosomes with specific dyes that bind differently to the DNA and proteins in various regions of the chromosome, resulting in a distinct pattern of light and dark bands when viewed under a microscope.

The most commonly used banding techniques are G-banding (Giemsa banding) and R-banding (reverse banding). In G-banding, the chromosomes are stained with Giemsa dye, which preferentially binds to the AT-rich regions, creating a characteristic banding pattern. The bands are numbered from the centromere (the constriction point where the chromatids join) outwards, with the darker bands (rich in A-T base pairs and histone proteins) labeled as "q" arms and the lighter bands (rich in G-C base pairs and arginine-rich proteins) labeled as "p" arms.

R-banding, on the other hand, uses a different staining procedure that results in a reversed banding pattern compared to G-banding. The darker R-bands correspond to the lighter G-bands, and vice versa. This technique is particularly useful for identifying and analyzing specific regions of chromosomes that may be difficult to visualize with G-banding alone.

Chromosome banding plays a crucial role in diagnosing genetic disorders, identifying chromosomal abnormalities, and studying the structure and function of chromosomes in both clinical and research settings.

'Escherichia coli' (E. coli) is a type of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium that commonly inhabits the intestinal tract of humans and warm-blooded animals. It is a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae and one of the most well-studied prokaryotic model organisms in molecular biology.

While most E. coli strains are harmless and even beneficial to their hosts, some serotypes can cause various forms of gastrointestinal and extraintestinal illnesses in humans and animals. These pathogenic strains possess virulence factors that enable them to colonize and damage host tissues, leading to diseases such as diarrhea, urinary tract infections, pneumonia, and sepsis.

E. coli is a versatile organism with remarkable genetic diversity, which allows it to adapt to various environmental niches. It can be found in water, soil, food, and various man-made environments, making it an essential indicator of fecal contamination and a common cause of foodborne illnesses. The study of E. coli has contributed significantly to our understanding of fundamental biological processes, including DNA replication, gene regulation, and protein synthesis.

Restriction mapping is a technique used in molecular biology to identify the location and arrangement of specific restriction endonuclease recognition sites within a DNA molecule. Restriction endonucleases are enzymes that cut double-stranded DNA at specific sequences, producing fragments of various lengths. By digesting the DNA with different combinations of these enzymes and analyzing the resulting fragment sizes through techniques such as agarose gel electrophoresis, researchers can generate a restriction map - a visual representation of the locations and distances between recognition sites on the DNA molecule. This information is crucial for various applications, including cloning, genome analysis, and genetic engineering.

Viral DNA refers to the genetic material present in viruses that consist of DNA as their core component. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is one of the two types of nucleic acids that are responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information in living organisms. Viruses are infectious agents much smaller than bacteria that can only replicate inside the cells of other organisms, called hosts.

Viral DNA can be double-stranded (dsDNA) or single-stranded (ssDNA), depending on the type of virus. Double-stranded DNA viruses have a genome made up of two complementary strands of DNA, while single-stranded DNA viruses contain only one strand of DNA.

Examples of dsDNA viruses include Adenoviruses, Herpesviruses, and Poxviruses, while ssDNA viruses include Parvoviruses and Circoviruses. Viral DNA plays a crucial role in the replication cycle of the virus, encoding for various proteins necessary for its multiplication and survival within the host cell.

The X chromosome is one of the two types of sex-determining chromosomes in humans (the other being the Y chromosome). It's one of the 23 pairs of chromosomes that make up a person's genetic material. Females typically have two copies of the X chromosome (XX), while males usually have one X and one Y chromosome (XY).

The X chromosome contains hundreds of genes that are responsible for the production of various proteins, many of which are essential for normal bodily functions. Some of the critical roles of the X chromosome include:

1. Sex Determination: The presence or absence of the Y chromosome determines whether an individual is male or female. If there is no Y chromosome, the individual will typically develop as a female.
2. Genetic Disorders: Since females have two copies of the X chromosome, they are less likely to be affected by X-linked genetic disorders than males. Males, having only one X chromosome, will express any recessive X-linked traits they inherit.
3. Dosage Compensation: To compensate for the difference in gene dosage between males and females, a process called X-inactivation occurs during female embryonic development. One of the two X chromosomes is randomly inactivated in each cell, resulting in a single functional copy per cell.

The X chromosome plays a crucial role in human genetics and development, contributing to various traits and characteristics, including sex determination and dosage compensation.

Sequence homology in nucleic acids refers to the similarity or identity between the nucleotide sequences of two or more DNA or RNA molecules. It is often used as a measure of biological relationship between genes, organisms, or populations. High sequence homology suggests a recent common ancestry or functional constraint, while low sequence homology may indicate a more distant relationship or different functions.

Nucleic acid sequence homology can be determined by various methods such as pairwise alignment, multiple sequence alignment, and statistical analysis. The degree of homology is typically expressed as a percentage of identical or similar nucleotides in a given window of comparison.

It's important to note that the interpretation of sequence homology depends on the biological context and the evolutionary distance between the sequences compared. Therefore, functional and experimental validation is often necessary to confirm the significance of sequence homology.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

'Ehrlichia ruminantium' is a gram-negative, intracellular bacterium that belongs to the family Anaplasmataceae. It is the etiological agent of heartwater, a tick-borne disease that affects mainly ruminants such as cattle, sheep, and goats. The bacteria infect endothelial cells in various organs, including the brain and heart, causing vasculitis, edema, and hemorrhage, which can lead to severe clinical signs and death in infected animals.

The bacterium is transmitted through the bite of infected ticks, mainly from the genus Amblyomma. The disease is endemic in many tropical and subtropical regions of the world, including Africa, the Caribbean, and South America. Heartwater is a major constraint to livestock production in affected areas, causing significant economic losses to farmers and pastoralists.

Prevention and control measures for heartwater include the use of acaricides to control tick infestations, vaccination of susceptible animals, and quarantine measures to prevent the introduction of infected animals into disease-free areas.

A gene is a specific sequence of nucleotides in DNA that carries genetic information. Genes are the fundamental units of heredity and are responsible for the development and function of all living organisms. They code for proteins or RNA molecules, which carry out various functions within cells and are essential for the structure, function, and regulation of the body's tissues and organs.

Each gene has a specific location on a chromosome, and each person inherits two copies of every gene, one from each parent. Variations in the sequence of nucleotides in a gene can lead to differences in traits between individuals, including physical characteristics, susceptibility to disease, and responses to environmental factors.

Medical genetics is the study of genes and their role in health and disease. It involves understanding how genes contribute to the development and progression of various medical conditions, as well as identifying genetic risk factors and developing strategies for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. This information is used by the cell's machinery to construct proteins, a process known as translation. After being transcribed from DNA, mRNA travels out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Once the protein has been synthesized, the mRNA may be degraded and recycled. Post-transcriptional modifications can also occur to mRNA, such as alternative splicing and addition of a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail, which can affect its stability, localization, and translation efficiency.

A plasmid is a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is separate from the chromosomal DNA of a bacterium or other organism. Plasmids are typically not essential for the survival of the organism, but they can confer beneficial traits such as antibiotic resistance or the ability to degrade certain types of pollutants.

Plasmids are capable of replicating independently of the chromosomal DNA and can be transferred between bacteria through a process called conjugation. They often contain genes that provide resistance to antibiotics, heavy metals, and other environmental stressors. Plasmids have also been engineered for use in molecular biology as cloning vectors, allowing scientists to replicate and manipulate specific DNA sequences.

Plasmids are important tools in genetic engineering and biotechnology because they can be easily manipulated and transferred between organisms. They have been used to produce vaccines, diagnostic tests, and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for various applications, including agriculture, medicine, and industry.

In situ hybridization (ISH) is a molecular biology technique used to detect and localize specific nucleic acid sequences, such as DNA or RNA, within cells or tissues. This technique involves the use of a labeled probe that is complementary to the target nucleic acid sequence. The probe can be labeled with various types of markers, including radioisotopes, fluorescent dyes, or enzymes.

During the ISH procedure, the labeled probe is hybridized to the target nucleic acid sequence in situ, meaning that the hybridization occurs within the intact cells or tissues. After washing away unbound probe, the location of the labeled probe can be visualized using various methods depending on the type of label used.

In situ hybridization has a wide range of applications in both research and diagnostic settings, including the detection of gene expression patterns, identification of viral infections, and diagnosis of genetic disorders.

The Y chromosome is one of the two sex-determining chromosomes in humans and many other animals, along with the X chromosome. The Y chromosome contains the genetic information that helps to determine an individual's sex as male. It is significantly smaller than the X chromosome and contains fewer genes.

The Y chromosome is present in males, who inherit it from their father. Females, on the other hand, have two X chromosomes, one inherited from each parent. The Y chromosome includes a gene called SRY (sex-determining region Y), which initiates the development of male sexual characteristics during embryonic development.

It is worth noting that the Y chromosome has a relatively high rate of genetic mutation and degeneration compared to other chromosomes, leading to concerns about its long-term viability in human evolution. However, current evidence suggests that the Y chromosome has been stable for at least the past 25 million years.

Bacterial RNA refers to the genetic material present in bacteria that is composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA). Unlike higher organisms, bacteria contain a single circular chromosome made up of DNA, along with smaller circular pieces of DNA called plasmids. These bacterial genetic materials contain the information necessary for the growth and reproduction of the organism.

Bacterial RNA can be divided into three main categories: messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA). mRNA carries genetic information copied from DNA, which is then translated into proteins by the rRNA and tRNA molecules. rRNA is a structural component of the ribosome, where protein synthesis occurs, while tRNA acts as an adapter that brings amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis.

Bacterial RNA plays a crucial role in various cellular processes, including gene expression, protein synthesis, and regulation of metabolic pathways. Understanding the structure and function of bacterial RNA is essential for developing new antibiotics and other therapeutic strategies to combat bacterial infections.

Karyotyping is a medical laboratory test used to study the chromosomes in a cell. It involves obtaining a sample of cells from a patient, usually from blood or bone marrow, and then staining the chromosomes so they can be easily seen under a microscope. The chromosomes are then arranged in pairs based on their size, shape, and other features to create a karyotype. This visual representation allows for the identification and analysis of any chromosomal abnormalities, such as extra or missing chromosomes, or structural changes like translocations or inversions. These abnormalities can provide important information about genetic disorders, diseases, and developmental problems.

Luminescent measurements refer to the quantitative assessment of the emission of light from a substance that has been excited, typically through some form of energy input such as electrical energy or radiation. In the context of medical diagnostics and research, luminescent measurements can be used in various applications, including bioluminescence imaging, which is used to study biological processes at the cellular and molecular level.

Bioluminescence occurs when a chemical reaction produces light within a living organism, often through the action of enzymes such as luciferase. By introducing a luciferase gene into cells or organisms, researchers can use bioluminescent measurements to track cellular processes and monitor gene expression in real time.

Luminescent measurements may also be used in medical research to study the properties of materials used in medical devices, such as LEDs or optical fibers, or to develop new diagnostic tools based on light-emitting nanoparticles or other luminescent materials.

In summary, luminescent measurements are a valuable tool in medical research and diagnostics, providing a non-invasive way to study biological processes and develop new technologies for disease detection and treatment.

Repetitive sequences in nucleic acid refer to repeated stretches of DNA or RNA nucleotide bases that are present in a genome. These sequences can vary in length and can be arranged in different patterns such as direct repeats, inverted repeats, or tandem repeats. In some cases, these repetitive sequences do not code for proteins and are often found in non-coding regions of the genome. They can play a role in genetic instability, regulation of gene expression, and evolutionary processes. However, certain types of repeat expansions have been associated with various neurodegenerative disorders and other human diseases.

Genetic markers are specific segments of DNA that are used in genetic mapping and genotyping to identify specific genetic locations, diseases, or traits. They can be composed of short tandem repeats (STRs), single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs), or variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs). These markers are useful in various fields such as genetic research, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and breeding programs. They can help to track inheritance patterns, identify genetic predispositions to diseases, and solve crimes by linking biological evidence to suspects or victims.

Shiga toxin 1 (Stx1) is a protein toxin produced by certain strains of the bacterium Escherichia coli (E. coli), specifically those that belong to serotype O157:H7 and some other Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) or enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC).

Shiga toxins are named after Kiyoshi Shiga, who discovered the first strain of E. coli that produces this toxin in 1897. These toxins inhibit protein synthesis in eukaryotic cells and cause damage to the endothelial cells lining blood vessels, which can lead to various clinical manifestations such as hemorrhagic colitis (bloody diarrhea) and hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), a severe complication that can result in kidney failure.

Shiga toxin 1 is composed of two subunits, A and B. The B subunit binds to specific glycolipid receptors on the surface of target cells, facilitating the uptake of the toxin into the cell. Once inside the cell, the A subunit inhibits protein synthesis by removing an adenine residue from a specific region of the 28S rRNA molecule in the ribosome, thereby preventing peptide bond formation and leading to cell death.

Shiga toxin 1 is highly toxic and can cause significant morbidity and mortality, particularly in children, the elderly, and immunocompromised individuals. Antibiotics are generally not recommended for the treatment of Shiga toxin-producing E. coli infections because they may increase the risk of developing HUS by inducing bacterial lysis and releasing more toxins into the circulation. Supportive care, hydration, and close monitoring are essential for managing these infections.

Electrophoresis, Agar Gel is a laboratory technique used to separate and analyze DNA, RNA, or proteins based on their size and electrical charge. In this method, the sample is mixed with agarose gel, a gelatinous substance derived from seaweed, and then solidified in a horizontal slab-like format. An electric field is applied to the gel, causing the negatively charged DNA or RNA molecules to migrate towards the positive electrode. The smaller molecules move faster through the gel than the larger ones, resulting in their separation based on size. This technique is widely used in molecular biology and genetics research, as well as in diagnostic testing for various genetic disorders.

Recombinant DNA is a term used in molecular biology to describe DNA that has been created by combining genetic material from more than one source. This is typically done through the use of laboratory techniques such as molecular cloning, in which fragments of DNA are inserted into vectors (such as plasmids or viruses) and then introduced into a host organism where they can replicate and produce many copies of the recombinant DNA molecule.

Recombinant DNA technology has numerous applications in research, medicine, and industry, including the production of recombinant proteins for use as therapeutics, the creation of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for agricultural or industrial purposes, and the development of new tools for genetic analysis and manipulation.

It's important to note that while recombinant DNA technology has many potential benefits, it also raises ethical and safety concerns, and its use is subject to regulation and oversight in many countries.

Reagent kits, diagnostic are prepackaged sets of chemical reagents and other components designed for performing specific diagnostic tests or assays. These kits are often used in clinical laboratories to detect and measure the presence or absence of various biomarkers, such as proteins, antibodies, antigens, nucleic acids, or small molecules, in biological samples like blood, urine, or tissues.

Diagnostic reagent kits typically contain detailed instructions for their use, along with the necessary reagents, controls, and sometimes specialized equipment or supplies. They are designed to simplify the testing process, reduce human error, and increase standardization, ensuring accurate and reliable results. Examples of diagnostic reagent kits include those used for pregnancy tests, infectious disease screening, drug testing, genetic testing, and cancer biomarker detection.

Chromosome aberrations refer to structural and numerical changes in the chromosomes that can occur spontaneously or as a result of exposure to mutagenic agents. These changes can affect the genetic material encoded in the chromosomes, leading to various consequences such as developmental abnormalities, cancer, or infertility.

Structural aberrations include deletions, duplications, inversions, translocations, and rings, which result from breaks and rearrangements of chromosome segments. Numerical aberrations involve changes in the number of chromosomes, such as aneuploidy (extra or missing chromosomes) or polyploidy (multiples of a complete set of chromosomes).

Chromosome aberrations can be detected and analyzed using various cytogenetic techniques, including karyotyping, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), and comparative genomic hybridization (CGH). These methods allow for the identification and characterization of chromosomal changes at the molecular level, providing valuable information for genetic counseling, diagnosis, and research.

Oligonucleotides are short sequences of nucleotides, the building blocks of DNA and RNA. They typically contain fewer than 100 nucleotides, and can be synthesized chemically to have specific sequences. Oligonucleotides are used in a variety of applications in molecular biology, including as probes for detecting specific DNA or RNA sequences, as inhibitors of gene expression, and as components of diagnostic tests and therapies. They can also be used in the study of protein-nucleic acid interactions and in the development of new drugs.

Bacteriological techniques refer to the various methods and procedures used in the laboratory for the cultivation, identification, and study of bacteria. These techniques are essential in fields such as medicine, biotechnology, and research. Here are some common bacteriological techniques:

1. **Sterilization**: This is a process that eliminates or kills all forms of life, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and spores. Common sterilization methods include autoclaving (using steam under pressure), dry heat (in an oven), chemical sterilants, and radiation.

2. **Aseptic Technique**: This refers to practices used to prevent contamination of sterile materials or environments with microorganisms. It includes the use of sterile equipment, gloves, and lab coats, as well as techniques such as flaming, alcohol swabbing, and using aseptic transfer devices.

3. **Media Preparation**: This involves the preparation of nutrient-rich substances that support bacterial growth. There are various types of media, including solid (agar), liquid (broth), and semi-solid (e.g., stab agar). The choice of medium depends on the type of bacteria being cultured and the purpose of the investigation.

4. **Inoculation**: This is the process of introducing a bacterial culture into a medium. It can be done using a loop, swab, or needle. The inoculum should be taken from a pure culture to avoid contamination.

5. **Incubation**: After inoculation, the bacteria are allowed to grow under controlled conditions of temperature, humidity, and atmospheric composition. This process is called incubation.

6. **Staining and Microscopy**: Bacteria are too small to be seen with the naked eye. Therefore, they need to be stained and observed under a microscope. Gram staining is a common method used to differentiate between two major groups of bacteria based on their cell wall composition.

7. **Biochemical Tests**: These are tests used to identify specific bacterial species based on their biochemical characteristics, such as their ability to ferment certain sugars, produce particular enzymes, or resist certain antibiotics.

8. **Molecular Techniques**: Advanced techniques like PCR and DNA sequencing can provide more precise identification of bacteria. They can also be used for genetic analysis and epidemiological studies.

Remember, handling microorganisms requires careful attention to biosafety procedures to prevent accidental infection or environmental contamination.

Bacterial toxins are poisonous substances produced and released by bacteria. They can cause damage to the host organism's cells and tissues, leading to illness or disease. Bacterial toxins can be classified into two main types: exotoxins and endotoxins.

Exotoxins are proteins secreted by bacterial cells that can cause harm to the host. They often target specific cellular components or pathways, leading to tissue damage and inflammation. Some examples of exotoxins include botulinum toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum, which causes botulism; diphtheria toxin produced by Corynebacterium diphtheriae, which causes diphtheria; and tetanus toxin produced by Clostridium tetani, which causes tetanus.

Endotoxins, on the other hand, are components of the bacterial cell wall that are released when the bacteria die or divide. They consist of lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and can cause a generalized inflammatory response in the host. Endotoxins can be found in gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Bacterial toxins can cause a wide range of symptoms depending on the type of toxin, the dose, and the site of infection. They can lead to serious illnesses or even death if left untreated. Vaccines and antibiotics are often used to prevent or treat bacterial infections and reduce the risk of severe complications from bacterial toxins.

A chromosome deletion is a type of genetic abnormality that occurs when a portion of a chromosome is missing or deleted. Chromosomes are thread-like structures located in the nucleus of cells that contain our genetic material, which is organized into genes.

Chromosome deletions can occur spontaneously during the formation of reproductive cells (eggs or sperm) or can be inherited from a parent. They can affect any chromosome and can vary in size, from a small segment to a large portion of the chromosome.

The severity of the symptoms associated with a chromosome deletion depends on the size and location of the deleted segment. In some cases, the deletion may be so small that it does not cause any noticeable symptoms. However, larger deletions can lead to developmental delays, intellectual disabilities, physical abnormalities, and various medical conditions.

Chromosome deletions are typically detected through a genetic test called karyotyping, which involves analyzing the number and structure of an individual's chromosomes. Other more precise tests, such as fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) or chromosomal microarray analysis (CMA), may also be used to confirm the diagnosis and identify the specific location and size of the deletion.

Genetic transcription is the process by which the information in a strand of DNA is used to create a complementary RNA molecule. This process is the first step in gene expression, where the genetic code in DNA is converted into a form that can be used to produce proteins or functional RNAs.

During transcription, an enzyme called RNA polymerase binds to the DNA template strand and reads the sequence of nucleotide bases. As it moves along the template, it adds complementary RNA nucleotides to the growing RNA chain, creating a single-stranded RNA molecule that is complementary to the DNA template strand. Once transcription is complete, the RNA molecule may undergo further processing before it can be translated into protein or perform its functional role in the cell.

Transcription can be either "constitutive" or "regulated." Constitutive transcription occurs at a relatively constant rate and produces essential proteins that are required for basic cellular functions. Regulated transcription, on the other hand, is subject to control by various intracellular and extracellular signals, allowing cells to respond to changing environmental conditions or developmental cues.

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a type of RNA that combines with proteins to form ribosomes, which are complex structures inside cells where protein synthesis occurs. The "16S" refers to the sedimentation coefficient of the rRNA molecule, which is a measure of its size and shape. In particular, 16S rRNA is a component of the smaller subunit of the prokaryotic ribosome (found in bacteria and archaea), and is often used as a molecular marker for identifying and classifying these organisms due to its relative stability and conservation among species. The sequence of 16S rRNA can be compared across different species to determine their evolutionary relationships and taxonomic positions.

Sex chromosome aberrations refer to structural and numerical abnormalities in the sex chromosomes, which are typically represented as X and Y chromosomes in humans. These aberrations can result in variations in the number of sex chromosomes, such as Klinefelter syndrome (47,XXY), Turner syndrome (45,X), and Jacobs/XYY syndrome (47,XYY). They can also include structural changes, such as deletions, duplications, or translocations of sex chromosome material.

Sex chromosome aberrations may lead to a range of phenotypic effects, including differences in physical characteristics, cognitive development, fertility, and susceptibility to certain health conditions. The manifestation and severity of these impacts can vary widely depending on the specific type and extent of the aberration, as well as individual genetic factors and environmental influences.

It is important to note that while sex chromosome aberrations may pose challenges and require medical management, they do not inherently define or limit a person's potential, identity, or worth. Comprehensive care, support, and education can help individuals with sex chromosome aberrations lead fulfilling lives and reach their full potential.

Genetic linkage is the phenomenon where two or more genetic loci (locations on a chromosome) tend to be inherited together because they are close to each other on the same chromosome. This occurs during the process of sexual reproduction, where homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange genetic material through a process called crossing over.

The closer two loci are to each other on a chromosome, the lower the probability that they will be separated by a crossover event. As a result, they are more likely to be inherited together and are said to be linked. The degree of linkage between two loci can be measured by their recombination frequency, which is the percentage of meiotic events in which a crossover occurs between them.

Linkage analysis is an important tool in genetic research, as it allows researchers to identify and map genes that are associated with specific traits or diseases. By analyzing patterns of linkage between markers (identifiable DNA sequences) and phenotypes (observable traits), researchers can infer the location of genes that contribute to those traits or diseases on chromosomes.

In the context of medicine, "archives" typically refers to the collection and preservation of medical records or documents that are no longer in active use but still need to be retained for legal, historical, or research purposes. These archived materials may include patient records, clinical trial data, hospital reports, correspondence, images, and other forms of documentation. The purpose of maintaining medical archives is to ensure the availability and integrity of this information for future reference, as well as to comply with regulatory requirements related to record-keeping and privacy.

Ribosomal DNA (rDNA) refers to the specific regions of DNA in a cell that contain the genes for ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Ribosomes are complex structures composed of proteins and rRNA, which play a crucial role in protein synthesis by translating messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins.

In humans, there are four types of rRNA molecules: 18S, 5.8S, 28S, and 5S. These rRNAs are encoded by multiple copies of rDNA genes that are organized in clusters on specific chromosomes. In humans, the majority of rDNA genes are located on the short arms of acrocentric chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21, and 22.

Each cluster of rDNA genes contains both transcribed and non-transcribed spacer regions. The transcribed regions contain the genes for the four types of rRNA, while the non-transcribed spacers contain regulatory elements that control the transcription of the rRNA genes.

The number of rDNA copies varies between species and even within individuals of the same species. The copy number can also change during development and in response to environmental factors. Variations in rDNA copy number have been associated with various diseases, including cancer and neurological disorders.

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a type of RNA molecule that is a key component of ribosomes, which are the cellular structures where protein synthesis occurs in cells. In ribosomes, rRNA plays a crucial role in the process of translation, where genetic information from messenger RNA (mRNA) is translated into proteins.

Ribosomal RNA is synthesized in the nucleus and then transported to the cytoplasm, where it assembles with ribosomal proteins to form ribosomes. Within the ribosome, rRNA provides a structural framework for the assembly of the ribosome and also plays an active role in catalyzing the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids during protein synthesis.

There are several different types of rRNA molecules, including 5S, 5.8S, 18S, and 28S rRNA, which vary in size and function. These rRNA molecules are highly conserved across different species, indicating their essential role in protein synthesis and cellular function.

Diarrhea is a condition in which an individual experiences loose, watery stools frequently, often exceeding three times a day. It can be acute, lasting for several days, or chronic, persisting for weeks or even months. Diarrhea can result from various factors, including viral, bacterial, or parasitic infections, food intolerances, medications, and underlying medical conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease or irritable bowel syndrome. Dehydration is a potential complication of diarrhea, particularly in severe cases or in vulnerable populations like young children and the elderly.

Oligonucleotide Array Sequence Analysis is a type of microarray analysis that allows for the simultaneous measurement of the expression levels of thousands of genes in a single sample. In this technique, oligonucleotides (short DNA sequences) are attached to a solid support, such as a glass slide, in a specific pattern. These oligonucleotides are designed to be complementary to specific target mRNA sequences from the sample being analyzed.

During the analysis, labeled RNA or cDNA from the sample is hybridized to the oligonucleotide array. The level of hybridization is then measured and used to determine the relative abundance of each target sequence in the sample. This information can be used to identify differences in gene expression between samples, which can help researchers understand the underlying biological processes involved in various diseases or developmental stages.

It's important to note that this technique requires specialized equipment and bioinformatics tools for data analysis, as well as careful experimental design and validation to ensure accurate and reproducible results.

DNA primers are short single-stranded DNA molecules that serve as a starting point for DNA synthesis. They are typically used in laboratory techniques such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing. The primer binds to a complementary sequence on the DNA template through base pairing, providing a free 3'-hydroxyl group for the DNA polymerase enzyme to add nucleotides and synthesize a new strand of DNA. This allows for specific and targeted amplification or analysis of a particular region of interest within a larger DNA molecule.

Human chromosome pair 1 refers to the first pair of chromosomes in a set of 23 pairs found in the cells of the human body, excluding sex cells (sperm and eggs). Each cell in the human body, except for the gametes, contains 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs. These chromosomes are rod-shaped structures that contain genetic information in the form of DNA.

Chromosome pair 1 is the largest pair, making up about 8% of the total DNA in a cell. Each chromosome in the pair consists of two arms - a shorter p arm and a longer q arm - connected at a centromere. Chromosome 1 carries an estimated 2,000-2,500 genes, which are segments of DNA that contain instructions for making proteins or regulating gene expression.

Defects or mutations in the genes located on chromosome 1 can lead to various genetic disorders and diseases, such as Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1A, Huntington's disease, and certain types of cancer.

Satellite DNA is a type of DNA sequence that is repeated in a tandem arrangement in the genome. These repeats are usually relatively short, ranging from 2 to 10 base pairs, and are often present in thousands to millions of copies arranged in head-to-tail fashion. Satellite DNA can be found in centromeric and pericentromeric regions of chromosomes, as well as at telomeres and other heterochromatic regions of the genome.

Due to their repetitive nature, satellite DNAs are often excluded from the main part of the genome during DNA sequencing projects, and therefore have been referred to as "satellite" DNA. However, recent studies suggest that satellite DNA may play important roles in chromosome structure, function, and evolution.

It's worth noting that not all repetitive DNA sequences are considered satellite DNA. For example, microsatellites and minisatellites are also repetitive DNA sequences, but they have different repeat lengths and arrangements than satellite DNA.

Cytotoxins are substances that are toxic to cells. They can cause damage and death to cells by disrupting their membranes, interfering with their metabolism, or triggering programmed cell death (apoptosis). Cytotoxins can be produced by various organisms such as bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals, and they can also be synthesized artificially.

In medicine, cytotoxic drugs are used to treat cancer because they selectively target and kill rapidly dividing cells, including cancer cells. Examples of cytotoxic drugs include chemotherapy agents such as doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide, and methotrexate. However, these drugs can also damage normal cells, leading to side effects such as nausea, hair loss, and immune suppression.

It's important to note that cytotoxins are not the same as toxins, which are poisonous substances produced by living organisms that can cause harm to other organisms. While all cytotoxins are toxic to cells, not all toxins are cytotoxic. Some toxins may have systemic effects on organs or tissues rather than directly killing cells.

Interphase is a phase in the cell cycle during which the cell primarily performs its functions of growth and DNA replication. It is the longest phase of the cell cycle, consisting of G1 phase (during which the cell grows and prepares for DNA replication), S phase (during which DNA replication occurs), and G2 phase (during which the cell grows further and prepares for mitosis). During interphase, the chromosomes are in their relaxed, extended form and are not visible under the microscope. Interphase is followed by mitosis, during which the chromosomes condense and separate to form two genetically identical daughter cells.

DNA Sequence Analysis is the systematic determination of the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. It is a critical component of modern molecular biology, genetics, and genetic engineering. The process involves determining the exact order of the four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - in a DNA molecule or fragment. This information is used in various applications such as identifying gene mutations, studying evolutionary relationships, developing molecular markers for breeding, and diagnosing genetic diseases.

The process of DNA Sequence Analysis typically involves several steps, including DNA extraction, PCR amplification (if necessary), purification, sequencing reaction, and electrophoresis. The resulting data is then analyzed using specialized software to determine the exact sequence of nucleotides.

In recent years, high-throughput DNA sequencing technologies have revolutionized the field of genomics, enabling the rapid and cost-effective sequencing of entire genomes. This has led to an explosion of genomic data and new insights into the genetic basis of many diseases and traits.

Aneuploidy is a medical term that refers to an abnormal number of chromosomes in a cell. Chromosomes are thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of cells that contain genetic information in the form of genes.

In humans, the normal number of chromosomes in a cell is 46, arranged in 23 pairs. Aneuploidy occurs when there is an extra or missing chromosome in one or more of these pairs. For example, Down syndrome is a condition that results from an extra copy of chromosome 21, also known as trisomy 21.

Aneuploidy can arise during the formation of gametes (sperm or egg cells) due to errors in the process of cell division called meiosis. These errors can result in eggs or sperm with an abnormal number of chromosomes, which can then lead to aneuploidy in the resulting embryo.

Aneuploidy is a significant cause of birth defects and miscarriages. The severity of the condition depends on which chromosomes are affected and the extent of the abnormality. In some cases, aneuploidy may have no noticeable effects, while in others it can lead to serious health problems or developmental delays.

Carbocyanines are a class of organic compounds that contain a polymethine chain, which is a type of carbon-based structure with alternating single and double bonds, and one or more cyanine groups. A cyanine group is a functional group consisting of a nitrogen atom connected to two carbon atoms by double bonds, with the remaining valences on the carbon atoms being satisfied by other groups.

Carbocyanines are known for their strong absorption and fluorescence properties in the visible and near-infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. These properties make them useful as dyes and fluorescent labels in various applications, including biomedical research, clinical diagnostics, and material science.

In medicine, carbocyanines are sometimes used as fluorescent contrast agents for imaging purposes. They can be injected into the body and accumulate in certain tissues or organs, where they emit light when excited by a specific wavelength of light. This allows doctors to visualize the distribution of the agent and potentially detect abnormalities such as tumors or inflammation.

It is important to note that while carbocyanines have potential medical applications, they are not themselves medications or drugs. They are tools used in various medical procedures and research.

Bacterial typing techniques are methods used to identify and differentiate bacterial strains or isolates based on their unique characteristics. These techniques are essential in epidemiological studies, infection control, and research to understand the transmission dynamics, virulence, and antibiotic resistance patterns of bacterial pathogens.

There are various bacterial typing techniques available, including:

1. **Bacteriophage Typing:** This method involves using bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) to identify specific bacterial strains based on their susceptibility or resistance to particular phages.
2. **Serotyping:** It is a technique that differentiates bacterial strains based on the antigenic properties of their cell surface components, such as capsules, flagella, and somatic (O) and flagellar (H) antigens.
3. **Biochemical Testing:** This method uses biochemical reactions to identify specific metabolic pathways or enzymes present in bacterial strains, which can be used for differentiation. Commonly used tests include the catalase test, oxidase test, and various sugar fermentation tests.
4. **Molecular Typing Techniques:** These methods use genetic markers to identify and differentiate bacterial strains at the DNA level. Examples of molecular typing techniques include:
* **Pulsed-Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE):** This method uses restriction enzymes to digest bacterial DNA, followed by electrophoresis in an agarose gel under pulsed electrical fields. The resulting banding patterns are analyzed and compared to identify related strains.
* **Multilocus Sequence Typing (MLST):** It involves sequencing specific housekeeping genes to generate unique sequence types that can be used for strain identification and phylogenetic analysis.
* **Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS):** This method sequences the entire genome of a bacterial strain, providing the most detailed information on genetic variation and relatedness between strains. WGS data can be analyzed using various bioinformatics tools to identify single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), gene deletions or insertions, and other genetic changes that can be used for strain differentiation.

These molecular typing techniques provide higher resolution than traditional methods, allowing for more accurate identification and comparison of bacterial strains. They are particularly useful in epidemiological investigations to track the spread of pathogens and identify outbreaks.

Fluorescence spectrometry is a type of analytical technique used to investigate the fluorescent properties of a sample. It involves the measurement of the intensity of light emitted by a substance when it absorbs light at a specific wavelength and then re-emits it at a longer wavelength. This process, known as fluorescence, occurs because the absorbed energy excites electrons in the molecules of the substance to higher energy states, and when these electrons return to their ground state, they release the excess energy as light.

Fluorescence spectrometry typically measures the emission spectrum of a sample, which is a plot of the intensity of emitted light versus the wavelength of emission. This technique can be used to identify and quantify the presence of specific fluorescent molecules in a sample, as well as to study their photophysical properties.

Fluorescence spectrometry has many applications in fields such as biochemistry, environmental science, and materials science. For example, it can be used to detect and measure the concentration of pollutants in water samples, to analyze the composition of complex biological mixtures, or to study the properties of fluorescent nanomaterials.

'Campylobacter' is a genus of gram-negative, spiral-shaped bacteria that are commonly found in the intestinal tracts of animals, including birds and mammals. These bacteria are a leading cause of bacterial foodborne illness worldwide, with Campylobacter jejuni being the most frequently identified species associated with human infection.

Campylobacter infection, also known as campylobacteriosis, typically causes symptoms such as diarrhea (often bloody), abdominal cramps, fever, and vomiting. The infection is usually acquired through the consumption of contaminated food or water, particularly undercooked poultry, raw milk, and contaminated produce. It can also be transmitted through contact with infected animals or their feces.

While most cases of campylobacteriosis are self-limiting and resolve within a week without specific treatment, severe or prolonged infections may require antibiotic therapy. In rare cases, Campylobacter infection can lead to serious complications such as bacteremia (bacterial bloodstream infection), meningitis, or Guillain-Barré syndrome, a neurological disorder that can cause muscle weakness and paralysis.

Preventive measures include proper food handling and cooking techniques, thorough handwashing, and avoiding cross-contamination between raw and cooked foods.

A cell line is a culture of cells that are grown in a laboratory for use in research. These cells are usually taken from a single cell or group of cells, and they are able to divide and grow continuously in the lab. Cell lines can come from many different sources, including animals, plants, and humans. They are often used in scientific research to study cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and to test new drugs or treatments. Some common types of human cell lines include HeLa cells (which come from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks), HEK293 cells (which come from embryonic kidney cells), and HUVEC cells (which come from umbilical vein endothelial cells). It is important to note that cell lines are not the same as primary cells, which are cells that are taken directly from a living organism and have not been grown in the lab.

Peptide Nucleic Acids (PNAs) are synthetic, artificially produced molecules that have a structure similar to both peptides (short chains of amino acids) and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). They consist of repeating units called "monomers" made up of a pseudopeptide backbone with nucleobases attached. The backbone is composed of N-(2-aminoethyl)glycine units, which replace the sugar-phosphate backbone found in natural nucleic acids.

PNAs are known for their high binding affinity and sequence-specific recognition of DNA and RNA molecules. They can form stable complexes with complementary DNA or RNA strands through Watson-Crick base pairing, even under conditions where normal nucleic acid hybridization is poor. This property makes them valuable tools in molecular biology for various applications such as:

1. Gene regulation and silencing
2. Antisense and antigen technologies
3. Diagnostics and biosensors
4. Study of protein-DNA interactions
5. DNA repair and mutation analysis

However, it is important to note that Peptide Nucleic Acids are not naturally occurring molecules; they are entirely synthetic and must be produced in a laboratory setting.

Feces are the solid or semisolid remains of food that could not be digested or absorbed in the small intestine, along with bacteria and other waste products. After being stored in the colon, feces are eliminated from the body through the rectum and anus during defecation. Feces can vary in color, consistency, and odor depending on a person's diet, health status, and other factors.

Mycobacterium avium Complex (MAC) is a group of slow-growing mycobacteria that includes Mycobacterium avium and Mycobacterium intracellulare. These bacteria are commonly found in water, soil, and dust, and can cause pulmonary disease, lymphadenitis, and disseminated infection, particularly in individuals with compromised immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS. The infection caused by MAC is often chronic and difficult to eradicate, requiring long-term antibiotic therapy.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "hybrid cells" is not a standard medical term with a widely accepted or specific definition in the field of medicine. The term "hybrid" is used in various scientific and medical contexts to describe combinations or mixtures of different elements, such as hybridoma cells (a type of fusion cell used in research, created by combining a B cell and a tumor cell) or hybridization (in genetics, the process of combining DNA from two different sources).

Without more specific context, it's difficult to provide an accurate medical definition for "hybrid cells." If you could provide more information about the context in which this term was used, I would be happy to help you further!

Biosensing techniques refer to the methods and technologies used to detect and measure biological molecules or processes, typically through the use of a physical device or sensor. These techniques often involve the conversion of a biological response into an electrical signal that can be measured and analyzed. Examples of biosensing techniques include electrochemical biosensors, optical biosensors, and piezoelectric biosensors.

Electrochemical biosensors measure the electrical current or potential generated by a biochemical reaction at an electrode surface. This type of biosensor typically consists of a biological recognition element, such as an enzyme or antibody, that is immobilized on the electrode surface and interacts with the target analyte to produce an electrical signal.

Optical biosensors measure changes in light intensity or wavelength that occur when a biochemical reaction takes place. This type of biosensor can be based on various optical principles, such as absorbance, fluorescence, or surface plasmon resonance (SPR).

Piezoelectric biosensors measure changes in mass or frequency that occur when a biomolecule binds to the surface of a piezoelectric crystal. This type of biosensor is based on the principle that piezoelectric materials generate an electrical charge when subjected to mechanical stress, and this charge can be used to detect changes in mass or frequency that are proportional to the amount of biomolecule bound to the surface.

Biosensing techniques have a wide range of applications in fields such as medicine, environmental monitoring, food safety, and biodefense. They can be used to detect and measure a variety of biological molecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, hormones, and small molecules, as well as to monitor biological processes such as cell growth or metabolism.

Colorimetry is the scientific measurement and quantification of color, typically using a colorimeter or spectrophotometer. In the medical field, colorimetry may be used in various applications such as:

1. Diagnosis and monitoring of skin conditions: Colorimeters can measure changes in skin color to help diagnose or monitor conditions like jaundice, cyanosis, or vitiligo. They can also assess the effectiveness of treatments for these conditions.
2. Vision assessment: Colorimetry is used in vision testing to determine the presence and severity of visual impairments such as color blindness or deficiencies. Special tests called anomaloscopes or color vision charts are used to measure an individual's ability to distinguish between different colors.
3. Environmental monitoring: In healthcare settings, colorimetry can be employed to monitor the cleanliness and sterility of surfaces or equipment by measuring the amount of contamination present. This is often done using ATP (adenosine triphosphate) bioluminescence assays, which emit light when they come into contact with microorganisms.
4. Medical research: Colorimetry has applications in medical research, such as studying the optical properties of tissues or developing new diagnostic tools and techniques based on color measurements.

In summary, colorimetry is a valuable tool in various medical fields for diagnosis, monitoring, and research purposes. It allows healthcare professionals to make more informed decisions about patient care and treatment plans.

DNA fingerprinting, also known as DNA profiling or genetic fingerprinting, is a laboratory technique used to identify and compare the unique genetic makeup of individuals by analyzing specific regions of their DNA. This method is based on the variation in the length of repetitive sequences of DNA called variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs) or short tandem repeats (STRs), which are located at specific locations in the human genome and differ significantly among individuals, except in the case of identical twins.

The process of DNA fingerprinting involves extracting DNA from a sample, amplifying targeted regions using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and then separating and visualizing the resulting DNA fragments through electrophoresis. The fragment patterns are then compared to determine the likelihood of a match between two samples.

DNA fingerprinting has numerous applications in forensic science, paternity testing, identity verification, and genealogical research. It is considered an essential tool for providing strong evidence in criminal investigations and resolving disputes related to parentage and inheritance.

Deoxyribonucleases, Type II Site-Specific are a type of enzymes that cleave phosphodiester bonds in DNA molecules at specific recognition sites. They are called "site-specific" because they cut DNA at particular sequences, rather than at random or nonspecific locations. These enzymes belong to the class of endonucleases and play crucial roles in various biological processes such as DNA recombination, repair, and restriction.

Type II deoxyribonucleases are further classified into several subtypes based on their cofactor requirements, recognition site sequences, and cleavage patterns. The most well-known examples of Type II deoxyribonucleases are the restriction endonucleases, which recognize specific DNA motifs in double-stranded DNA and cleave them, generating sticky ends or blunt ends. These enzymes are widely used in molecular biology research for various applications such as genetic engineering, cloning, and genome analysis.

It is important to note that the term "Deoxyribonucleases, Type II Site-Specific" refers to a broad category of enzymes with similar properties and functions, rather than a specific enzyme or family of enzymes. Therefore, providing a concise medical definition for this term can be challenging, as it covers a wide range of enzymes with distinct characteristics and applications.

Deoxyuracil nucleotides are chemical compounds that are the building blocks of DNA. Specifically, they are the form of nucleotides that contain the sugar deoxyribose and the nucleobase deoxyuracil. In DNA, deoxyuracil nucleotides pair with deoxyadenosine nucleotides through base pairing.

Deoxyuracil is a nucleobase that is similar to thymine, but it lacks a methyl group. Thymine is the usual nucleobase that pairs with adenine in DNA, while uracil is typically found in RNA paired with adenine. However, in certain circumstances, such as during DNA repair or damage, deoxyuracil can be incorporated into DNA instead of thymine.

Deoxyuracil nucleotides are important for understanding DNA replication, repair, and mutation. Abnormalities in the incorporation or removal of deoxyuracil nucleotides can lead to genetic disorders, cancer, and other diseases.

Translocation, genetic, refers to a type of chromosomal abnormality in which a segment of a chromosome is transferred from one chromosome to another, resulting in an altered genome. This can occur between two non-homologous chromosomes (non-reciprocal translocation) or between two homologous chromosomes (reciprocal translocation). Genetic translocations can lead to various clinical consequences, depending on the genes involved and the location of the translocation. Some translocations may result in no apparent effects, while others can cause developmental abnormalities, cancer, or other genetic disorders. In some cases, translocations can also increase the risk of having offspring with genetic conditions.

Gene amplification is a process in molecular biology where a specific gene or set of genes are copied multiple times, leading to an increased number of copies of that gene within the genome. This can occur naturally in cells as a response to various stimuli, such as stress or exposure to certain chemicals, but it can also be induced artificially through laboratory techniques for research purposes.

In cancer biology, gene amplification is often associated with tumor development and progression, where the amplified genes can contribute to increased cell growth, survival, and drug resistance. For example, the overamplification of the HER2/neu gene in breast cancer has been linked to more aggressive tumors and poorer patient outcomes.

In diagnostic and research settings, gene amplification techniques like polymerase chain reaction (PCR) are commonly used to detect and analyze specific genes or genetic sequences of interest. These methods allow researchers to quickly and efficiently generate many copies of a particular DNA sequence, facilitating downstream analysis and detection of low-abundance targets.

Porphyromonas endodontalis is a gram-negative, black-pigmented anaerobic bacterium that is commonly found in the oral cavity and is associated with periodontal disease and endodontic infections. It is a member of the Bacteroidetes phylum and Human Oral Microbiome Database (HOMD).

The bacterium has a polarly flagellated, curved or spiral-shaped morphology and can form biofilms on dental surfaces. P. endodontalis is asaccharolytic, meaning it cannot ferment sugars, and obtains energy by degrading amino acids and proteins.

P. endodontalis has been implicated in the development of periodontal disease due to its ability to produce virulence factors such as lipopolysaccharides (LPS), fimbriae, and various enzymes that contribute to tissue destruction and inflammation. It is also associated with apical periodontitis, an infection of the dental pulp and surrounding tissues, and has been isolated from root canals and periapical abscesses.

Effective control and prevention of P. endodontalis infections require good oral hygiene practices, regular dental check-ups, and appropriate treatment of periodontal disease and endodontic infections.

Nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) are a group of environmental mycobacteria that do not cause tuberculosis or leprosy. They can be found in water, soil, and other natural environments. Some people may become infected with NTM, leading to various diseases depending on the site of infection, such as lung disease (most common), skin and soft tissue infections, lymphadenitis, and disseminated disease.

The clinical significance of NTM isolation is not always clear, as colonization without active infection can occur. Diagnosis typically requires a combination of clinical, radiological, microbiological, and sometimes molecular evidence to confirm the presence of active infection. Treatment usually involves multiple antibiotics for an extended period, depending on the species involved and the severity of disease.

"Cattle" is a term used in the agricultural and veterinary fields to refer to domesticated animals of the genus *Bos*, primarily *Bos taurus* (European cattle) and *Bos indicus* (Zebu). These animals are often raised for meat, milk, leather, and labor. They are also known as bovines or cows (for females), bulls (intact males), and steers/bullocks (castrated males). However, in a strict medical definition, "cattle" does not apply to humans or other animals.

Bacteroides are a genus of gram-negative, anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that are normally present in the human gastrointestinal tract. They are part of the normal gut microbiota and play an important role in breaking down complex carbohydrates and other substances in the gut. However, some species of Bacteroides can cause opportunistic infections, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems or when they spread to other parts of the body. They are resistant to many commonly used antibiotics, making infections caused by these bacteria difficult to treat.

Smegma is a naturally occurring substance that accumulates under the foreskin in uncircumcised males and around the clitoris in females. It's a mixture of dead skin cells, oil, and moisture. While it serves a lubrication function, an excessive buildup can lead to irritation, infection, or other medical issues. It's important to maintain good personal hygiene to prevent such problems.

Serotyping is a laboratory technique used to classify microorganisms, such as bacteria and viruses, based on the specific antigens or proteins present on their surface. It involves treating the microorganism with different types of antibodies and observing which ones bind to its surface. Each distinct set of antigens corresponds to a specific serotype, allowing for precise identification and characterization of the microorganism. This technique is particularly useful in epidemiology, vaccine development, and infection control.

Deoxyribonuclease EcoRI is a type of enzyme that belongs to the class of endonucleases. It is isolated from the bacterium called Escherichia coli (E. coli) and recognizes and cleaves specific sequences of double-stranded DNA. The recognition site for EcoRI is the six-base pair sequence 5'-GAATTC-3'. When this enzyme cuts the DNA, it leaves sticky ends that are complementary to each other, which allows for the precise joining or ligation of different DNA molecules. This property makes EcoRI and other similar restriction enzymes essential tools in various molecular biology techniques such as genetic engineering and cloning.

Fluorescence is not a medical term per se, but it is widely used in the medical field, particularly in diagnostic tests, medical devices, and research. Fluorescence is a physical phenomenon where a substance absorbs light at a specific wavelength and then emits light at a longer wavelength. This process, often referred to as fluorescing, results in the emission of visible light that can be detected and measured.

In medical terms, fluorescence is used in various applications such as:

1. In-vivo imaging: Fluorescent dyes or probes are introduced into the body to highlight specific structures, cells, or molecules during imaging procedures. This technique can help doctors detect and diagnose diseases such as cancer, inflammation, or infection.
2. Microscopy: Fluorescence microscopy is a powerful tool for visualizing biological samples at the cellular and molecular level. By labeling specific proteins, nucleic acids, or other molecules with fluorescent dyes, researchers can observe their distribution, interactions, and dynamics within cells and tissues.
3. Surgical guidance: Fluorescence-guided surgery is a technique where surgeons use fluorescent markers to identify critical structures such as blood vessels, nerves, or tumors during surgical procedures. This helps ensure precise and safe surgical interventions.
4. Diagnostic tests: Fluorescence-based assays are used in various diagnostic tests to detect and quantify specific biomarkers or analytes. These assays can be performed using techniques such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), polymerase chain reaction (PCR), or flow cytometry.

In summary, fluorescence is a physical process where a substance absorbs and emits light at different wavelengths. In the medical field, this phenomenon is harnessed for various applications such as in-vivo imaging, microscopy, surgical guidance, and diagnostic tests.

Escherichia coli (E. coli) infections refer to illnesses caused by the bacterium E. coli, which can cause a range of symptoms depending on the specific strain and site of infection. The majority of E. coli strains are harmless and live in the intestines of healthy humans and animals. However, some strains, particularly those that produce Shiga toxins, can cause severe illness.

E. coli infections can occur through various routes, including contaminated food or water, person-to-person contact, or direct contact with animals or their environments. Common symptoms of E. coli infections include diarrhea (often bloody), abdominal cramps, nausea, and vomiting. In severe cases, complications such as hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) can occur, which may lead to kidney failure and other long-term health problems.

Preventing E. coli infections involves practicing good hygiene, cooking meats thoroughly, avoiding cross-contamination of food during preparation, washing fruits and vegetables before eating, and avoiding unpasteurized dairy products and juices. Prompt medical attention is necessary if symptoms of an E. coli infection are suspected to prevent potential complications.

"Mycobacterium" is a genus of gram-positive, aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that are characterized by their complex cell walls containing large amounts of lipids. This genus includes several species that are significant in human and animal health, most notably Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which causes tuberculosis, and Mycobacterium leprae, which causes leprosy. Other species of Mycobacterium can cause various diseases in humans, including skin and soft tissue infections, lung infections, and disseminated disease in immunocompromised individuals. These bacteria are often resistant to common disinfectants and antibiotics, making them difficult to treat.

I must clarify that the term "pedigree" is not typically used in medical definitions. Instead, it is often employed in genetics and breeding, where it refers to the recorded ancestry of an individual or a family, tracing the inheritance of specific traits or diseases. In human genetics, a pedigree can help illustrate the pattern of genetic inheritance in families over multiple generations. However, it is not a medical term with a specific clinical definition.

Aneugens are chemical or physical agents that can cause aneuploidy, which is a condition characterized by an abnormal number of chromosomes in the cells of an organism. Aneuploidy can result from errors in cell division, such as nondisjunction, during which chromosome pairs fail to separate properly during mitosis or meiosis.

Exposure to aneugens can increase the risk of aneuploidy by interfering with the normal functioning of the mitotic spindle, the cellular structure responsible for separating chromosomes during cell division. Aneugens can cause errors in chromosome segregation by disrupting the attachment of chromosomes to the spindle or by affecting the dynamics of spindle microtubules.

Examples of aneugens include certain chemotherapeutic drugs, such as colchicine and vincristine, which are used in cancer treatment but can also cause fetal abnormalities if taken during pregnancy. Other aneugens include environmental toxins, such as pesticides and industrial chemicals, which have been linked to increased risks of birth defects and reproductive problems.

Oligodeoxyribonucleotides (ODNs) are relatively short, synthetic single-stranded DNA molecules. They typically contain 15 to 30 nucleotides, but can range from 2 to several hundred nucleotides in length. ODNs are often used as tools in molecular biology research for various applications such as:

1. Nucleic acid detection and quantification (e.g., real-time PCR)
2. Gene regulation (antisense, RNA interference)
3. Gene editing (CRISPR-Cas systems)
4. Vaccine development
5. Diagnostic purposes

Due to their specificity and affinity towards complementary DNA or RNA sequences, ODNs can be designed to target a particular gene or sequence of interest. This makes them valuable tools in understanding gene function, regulation, and interaction with other molecules within the cell.

Water microbiology is not a formal medical term, but rather a branch of microbiology that deals with the study of microorganisms found in water. It involves the identification, enumeration, and characterization of bacteria, viruses, parasites, and other microscopic organisms present in water sources such as lakes, rivers, oceans, groundwater, drinking water, and wastewater.

In a medical context, water microbiology is relevant to public health because it helps to assess the safety of water supplies for human consumption and recreational activities. It also plays a critical role in understanding and preventing waterborne diseases caused by pathogenic microorganisms that can lead to illnesses such as diarrhea, skin infections, and respiratory problems.

Water microbiologists use various techniques to study water microorganisms, including culturing, microscopy, genetic analysis, and biochemical tests. They also investigate the ecology of these organisms, their interactions with other species, and their response to environmental factors such as temperature, pH, and nutrient availability.

Overall, water microbiology is a vital field that helps ensure the safety of our water resources and protects public health.

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) is a single-stranded, linear polymer of ribonucleotides. It is a nucleic acid present in the cells of all living organisms and some viruses. RNAs play crucial roles in various biological processes such as protein synthesis, gene regulation, and cellular signaling. There are several types of RNA including messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), small nuclear RNA (snRNA), microRNA (miRNA), and long non-coding RNA (lncRNA). These RNAs differ in their structure, function, and location within the cell.

Fungal DNA refers to the genetic material present in fungi, which are a group of eukaryotic organisms that include microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as larger organisms like mushrooms. The DNA of fungi, like that of all living organisms, is made up of nucleotides that are arranged in a double helix structure.

Fungal DNA contains the genetic information necessary for the growth, development, and reproduction of fungi. This includes the instructions for making proteins, which are essential for the structure and function of cells, as well as other important molecules such as enzymes and nucleic acids.

Studying fungal DNA can provide valuable insights into the biology and evolution of fungi, as well as their potential uses in medicine, agriculture, and industry. For example, researchers have used genetic engineering techniques to modify the DNA of fungi to produce drugs, biofuels, and other useful products. Additionally, understanding the genetic makeup of pathogenic fungi can help scientists develop new strategies for preventing and treating fungal infections.

Bacterial proteins are a type of protein that are produced by bacteria as part of their structural or functional components. These proteins can be involved in various cellular processes, such as metabolism, DNA replication, transcription, and translation. They can also play a role in bacterial pathogenesis, helping the bacteria to evade the host's immune system, acquire nutrients, and multiply within the host.

Bacterial proteins can be classified into different categories based on their function, such as:

1. Enzymes: Proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the bacterial cell.
2. Structural proteins: Proteins that provide structural support and maintain the shape of the bacterial cell.
3. Signaling proteins: Proteins that help bacteria to communicate with each other and coordinate their behavior.
4. Transport proteins: Proteins that facilitate the movement of molecules across the bacterial cell membrane.
5. Toxins: Proteins that are produced by pathogenic bacteria to damage host cells and promote infection.
6. Surface proteins: Proteins that are located on the surface of the bacterial cell and interact with the environment or host cells.

Understanding the structure and function of bacterial proteins is important for developing new antibiotics, vaccines, and other therapeutic strategies to combat bacterial infections.

Chromosomes are thread-like structures that contain genetic material, i.e., DNA and proteins, present in the nucleus of human cells. In humans, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes, in each diploid cell. Twenty-two of these pairs are called autosomal chromosomes, which come in identical pairs and contain genes that determine various traits unrelated to sex.

The last pair is referred to as the sex chromosomes (X and Y), which determines a person's biological sex. Females have two X chromosomes (46, XX), while males possess one X and one Y chromosome (46, XY). Chromosomes vary in size, with the largest being chromosome 1 and the smallest being the Y chromosome.

Human chromosomes are typically visualized during mitosis or meiosis using staining techniques that highlight their banding patterns, allowing for identification of specific regions and genes. Chromosomal abnormalities can lead to various genetic disorders, including Down syndrome (trisomy 21), Turner syndrome (monosomy X), and Klinefelter syndrome (XXY).

Northern blotting is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to detect and analyze specific RNA molecules (such as mRNA) in a mixture of total RNA extracted from cells or tissues. This technique is called "Northern" blotting because it is analogous to the Southern blotting method, which is used for DNA detection.

The Northern blotting procedure involves several steps:

1. Electrophoresis: The total RNA mixture is first separated based on size by running it through an agarose gel using electrical current. This separates the RNA molecules according to their length, with smaller RNA fragments migrating faster than larger ones.

2. Transfer: After electrophoresis, the RNA bands are denatured (made single-stranded) and transferred from the gel onto a nitrocellulose or nylon membrane using a technique called capillary transfer or vacuum blotting. This step ensures that the order and relative positions of the RNA fragments are preserved on the membrane, similar to how they appear in the gel.

3. Cross-linking: The RNA is then chemically cross-linked to the membrane using UV light or heat treatment, which helps to immobilize the RNA onto the membrane and prevent it from washing off during subsequent steps.

4. Prehybridization: Before adding the labeled probe, the membrane is prehybridized in a solution containing blocking agents (such as salmon sperm DNA or yeast tRNA) to minimize non-specific binding of the probe to the membrane.

5. Hybridization: A labeled nucleic acid probe, specific to the RNA of interest, is added to the prehybridization solution and allowed to hybridize (form base pairs) with its complementary RNA sequence on the membrane. The probe can be either a DNA or an RNA molecule, and it is typically labeled with a radioactive isotope (such as ³²P) or a non-radioactive label (such as digoxigenin).

6. Washing: After hybridization, the membrane is washed to remove unbound probe and reduce background noise. The washing conditions (temperature, salt concentration, and detergent concentration) are optimized based on the stringency required for specific hybridization.

7. Detection: The presence of the labeled probe is then detected using an appropriate method, depending on the type of label used. For radioactive probes, this typically involves exposing the membrane to X-ray film or a phosphorimager screen and analyzing the resulting image. For non-radioactive probes, detection can be performed using colorimetric, chemiluminescent, or fluorescent methods.

8. Data analysis: The intensity of the signal is quantified and compared to controls (such as housekeeping genes) to determine the relative expression level of the RNA of interest. This information can be used for various purposes, such as identifying differentially expressed genes in response to a specific treatment or comparing gene expression levels across different samples or conditions.

A genomic library is a collection of cloned DNA fragments that represent the entire genetic material of an organism. It serves as a valuable resource for studying the function, organization, and regulation of genes within a given genome. Genomic libraries can be created using different types of vectors, such as bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs), yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs), or plasmids, to accommodate various sizes of DNA inserts. These libraries facilitate the isolation and manipulation of specific genes or genomic regions for further analysis, including sequencing, gene expression studies, and functional genomics research.

Human chromosome pair 7 consists of two rod-shaped structures present in the nucleus of each cell in the human body. Each member of the pair is a single chromosome, and together they contain the genetic material that is inherited from both parents. They are identical in size, shape, and banding pattern and are therefore referred to as homologous chromosomes.

Chromosome 7 is one of the autosomal chromosomes, meaning it is not a sex chromosome (X or Y). It is composed of double-stranded DNA that contains approximately 159 million base pairs and around 1,200 genes. Chromosome 7 contains several important genes associated with human health and disease, including those involved in the development of certain types of cancer, such as colon cancer and lung cancer, as well as genetic disorders such as Williams-Beuren syndrome and Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease.

Abnormalities in chromosome 7 have been linked to various genetic conditions, including deletions, duplications, translocations, and other structural changes. These abnormalities can lead to developmental delays, intellectual disabilities, physical abnormalities, and increased risk of certain types of cancer.

Enterotoxins are types of toxic substances that are produced by certain microorganisms, such as bacteria. These toxins are specifically designed to target and affect the cells in the intestines, leading to symptoms such as diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal cramps. One well-known example of an enterotoxin is the toxin produced by Staphylococcus aureus bacteria, which can cause food poisoning. Another example is the cholera toxin produced by Vibrio cholerae, which can cause severe diarrhea and dehydration. Enterotoxins work by interfering with the normal functioning of intestinal cells, leading to fluid accumulation in the intestines and subsequent symptoms.

Acridines are a class of heterocyclic aromatic organic compounds that contain a nucleus of three fused benzene rings and a nitrogen atom. They have a wide range of applications, including in the development of chemotherapeutic agents for the treatment of cancer and antibacterial, antifungal, and antiparasitic drugs. Some acridines also exhibit fluorescent properties and are used in research and diagnostic applications.

In medicine, some acridine derivatives have been found to intercalate with DNA, disrupting its structure and function, which can lead to the death of cancer cells. For example, the acridine derivative proflavin has been used as an antiseptic and in the treatment of certain types of cancer. However, many acridines also have toxic side effects, limiting their clinical use.

It is important to note that while acridines have potential therapeutic uses, they should only be used under the supervision of a qualified healthcare professional, as they can cause harm if not used properly.

Chromosomes are thread-like structures that exist in the nucleus of cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes. They are composed of DNA and proteins, and are typically present in pairs in the nucleus, with one set inherited from each parent. In humans, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes for a total of 46 chromosomes. Chromosomes come in different shapes and forms, including sex chromosomes (X and Y) that determine the biological sex of an individual. Changes or abnormalities in the number or structure of chromosomes can lead to genetic disorders and diseases.

Nucleic acid amplification techniques (NAATs) are medical laboratory methods used to increase the number of copies of a specific DNA or RNA sequence. These techniques are widely used in molecular biology and diagnostics, including the detection and diagnosis of infectious diseases, genetic disorders, and cancer.

The most commonly used NAAT is the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling to separate and replicate DNA strands. Other NAATs include loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA), and transcription-mediated amplification (TMA).

NAATs offer several advantages over traditional culture methods for detecting pathogens, including faster turnaround times, increased sensitivity and specificity, and the ability to detect viable but non-culturable organisms. However, they also require specialized equipment and trained personnel, and there is a risk of contamination and false positive results if proper precautions are not taken.

Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that are among the earliest known life forms on Earth. They are typically characterized as having a cell wall and no membrane-bound organelles. The majority of bacteria have a prokaryotic organization, meaning they lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.

Bacteria exist in diverse environments and can be found in every habitat on Earth, including soil, water, and the bodies of plants and animals. Some bacteria are beneficial to their hosts, while others can cause disease. Beneficial bacteria play important roles in processes such as digestion, nitrogen fixation, and biogeochemical cycling.

Bacteria reproduce asexually through binary fission or budding, and some species can also exchange genetic material through conjugation. They have a wide range of metabolic capabilities, with many using organic compounds as their source of energy, while others are capable of photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.

Bacteria are highly adaptable and can evolve rapidly in response to environmental changes. This has led to the development of antibiotic resistance in some species, which poses a significant public health challenge. Understanding the biology and behavior of bacteria is essential for developing strategies to prevent and treat bacterial infections and diseases.

"Mycobacterium avium is a species of gram-positive, aerobic bacteria that belongs to the family Mycobacteriaceae. It is a slow-growing mycobacterium that is widely distributed in the environment, particularly in soil and water. M. avium is an opportunistic pathogen that can cause pulmonary disease, lymphadenitis, and disseminated infection in individuals with compromised immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS. It is also known to cause pulmonary disease in elderly people with structural lung damage. The bacteria are resistant to many common disinfectants and can survive in hostile environments for extended periods."

Cosmids are a type of cloning vector, which are self-replicating DNA molecules that can be used to introduce foreign DNA fragments into a host organism. Cosmids are plasmids that contain the cos site from bacteriophage λ, allowing them to be packaged into bacteriophage heads during an in vitro packaging reaction. This enables the transfer of large DNA fragments (up to 45 kb) into a host cell through transduction. Cosmids are widely used in molecular biology for the construction and analysis of genomic libraries, physical mapping, and DNA sequencing.

The term "DNA, neoplasm" is not a standard medical term or concept. DNA refers to deoxyribonucleic acid, which is the genetic material present in the cells of living organisms. A neoplasm, on the other hand, is a tumor or growth of abnormal tissue that can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous).

In some contexts, "DNA, neoplasm" may refer to genetic alterations found in cancer cells. These genetic changes can include mutations, amplifications, deletions, or rearrangements of DNA sequences that contribute to the development and progression of cancer. Identifying these genetic abnormalities can help doctors diagnose and treat certain types of cancer more effectively.

However, it's important to note that "DNA, neoplasm" is not a term that would typically be used in medical reports or research papers without further clarification. If you have any specific questions about DNA changes in cancer cells or neoplasms, I would recommend consulting with a healthcare professional or conducting further research on the topic.

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."

1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.

2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.

3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.

4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).

Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.

Streptavidin is not a medical term per se, but rather a biochemical term used in the field of medicine and laboratory research. Streptavidin is a protein that is derived from the bacterium Streptomyces avidinii. It has a unique ability to bind very strongly and specifically to another molecule called biotin, with an association constant that is one of the strongest non-covalent interactions known in nature.

This property makes streptavidin a valuable tool in various medical and research applications such as immunoassays, histology, molecular biology, and drug delivery systems. For example, biotinylated molecules (such as antibodies, DNA, or enzymes) can be linked to streptavidin for detection, purification, or targeting purposes.

In summary, streptavidin is a bacterial protein that binds strongly and specifically to biotin, which is used in various medical and research applications as a tool for detection, purification, or targeting purposes.

A centromere is a specialized region found on chromosomes that plays a crucial role in the separation of replicated chromosomes during cell division. It is the point where the sister chromatids (the two copies of a chromosome formed during DNA replication) are joined together. The centromere contains highly repeated DNA sequences and proteins that form a complex structure known as the kinetochore, which serves as an attachment site for microtubules of the mitotic spindle during cell division.

During mitosis or meiosis, the kinetochore facilitates the movement of chromosomes by interacting with the microtubules, allowing for the accurate distribution of genetic material to the daughter cells. Centromeres can vary in their position and structure among different species, ranging from being located near the middle of the chromosome (metacentric) to being positioned closer to one end (acrocentric). The precise location and characteristics of centromeres are essential for proper chromosome segregation and maintenance of genomic stability.

A "gene library" is not a recognized term in medical genetics or molecular biology. However, the closest concept that might be referred to by this term is a "genomic library," which is a collection of DNA clones that represent the entire genetic material of an organism. These libraries are used for various research purposes, such as identifying and studying specific genes or gene functions.

Collodion is a clear, colorless, viscous solution that is used in medicine and photography. Medically, collodion is often used as a temporary protective dressing for wounds, burns, or skin abrasions. When applied to the skin, it dries to form a flexible, waterproof film that helps to prevent infection and promote healing. Collodion is typically made from a mixture of nitrocellulose, alcohol, and ether.

In photography, collodion was historically used as a medium for wet plate photography, which was popular in the mid-19th century. The photographer would coat a glass plate with a thin layer of collodion, then sensitize it with silver salts before exposing and developing the image while the collodion was still wet. This process required the photographer to carry a portable darkroom and develop the plates immediately after exposure. Despite its challenges, the wet plate collodion process was able to produce highly detailed images, making it a popular technique for portrait photography during its time.

Avidin is a protein found in the white of eggs (egg whites) and some other animal tissues. It has a high binding affinity for biotin, also known as vitamin B7 or vitamin H, which is an essential nutrient for humans and other organisms. This property makes avidin useful in various biochemical and medical applications, such as immunohistochemistry, blotting techniques, and drug delivery systems.

Biotin-avidin interactions are among the strongest non-covalent interactions known in nature, with a dissociation constant (Kd) of approximately 10^-15 M. This means that once biotin is bound to avidin, it is very difficult to separate them. In some cases, this property can be exploited to create stable and specific complexes for various applications.

However, it's worth noting that the high affinity of avidin for biotin can also have negative effects in certain contexts. For example, raw egg whites contain large amounts of avidin, which can bind to biotin in the gut and prevent its absorption if consumed in sufficient quantities. This can lead to biotin deficiency, which can cause various health problems. Cooking egg whites denatures avidin and reduces its ability to bind to biotin, making cooked eggs a safe source of biotin.

Environmental Microbiology is a branch of microbiology that deals with the study of microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, viruses, and other microscopic entities, that are found in various environments such as water, soil, air, and organic matter. This field focuses on understanding how these microbes interact with their surroundings, their role in various ecological systems, and their impact on human health and the environment. It also involves studying the genetic and biochemical mechanisms that allow microorganisms to survive and thrive in different environmental conditions, as well as the potential uses of microbes for bioremediation, bioenergy, and other industrial applications.

Gonorrhea is a sexually transmitted infection (STI) caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae, also known as "gono" bacteria. It can infect various parts of the body including the genitals, rectum, and throat. The bacteria are typically transmitted through sexual contact with an infected person.

Symptoms may vary but often include abnormal discharge from the genitals or rectum, painful or burning sensations during urination, and in women, vaginal bleeding between periods. However, many people with gonorrhea do not develop symptoms, making it essential to get tested regularly if you are sexually active with multiple partners or have unprotected sex.

If left untreated, gonorrhea can lead to severe complications such as pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) in women and epididymitis in men, which may result in infertility. In rare cases, it can spread to the bloodstream and cause life-threatening conditions like sepsis.

Gonorrhea is curable with appropriate antibiotic treatment; however, drug-resistant strains of the bacteria have emerged, making accurate diagnosis and effective treatment increasingly challenging. Prevention methods include using condoms during sexual activity and practicing safe sex habits.

I apologize for any confusion, but "Europium" is not a medical term. It is a chemical element with the symbol "Eu" and atomic number 63 on the periodic table. Europium is a rare earth metal that is used in various applications such as fluorescent lamps, glass additives, and phosphors in television tubes and plasma displays.

If you have any medical questions or terms, I would be happy to help you with those!

Cytogenetics is a branch of genetics that deals with the study of chromosomes and their structure, function, and abnormalities. It involves the examination of chromosome number and structure in the cells of an organism, usually through microscopic analysis of chromosomes prepared from cell cultures or tissue samples. Cytogenetic techniques can be used to identify chromosomal abnormalities associated with genetic disorders, cancer, and other diseases.

The process of cytogenetics typically involves staining the chromosomes to make them visible under a microscope, and then analyzing their number, size, shape, and banding pattern. Chromosomal abnormalities such as deletions, duplications, inversions, translocations, and aneuploidy (abnormal number of chromosomes) can be detected through cytogenetic analysis.

Cytogenetics is an important tool in medical genetics and has many clinical applications, including prenatal diagnosis, cancer diagnosis and monitoring, and identification of genetic disorders. Advances in molecular cytogenetic techniques, such as fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and comparative genomic hybridization (CGH), have improved the resolution and accuracy of chromosome analysis and expanded its clinical applications.

Deoxyribonuclease BamHI is a type of enzyme that belongs to the class of restriction endonucleases. These enzymes are capable of cutting double-stranded DNA molecules at specific recognition sites, and BamHI recognizes the sequence 5'-G|GATCC-3'. The vertical line indicates the point of cleavage, where the phosphodiester bond is broken, resulting in sticky ends that can reattach to other complementary sticky ends.

BamHI restriction endonuclease is derived from the bacterium Bacillus amyloliquefaciens H and is widely used in molecular biology research for various applications such as DNA fragmentation, cloning, and genetic engineering. It is essential to note that the activity of this enzyme can be affected by several factors, including temperature, pH, and the presence of inhibitors or activators.

Heterozygote detection is a method used in genetics to identify individuals who carry one normal and one mutated copy of a gene. These individuals are known as heterozygotes and they do not typically show symptoms of the genetic disorder associated with the mutation, but they can pass the mutated gene on to their offspring, who may then be affected.

Heterozygote detection is often used in genetic counseling and screening programs for recessive disorders such as cystic fibrosis or sickle cell anemia. By identifying heterozygotes, individuals can be informed of their carrier status and the potential risks to their offspring. This information can help them make informed decisions about family planning and reproductive options.

Various methods can be used for heterozygote detection, including polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based tests, DNA sequencing, and genetic linkage analysis. The choice of method depends on the specific gene or mutation being tested, as well as the availability and cost of the testing technology.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

Anneal probe to genomic target DNA Probes are added to the genomic DNA sample. After a denaturation followed by an annealing ... Exonuclease treatment removes these non-reacted probes as well as any remaining linear DNA in the reaction. Probe release In ... If array-based approach is used, the probe may optionally contain a probe-specific tag that uniquely identifies the probe as ... a number of factors should be considered when designing probes: The sequences of the probe that are complementary to the DNA ...
Sigma Life Science provides products such as custom DNA/RNA oligos; custom DNA and LNA probes; siRNA; isotopically-labelled ...
Langdale, Jane Alison (1985). Gene detection using immobilized DNA probes. london.ac.uk (PhD thesis). University of London. ... "DNA probes in human disease". Biochemical Society Symposium. 53: 131-43. PMID 3332764. ... Langdale, J. A.; Malcolm, A. D. B. (1985). "A rapid method of gene detection using DNA bound to Sephacryl". Gene. 36 (3): 201- ...
"Probing Allostery Through DNA". Science. 339 (6121): 816-819. Bibcode:2013Sci...339..816K. doi:10.1126/science.1229223. PMC ... Elf, Johan; Li, Gene-Wei; Xie, X. Sunney (2007). "Probing Transcription Factor Dynamics at the Single-Molecule Level in a ... Yu, Ji; Xiao, Jie; Ren, Xiaojia; Lao, Kaiqin; Xie, X. Sunney (2006). "Probing Gene Expression in Live Cells, One Protein ... Xie, X. Sunney; Dunn, Robert C. (1994). "Probing Single Molecule Dynamics". Science. 265 (5170): 361-364. Bibcode:1994Sci...265 ...
2012) "Labeling of DNA Probes by Nick Translation". Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual. Park, K; Kim, J; Lim, S; Han, S; ... There are many different types of FISH probes available, such as repeat probes, probes that detect specific genes or telomeres ... CISH probes are approximately 20 nucleotides in length and are designed for DNA targets. They are complementary to the targeted ... Probe design for CISH is very similar to that for FISH with differences only in labelling and detection. FISH probes are ...
"Array-based electrical detection of DNA with nanoparticle probes". Science. 295 (5559): 1503-1506. doi:10.1126/science.1067003 ... When strands of DNA bins to the oligonucleotides it closes a gap between two electrodes, changing the conductivity. She worked ... Her research was the first to show that DNA could be used to form nanoparticle assemblies with tuneable inter-particle ... Her doctoral research on the physical properties of DNA-linked nanoparticles was awarded the American Chemical Society Nobel ...
The multicolour probes attach to a certain DNA fragment. MLPA is a test that finds and records DNA copy change numbers through ... Lastly, EHMT1 sequencing is a process in which a single-strand of DNA from the EHMT1 gene is removed, and DNA polymerase is ... The geneticists examined how a missense mutation would affect the function of the DNA by looking at DNA models. After, they ... tracks chromosome deletions and or amplifications using fluorescent dyes on genomic sequences of DNA samples. The DNA samples ( ...
This DNA fluorescent probe has been effectively modeled using the time-dependent density functional theory, coupled with the ... Kapuscinski, J. (September 1995). "DAPI: a DNA-specific fluorescent probe". Biotech. Histochem. 70 (5): 220-233. doi:10.3109/ ... Use of DAPI as a DNA stain for flow cytometry was also demonstrated around this time. When bound to double-stranded DNA, DAPI ... Strong fluorescence when bound to DNA led to the rapid adoption of DAPI for fluorescent staining of DNA for fluorescence ...
"DNA profile created in body probe". BBC News. 14 March 2012. Retrieved 9 October 2018. "Pathologist test to start on exhumed ... In 2013 police stated that they had added the woman's DNA profile to the national database in the hope that a match would be ... In 2012, the body was exhumed so that a DNA profile could be created. The profile was compared to samples from five families, ... "DNA breakthrough in Sutton Bank body case". Gazette & Herald. Retrieved 6 October 2018. Laville, Sandra (4 January 2013). "' ...
Kilvington, Simon; Beeching, John (June 1995). "Identification and epidemiological typing of Naegleria fowleri with DNA probes ...
Kilvington, Simon; Beeching, John (June 1995). "Identification and Epidemiological Typing of Naegleria fowleri with DNA Probes ...
Commercial DNA probe hybridization tests (e.g., AccuProbe Streptococcus pneumoniae culture identification test; Gen-Probe, San ...
"Melanie Hall murder probe: DNA evidence discovered". BBC News. June 8, 2016. Retrieved July 26, 2017. "KRIMINALITÄT: "Etwas ... "Fresh probe in Rajan case sought". The Hindu. January 25, 2011. Archived from the original on March 1, 2011. (in Spanish) ... "New DNA evidence leads to arrest in 1980 slaying of 14-year-old babysitter". Los Angeles Times. December 1, 2017. Retrieved ... "DNA helps ID Richmond cold case from 1992". CBS 6 News Richmond WTVR. August 3, 2012. Retrieved June 8, 2023. "Google Helps ...
Quenching (fluorescence) Didenko, V. V. (November 2001). "DNA probes using fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET): ... "Evaluation of dual-labeled fluorescent DNA probe purity versus performance in real-time PCR". BioTechniques. 36 (2): 266-270, ... Tyagi, Sanjay; Kramer, Fred Russell (March 1996). "Molecular Beacons: Probes that Fluoresce upon Hybridization". Nature ... "Oligonucleotides with fluorescent dyes at opposite ends provide a quenched probe system useful for detecting PCR product and ...
Didenko, Vladimir V. (November 2001). "DNA Probes Using Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET): Designs and Applications ... ADAR1 DNA supercoil E3L Mechanical properties of DNA Proteopedia Z-DNA Satellite DNA Z-DNA binding protein 1 (ZBP1) Zuotin ... Z-DNA is thought to be one of three biologically active double-helical structures along with A-DNA and B-DNA. Left-handed DNA ... Z-DNA is quite different from the right-handed forms. In fact, Z-DNA is often compared against B-DNA in order to illustrate the ...
"Deletion mapping of human chromosome 5 using chromosome-specific DNA probes". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 37 (5): 839-52. PMC 1684692. ...
Zhang J, Smaga LP, Satyavolu NS, Chan J, Lu Y (December 2017). "DNA Aptamer-Based Activatable Probes for Photoacoustic Imaging ... An mRNA molecule transfers a portion of the DNA code to other parts of the cell for making proteins. DNA therapeutics needs ... Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a single-stranded RNA molecule that is complementary to one of the DNA strands of a gene. ... Broadly, aptamers are small molecules composed of either single-stranded DNA or RNA and are typically 20-100 nucleotides in ...
Chin made the same algorithm-based obvious argument in DNA probes. Google and other technology companies founded the LOT ... "Gene Probes As Unpatentable Printed Matter" (PDF). The Federal Circuit Bar Journal. 20 (4). Archived (PDF) from the original on ... For example, a professor of law at the University of North Carolina School of Law, has demonstrated a method to protect DNA ... Chin, Andrew (2005). "Artful prior art and the quality of DNA patents" (PDF). Alabama Law Review. 57: 975. Archived (PDF) from ...
"High-resolution mapping of satellite DNA using biotin-labeled DNA probes". The Journal of Cell Biology. 95 (2 Pt 1): 619-625. ... Manuelidis has made major contributions in two areas: A) the discovery of large chromosomal DNA repeats and the elucidation of ... Using restriction enzymes on whole human DNA and extracting specific gel bands, an approach no one had used previously for ... Manuelidis, L.; Biro, P. A. (1982-05-25). "Genomic representation of the Hind II 1.9 kb repeated DNA". Nucleic Acids Research. ...
DNA tests probe the genomic ancestry of Brazilians. Introduction, first paragraph.: Little is known about the number of ... Pena, S. D. J.; Bastos-Rodrigues, L.; Pimenta, J. R.; Bydlowski, S. P. (October 1, 2009). "DNA tests probe the genomic ancestry ... "An autosomal DNA study from 2009 found a similar profile "all the Brazilian samples (regions) lie more closely to the European ... Analyzing their mitochondrial DNA, that comes from female ancestors though maternal line, 85% of them have at least a female ...
These are known as capture probe DNA molecules. Next, an extender DNA molecule is added. Each extender has two domains; one ... The branching of the DNA allows for very dense decorating of the DNA with the enzyme, which is important for the high ... This results in a base peppered with capture probes, which are hybridized to extender probes, which in turn are hybridized to ... Several different short single-stranded DNA molecules (oligonucleotides) are used in a branched DNA-assay. The capture and ...
The immobilized RNA is then probed using DNA. (1996) Eastern-western blot was first used by Bogdanov et al. The method involved ... This could be seen as similar to a Southern blot, however the interaction is between a DNA molecule (the aptamer) and a protein ... The membrane is then probed with antibodies for epitopes of interest. This method has also been discussed in later work by the ... in that they use lectin probes and other staining reagents. (2009) Eastern blot has been used to describe a blot of proteins on ...
Chen P, Gu J, Brandin E, Kim YR, Wang Q, Branton D (November 2004). "Probing Single DNA Molecule Transport Using Fabricated ... polynucleotides in the form of DNA or RNA. Using nanopore sequencing, a single molecule of DNA or RNA can be sequenced without ... "Optical recognition of converted DNA nucleotides for single-molecule DNA sequencing using nanopore arrays". Nano Letters. 10 (6 ... Probes consist of a fluorophore and quencher at the start and end of each sequence, respectively. Each fluorophore will be ...
Pena, S.D.J.; Bastos-Rodrigues, L.; Pimenta, J.R.; Bydlowski, S.P. (11 September 2009). "DNA tests probe the genomic ancestry ... This is consistent with the estimate based on Y-chromosomal DNA, which places the split between ca. 806-447 kya. In terms of ... In human mitochondrial genetics, L is the mitochondrial DNA macro-haplogroup that is at the root of the anatomically modern ... Alvarez L, Santos C, Ramos A, Pratdesaba R, Francalacci P, Aluja MP (August 2010). "Mitochondrial DNA patterns in the Iberian ...
Pena, S.D.J.; Bastos-Rodrigues, L.; Pimenta, J.R.; Bydlowski, S.P. (11 September 2009). "DNA tests probe the genomic ancestry ... The mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is present in all human beings and passed down through the maternal line, i.e. the mother of a ... The mitochondrial DNA and Y chromosome suffer only minor mutations through centuries, thus can be used to establish the ... Another study (autosomal DNA study, from 2010) found out that European ancestry predominates in the Brazilian population as a ...
ISBN 0-7506-3083-3. Pena, S.D.J.; Bastos-Rodrigues, L.; Pimenta, J.R.; Bydlowski, S.P. (11 September 2009). "DNA tests probe ...
French, DJ; Archard, CL; Brown, T; McDowell, DG (December 2001). "HyBeacon probes: a new tool for DNA sequence detection and ... He is best known for his contribution in the field of DNA Repair, DNA Click chemistry, and in the application of Molecular ... In early part of his academic career, Brown studied base-pair mismatch and DNA repair. Later he worked on the mutagenic effect ... "First Swine Flu DNA Test Produced". Science Daily. 10 May 2009. Retrieved 5 March 2016. "Healthcare Company Novacyt Launches ...
DOI: 10.1007/BF00277052 Anamthawat-Jónsson K, Reader SM (1995). Preannealing of total genomic DNA probes for simultaneous ... Discrimination between closely related Triticeae species using genomic DNA as a probe. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 79: 721 ... and their triploid hybrids in Iceland inferred from cp-DNA haplotype variation. Journal of Biogeography 37: 2098-2110. DOI: ... Isolation and characterization of genome-specific DNA sequences in Triticeae species. Molecular and General Genetics 240: 151- ...
Conversely, LNA-incorporated probes demonstrated increased hybridization efficiency in both DNA and RNA. The improved ... Phusion DNA polymerase, a commercially designed enzyme based on a Pfu DNA polymerase, efficiently incorporates LNA into DNA. ... LNA can be incorporated into DNA and RNA using the promiscuity of certain DNA and RNA polymerases. ... "Improved in situ hybridization efficiency with locked-nucleic-acid-incorporated DNA probes". Applied and Environmental ...
Else, Holly (15 April 2019). "Top journals retract DNA-repair studies after misconduct probe". Nature. doi:10.1038/d41586-019- ... Through his discovery that the DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK) enzyme is activated by DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), ... Blackford AN, Jackson SP (2017). "ATM, ATR, and DNA-PK: The Trinity at the Heart of the DNA Damage Response". Molecular Cell. ... Polo SE, Jackson SP (2011). "Dynamics of DNA damage response proteins at DNA breaks: a focus on protein modifications". Genes ...
Herne, T. and Tarlov, M. (1997), Characterization of DNA Probes Immobilized on Gold Surfaces, Journal of the American Chemical ...
DNA probes intended for fluorescent in situ hybridization. ... DNA probes intended for fluorescent in situ hybridization. The ... Cancer Genetics, Nikon Ink Italian Distribution Deal for DNA-FISH Probes May 08, 2013 , staff reporter ... Its technology in combination with Cancer Genetics DNA-FISH probes "will allow laboratories to perform simultaneous multicolor ... and CGI Italias probes are very important to complete our full solution offer for our customers." ...
... Pinpoint FISH is a fully synthetic FISH technology based on single stranded fluorescently labeled DNA ... Standard Pinpoint FISH DNA Probes are available with 5 different fluorophores. Other fluorophores are available upon request. ... Telomeric Probes (sub-Telos). Telomeric Probes (sub-Telos) from KromaTiD are available for the p- and q-arms of all human ... Centromere Enumeration Probes (sub-CEPs). Centromere Enumeration Probes (sub-CEPs) from KromaTiD are available for all human ...
... Pinpoint FISH is a fully synthetic FISH technology based on single stranded fluorescently labeled DNA ... Standard Pinpoint FISH DNA Probes are available with 5 different fluorophores. Other fluorophores are available upon request. ... Telomeric Probes (sub-Telos). Telomeric Probes (sub-Telos) from KromaTiD are available for the p- and q-arms of all human ... Centromere Enumeration Probes (sub-CEPs). Centromere Enumeration Probes (sub-CEPs) from KromaTiD are available for all human ...
The apps team investigated if we could detect nanomolar concentrations of DNA in this application note. ... Molecular beacon probes are used to detect DNA and RNA. ... using a molecular beacon probe. The DNA and probe solutions ... Molecular Beacon Probe Fluorescent Detection of DNA. Key Points. *Molecular beacon probes can identify target DNA and RNA ... Molecular beacon probes are a sequence of nucleotides (the building blocks of DNA and RNA) that can be used to fluorescently ...
Dinuclear osmium(ii) probes for high-resolution visualisation of cellular DNA structure using electron microscopy† ... Dinuclear osmium(II) probes for high-resolution visualisation of cellular DNA structure using electron microscopy A. Wragg, M. ...
... applications of DNA brush layer on GaAs as biosensor during the change of attachment probe DNA and hybridization to target DNA ... In the case of the longer, more flexible DNA with 100 bases, the DNA molecules strongly interacted with each other and formed ... The architecture and density of immobilized probe molecules depend on the type of the solid surface on which they are anchored ... Recent studies have shown that As terminated GaAs-based semiconductors can be used as substrates for immobilized DNA layers. In ...
Use of the Affymetrix Human GeneChip array and genomic DNA hybridisation probe selection to study ovine transcriptomes - Volume ... Previously, a probe-selection method based on hybridisation of genomic DNA (gDNA) was developed, which enables GeneChips to be ... Using genomic DNA-based probe-selection to improve the sensitivity of high-density oligonucleotide arrays when applied to ... Use of the Affymetrix Human GeneChip array and genomic DNA hybridisation probe selection to study ovine transcriptomes. ...
The discovery of DNA markers closely linked to the gene for Huntingtons disease (HD) has allowed development of predictive and ...
What are the Differences Between DNA and RNA Probes? ... What are DNA probes?. A DNA probe is a labeled fragment of DNA ... Molecular probes can be broadly categorized into DNA probes and RNA probes, cDNA probes, and synthetic oligonucleotide probes. ... Probe synthesis by 3 end-labeling involves the addition of nucleotides to the 3 end of DNA. 3 end-labeling of DNA is most ... Nucleic acid probes are either a single stranded DNA or RNA with a strong affinity towards a specific DNA or RNA target ...
... binding and target hybridization-induced change in the signalling probe conformation for robust detection of a target DNA ... We report a reagentless and reusable electrochemical DNA sensor that exploits competitive ... A reagentless and reusable electrochemical DNA sensor based on target hybridization-induced stem-loop probe formation Z. Yu and ... A reagentless and reusable electrochemical DNA sensor based on target hybridization-induced stem-loop probe formation† ...
400 People from 125 Texas Towns - Including 15 Exonerated with DNA Testing - Urge State Panel to Continue Willingham Probe. ... To date, 244 people nationwide have been exonerated through DNA testing - 39 of them in Texas - and dozens of states have ... They served a combined 201 years in Texas prisons before DNA proved their innocence. ... is a national litigation and public policy organization dedicated to exonerating wrongfully convicted people through DNA ...
Effect of salts, solvents and buffer on miRNA detection using DNA silver nanocluster (DNA/AgNCs) probes. Publikation: Bidrag ... Effect of salts, solvents and buffer on miRNA detection using DNA silver nanocluster (DNA/AgNCs) probes Forlagets udgivne ...
Fluorescent DNA probes based on phenantridine alkaloids. Název česky. Fluorescenční sondy založené na fenantridinových ... can be used as alternative probes to synthetic DNA dyes such as ethidium bromide. ... The response of luminescence intensity to low concentrations of double stranded DNA in presence of alkaloids was found to be ... Thanks to exceptional affinity of plant alkaloids to various biomolecules they can be used in analytical chemistry as a probes ...
... Creators. Buzzeo, Marisa C. Barton, Jacqueline K. ... has been explored as a new electrochemical probe for the detection of abasic sites in double-stranded DNA. The electrochemical ... represents a sensitive probe to detect abasic sites electrochemically in a DNA-mediated reaction. ... Importantly, with Redmond Red positioned opposite an abasic site within the DNA duplex, the electrochemical response is ...
Secret Services FOIA Documents Reveal DNA was Found and Preserved in White House Cocaine Probe, Contrary to Prior Claims - ... They did find DNA on the baggie, and the DNA was processed and has been moved to an evidence vault for preservation. ... "Where did they get the DNA from? They got the DNA off the baggie. So the Secret Service lied, and so did the White House. ... After telling us they didnt find any DNA and destroying the bag of coke, the documents tell us theres three… pic.twitter.com/ ...
Probe of DNA repeats reveals new potential autism genes. by Laura Dattaro / 10 August 2020 ... Extra repeating bits of DNA may account for nearly 3 percent of the genetic architecture of autism, according to a new study1. ... On repeat: Extra repeats in DNA may contribute to some of autisms heritability.. PaleWhaleGail / English Wikipedia ... DNA, it may be repeated hundreds of times in their child, for example. The more a repeat expands, the more likely it is that it ...
LOINC Code 100370-6 Orthopoxvirus DNA [Identifier] in Specimen by NAA with probe detection ... Probe.amp.tar. Additional Names. Short Name. Orthopoxvirus DNA Spec NAA+probe. Display Name. Orthopoxvirus DNA NAA+probe Nom ( ... Orthopoxvirus DNA:. identificator:. moment:. XXX:. nominaal:. probe-detectie. Synonyms: probe.amp.tar. ... DNA) 存在;. 存在与否;. 特征标识;. 身份;. 身份标识 微生物学;. 微生物学试验;. 微生物学试验(培养、. DNA、. 抗原及抗体)
LOINC Code 99027-5 Pseudomonas aeruginosa DNA [Presence] in Urine by NAA with probe detection ... Probe.amp.tar. Additional Names. Short Name. P aeruginosa DNA Ur Ql NAA+probe. Display Name. P. aeruginosa DNA NAA+probe Ql (U) ... Pseudomonas aeruginosa DNA:. aanwezigheid:. moment:. urine:. ordinaal:. probe-detectie. Synonyms: probe.amp.tar. ... Pseudomonas aeruginosa DNA [Presence] in Urine by NAA with probe detection Active Part Description. LP19204-4 Pseudomonas ...
They did find DNA on the baggie, and the DNA was processed and has been moved to an evidence vault for preservation..." -Jesse ... Secret Services FOIA Documents Reveal DNA was Found and Preserved in White House Cocaine Probe, Contrary to Prior Claims [ ... "Where did they get the DNA from? They got the DNA off the baggie. So the Secret Service lied, and so did the White House. ... It appears the DNA samples were not only found but also preserved in an evidence vault. ...
13C-labelled DNA, containing genomic DNA of these Methylocystis spp., was separated from 12C DNA and subjected to multiple ... were further confirmed by DNA stable-isotope probing analysis of a sample taken from the Moor House peatland (England). After ... Revealing the uncultivated majority:combining DNA stable-isotope probing, multiple displacement amplification and metagenomic ... This combination of DNA stable-isotope probing, MDA and metagenomics provided access to genomic information of a relatively ...
Fostul ministru al Finantelor DARIUS VALCOV nu a facut declaratii si nici nu a propus administrarea de probe in apararea sa pe ... parcursul urmaririi penale efectuate de DNA in cel de-al doilea dosar in care a fost trimis in judecata, informeaza Agerpres. ... Rechizitoriu DNA: DARIUS VALCOV nu a facut declaratii si nu a propus probe in apararea sa. de Olga Teodorescu ... Procurorii DNA l-au trimis in judecata, sub control judiciar, pe fostul ministru al Finantelor DARIUS VALCOV, la data faptelor ...
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"DNA Probes" by people in this website by year, and whether "DNA Probes" was a major or minor topic of these publications. ... to measure DNA-DNA homologies, to group subspecies, etc. The DNA probe hybridizes with a specific mRNA, if present. ... The use of DNA probes provides a specific, sensitive, rapid, and inexpensive replacement for cell culture techniques for ... "DNA Probes" is a descriptor in the National Library of Medicines controlled vocabulary thesaurus, MeSH (Medical Subject ...
Probe Position-Dependent Counterion Dynamics in DNA: Comparison of Time-Resolved Stokes Shift of Groove-Bound to Base-Stacked ... Probe Position-Dependent Counterion Dynamics in DNA: Comparison of Time-Resolved Stokes Shift of Groove-Bound to Base-Stacked ... Probe Position-Dependent Counterion Dynamics in DNA: Comparison of Time-Resolved Stokes Shift of Groove-Bound to Base-Stacked ... "Probe Position-Dependent Counterion Dynamics in DNA: Comparison of Time-Resolved Stokes Shift of Groove-Bound to Base-Stacked ...
Learn about DNA probes, types, examples and various types of labeling techniques. Also, explore applications of DNA probes, in ... DNA probes are single-stranded and labeled oligonucleotide sequences used in FISH, PCR and DNA sequencing. ... various types of DNA probes are Hybridization probes, PCR probes, Microarray probes (cDNA probes and oligo probes), Random ... Note that DNA probes are just like DNA primers, but are a bit longer and contain a detectable tag or label. Ideally, DNA probes ...
Keywords: Ruthenium, DNA, DNA structural probe, cytotoxicity, binding mode, Cisplatin-based drugs, anticancer drugs. ... Keywords: Ruthenium, DNA, DNA structural probe, cytotoxicity, binding mode, Cisplatin-based drugs, anticancer drugs. ... This review overviews some representative polynuclear ruthenium complexes acting as DNA structural probes, DNA binders and in ... This review overviews some representative polynuclear ruthenium complexes acting as DNA structural probes, DNA binders and in ...
... probe, nanopartikel emas, nanopartikel perak v Design Probe for DNA Biosensor Base on UV Spectrofotometer (Aplication for ... iv Perancangan Probe DNA Biosensor Berbasis UV Spektrofomotri (Aplikasi pada Salmonella dan E.coli) Arief M. Firmansyah ... After checking the level of hybridization, DNA samples were used in order to find out the level of specificity of the probes. ... In this research, the author designed probe for DNA targets from E.coli and Salmonella thypi. Synthetic targets were also ...
... Author: Barnett ... Multisubstrate DNA stable isotope probing reveals guild structure of bacteria that mediate soil carbon cycling. DSpace ...
  • NEW YORK (GenomeWeb News) - Cancer Genetics today said that it and Nikon's Italian subsidiaries have entered into a distribution agreement covering Cancer Genetics' DNA probes intended for fluorescent in situ hybridization. (genomeweb.com)
  • Finally, irradiation effects and AlGaAs resonators have been studied for the applications of DNA brush layer on GaAs as biosensor during the change of attachment probe DNA and hybridization to target DNA. (umd.edu)
  • An AlGaAs resonator used as proof of concept a change in mass by a change in resonance frequency under hybridization reaction with complementary target DNA. (umd.edu)
  • Gene probes are used in various blotting and in situ hybridization (ISH) techniques for the detection of nucleic acid sequences in food industry, environmental, medical, and veterinary applications to improve the specificity of the analyses. (enzolifesciences.com)
  • The degree of homology between target and probe results in stable hybridization. (enzolifesciences.com)
  • Probes labeled by nick translation can be used in many different hybridization techniques including: chromogenic in situ hybridization (CISH), fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH), screening gene banks by colony or plaque hybridization, DNA or RNA transfer hybridization, and re-association kinetic studies. (enzolifesciences.com)
  • We report a reagentless and reusable electrochemical DNA sensor that exploits competitive binding and target hybridization-induced change in the signalling probe conformation for robust detection of a target DNA sequence. (rsc.org)
  • conserved genes, whole chromosomes, or whole genomes) used in hybridization studies in order to identify microorganisms, to measure DNA-DNA homologies, to group subspecies, etc. (musc.edu)
  • Conventional techniques used for testing for the hybridization product include dot blot assays, Southern blot assays, and DNA:RNA hybrid-specific antibody tests. (musc.edu)
  • A scheme of probe DNA hybridization. (geneticeducation.co.in)
  • Illustration of three different conditions for DNA probe hybridization. (geneticeducation.co.in)
  • Based on the application, various types of DNA probes are Hybridization probes, PCR probes, Microarray probes (cDNA probes and oligo probes), Random probes and aptamers. (geneticeducation.co.in)
  • Hybridization probes are single-stranded oligo-sequences used in hybridization-based detection techniques like- FISH, in situ hybridization and microarray. (geneticeducation.co.in)
  • FISH (Fluorescence in situ hybridization) probes are single-stranded and labeled DNA probes that directly bind on chromosomes. (geneticeducation.co.in)
  • The presence of these two bacteria was characterized by the decrease in the absorbance of nanoparticles in case of an hybridization between the probes and their targets. (studylibid.com)
  • After checking the level of hybridization, DNA samples were used in order to find out the level of specificity of the probes. (studylibid.com)
  • In situ hybridization with a blotin-labeled DNA probe was used to detect wheatrye translocations. (illinois.edu)
  • If the identification of the captured genomic target is performed using array-based hybridization approaches, the internal region may optionally contain a probe-specific tag sequence that uniquely identifies the given probe as well as a tag-release site, which, similar to the probe-release site, is also a restriction site. (wikipedia.org)
  • Clone Y5 was sublocalized to band Yq 11.22 by hybridization to a panel of cellular DNA from patients with Y chromosome rearrangements. (barrowneuro.org)
  • Dot blot hybridization showed that the three probes displayed signals for hybridization to both S. sanguinis strain ATCC 10556 and the S. sanguinis clinical isolates. (nyu.edu)
  • DNA was extracted using the alkaline-lysis and the production of extended-spectrum - method of Birnboim and Doly [16] and was lactamases by multidrug resistant E.coli has used in dot blot hybridization. (who.int)
  • Pinpoint FISH is a fully synthetic FISH technology based on single stranded fluorescently labeled DNA oligonucleotides. (biocat.com)
  • In practice, double and single stranded DNAs, mRNAs, and other RNAs synthesized in vitro are all used as probes. (enzolifesciences.com)
  • Nucleic acid probes are either a single stranded DNA or RNA with a strong affinity towards a specific DNA or RNA target sequence. (enzolifesciences.com)
  • DNA probes are single-stranded and labeled oligonucleotide sequences used in FISH, PCR and DNA sequencing. (geneticeducation.co.in)
  • DNA probes are short, single-stranded and labeled complementary oligonucleotide sequences used to hybridize with the target gene or sequence. (geneticeducation.co.in)
  • Similar to MIP, padlock probes are single stranded DNA molecules with two 20-nucleotide long segments complementary to the target connected by a 40-nucleotide long linker sequence. (wikipedia.org)
  • A single-stranded chemiluminescent DNA probe, which is complementary to a region of the target amplicon, is labeled with different acridinium ester molecule. (cdc.gov)
  • KromaTiD sub-CEPs make use of pericentric non-repetitive genomic DNA to provide a uniform signal from chromosome to chromosome. (biocat.com)
  • Previously, a probe-selection method based on hybridisation of genomic DNA (gDNA) was developed, which enables GeneChips to be used for species that they were not designed for. (cambridge.org)
  • After ultracentrifugation, 13C-labelled DNA, containing genomic DNA of these Methylocystis spp. (lancs.ac.uk)
  • This combination of DNA stable-isotope probing, MDA and metagenomics provided access to genomic information of a relatively large DNA fragment of these thus far uncultivated, predominant and active methanotrophs in peatland soil. (lancs.ac.uk)
  • Molecular Inversion Probe (MIP) belongs to the class of Capture by Circularization molecular techniques for performing genomic partitioning, a process through which one captures and enriches specific regions of the genome. (wikipedia.org)
  • these probes hybridize to and capture the genomic target. (wikipedia.org)
  • MIP stands unique from other genomic partitioning strategies in that MIP probes share the common design of two genomic target complementary segments separated by a linker region. (wikipedia.org)
  • Anneal probe to genomic target DNA Probes are added to the genomic DNA sample. (wikipedia.org)
  • In this linearized probe the universal PCR primer sequences are located at the 5' and 3' ends and the captured genomic target becomes part of the internal segment of the probe. (wikipedia.org)
  • If array-based approach is used, the probe may optionally contain a probe-specific tag that uniquely identifies the probe as well as the genomic region targeted by it. (wikipedia.org)
  • Multiplex analysis Although each probe examines one specific genomic locus, multiple probes can be combined into a single tube for multiplexed assay that simultaneously examines multiple loci. (wikipedia.org)
  • EC 2.1.1.6) was determined from rat cDNA and genomic libraries were screened with DNA probes and specific antiserum. (lu.se)
  • Molecular beacon probes are a sequence of nucleotides (the building blocks of DNA and RNA) that can be used to fluorescently detect the presence of a specific sequence of DNA or RNA. (edinst.com)
  • In developing a probe, a sequence of nucleotides must be identified, isolated, reproduced in sufficient quantity, and tagged with a label that can be detected. (enzolifesciences.com)
  • Next, the enzyme DNA polymerase I removes the native nucleotides from the probe molecules in the 5′→3′ direction (exonuclease activity) while replacing them with labeled dNTP precursors by virtue of its 5′→3′ polymerase activity. (enzolifesciences.com)
  • The researchers looked at areas of the genome with tandem repeats - stretches of 2 to 20 nucleotides, which are the 'building blocks' of DNA, that are repeated two or more times in one spot. (spectrumnews.org)
  • for example, general FISH probes are a few hundred nucleotides long. (geneticeducation.co.in)
  • While special types of probes for larger chromosomal alteration are a few thousand nucleotides long. (geneticeducation.co.in)
  • Gap filling The gap is filled by DNA polymerase using free nucleotides and the ends of the probe are ligated by ligase, resulting in a fully circularized probe. (wikipedia.org)
  • Centromere Enumeration Probes (sub-CEPs) from KromaTiD are available for all human chromosomes as standard products. (biocat.com)
  • Telomeric Probes (sub-Telos) from KromaTiD are available for the p- and q-arms of all human chromosomes as standard products, other sequenced species are available by request. (biocat.com)
  • The probe containing a 120-bp repetitive DNA sequence from rye, hybridized to the entire length of all rye chromosomes, but only to a few sites in 14 wheat chromosomes. (illinois.edu)
  • The overall distribution of this DNA probe in the rye chromosomes has not been detected previously with the use of radioactively labeled probes. (illinois.edu)
  • Clone Y2, also found in female and male DNA, is probably located in the pseudosutosomal region because extra copies of either the X or Y chromosomes increased Y2 restriction enzyme fragment intensity in total cellular DNA. (barrowneuro.org)
  • Three chromosome-specific repetitive probes labeled with either amino acetyl fluorene (AAF), mercury, or biotin were hybridized simultaneously to metaphase chromosomes prepared from human blood lymphocytes or to interphase tumor nuclei. (nih.gov)
  • Molecular beacon probes can be custom designed to target specific DNA or RNA sequences, which allows molecular beacons to be used for real-time detection and quantification of DNA and RNA. (edinst.com)
  • 60°C was found to be an adequate temperature for the hairpins to be completely open, with the emission at 60°C being 50 times higher than at 20°C. Based on these results 60°C was chosen as the incubation temperature for DNA detection. (edinst.com)
  • In theory, any nucleic acid can be used as a probe provided it can be labeled to permit detection and quantitation of the hybrid molecules formed between the probe and sequence to be identified. (enzolifesciences.com)
  • Redmond Red, a fluoropore containing a redox-active phenoxazine core, has been explored as a new electrochemical probe for the detection of abasic sites in double-stranded DNA. (caltech.edu)
  • FISH probes are used for the detection of larger deletion, duplication and translocation which can not be assessed by conventional karyotyping. (geneticeducation.co.in)
  • High-bandwidth detection of short DNA in nanopipettes. (imperial.ac.uk)
  • Recently, we have demonstrated high-bandwidth detection of double-stranded (ds) DNA with microsecond time resolution in nanopipettes, using custom-designed electronics. (imperial.ac.uk)
  • During the detection step, light emitted from the labeled RNA: DNA hybrids is measured as photon signals in a luminometer, and are reported as Relative Light Units (RLU). (cdc.gov)
  • In conclution, DNA amplification is a rapid, reliable and accurate method with a high degree of sensitivity and specificity for the detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis DNA sequences and it can replace the conventional culture method in the diagnosis of extra pulmonary tuberculosis and tuberculosis meningitis except in the situation when antibiotic sensitivity results are required. (who.int)
  • was separated from 12C DNA and subjected to multiple displacement amplification (MDA) to generate sufficient DNA for the preparation of a fosmid metagenomic library. (lancs.ac.uk)
  • Captured target enrichment If the probe is linearized, traditional PCR amplification is performed to enrich the captured target using the universal primers of the probe. (wikipedia.org)
  • Otherwise, rolling circle amplification is performed for the circular probe. (wikipedia.org)
  • The GEN-PROBE APTIMA trichomonas vaginalis assay combines the technologies of target capture, Transcription-Mediated Amplification (TMA), and Dual Kinetic Assay (DKA). (cdc.gov)
  • The RAPD (Random Amplification Polymorphic DNA) allows the amplification of DNA sequences and is a simple and quick technique that does not require prior knowledge on the genomes to characterize organisms, using one randomly determined (usually a decamer) primer 17 . (bvsalud.org)
  • The objective of the study was to develop a rapid method to detect Mycobacterium tuberculosis from clinical samples and the applicability of DNA amplification techniques to a developing country like Sri Lanka. (who.int)
  • Molecular probes can be broadly categorized into DNA probes and RNA probes, cDNA probes, and synthetic oligonucleotide probes. (enzolifesciences.com)
  • Phenantridine alkaloids such as sanguinarine, chelerytrine, chelirubine, chelilutine, sanguilutine and macarpine interact with double stranded DNA showing substantial changes in fluorescence emission. (muni.cz)
  • Subtle structural alterations in G-quadruplex DNA regulate site specificity of fluorescence light-up probes. (bvsalud.org)
  • In here, we have developed a compound with ability to specifically signal a certain c-MYC G4 DNA structure through a fluorescence light -up mechanism. (bvsalud.org)
  • Despite the compound's two binding sites on the G4 DNA structure, only one of them result in the fluorescence light -up effect. (bvsalud.org)
  • The objective of the present study was to design a PCR-generated DNA probe and determine the specificity of the probe for the identification of clinical isolates of Streptococcus sanguinis. (nyu.edu)
  • Rapid identification of up to three Candida species in a single reaction tube by a 5' exonuclease assay using fluorescent DNA probes. (musc.edu)
  • We examined DNA methylation levels at more than 472,506 CpG probes through the Illumina Infinium HumanMethylation450 BeadChip assay. (cdc.gov)
  • A nucleotide sequence with complementary bases to the molecular beacon loop is called complementary DNA (cDNA). (edinst.com)
  • If the complementary region is not present at the target location, the probe will not bind and not give signals. (geneticeducation.co.in)
  • Polynuclear ruthenium complexes were reported to exhibit synergistic and/or complementary effects: the enhanced DNA structural recognition and DNA binding as well as in vitro anticancer activities. (eurekaselect.com)
  • Specifically, the two target complementary regions at the 5' and 3' ends of the probe become adjacent to one another while the internal linker region forms a free hanging loop. (wikipedia.org)
  • After a denaturation followed by an annealing step, the target-complementary ends of the probe are hybridized to the target DNA. (wikipedia.org)
  • The introduction of complementary DNA (cDNA) microarray technology in 1995 has helped to facilitate the identification and classification of DNA sequence information and the assignment of functions to these new genes by allowing investigators to analyze expression of thousands of genes simultaneously in a single experiment. (medscape.com)
  • Messenger RNA (mRNA) from the sample of interest can serve as a template for producing complementary DNA (cDNA) in the presence of a reverse transcriptase enzyme. (medscape.com)
  • The 2 most common microarray technologies in use are the oligonucleotide microarrays and the robotically spotted complementary DNA (cDNA) microarrays. (medscape.com)
  • Common genetic testing techniques that we use routinely in our lab are FISH, karyotyping, PCR, DNA microarray , DNA sequencing and restriction digestion. (geneticeducation.co.in)
  • Among these techniques, FISH, PCR, DNA sequencing and microarray have one common special requirement- DNA probes . (geneticeducation.co.in)
  • Example of an approximately 40,000 probe spotted oligo microarray with enlarged inset to show detail. (medscape.com)
  • using DNA microarray technology. (lu.se)
  • The Pinpoint FISH TP53/CEP 17 Probe Kit is intended to detect the copy number of the LSI TP53 probe target located at chromosome 17q11.1 and of the CEP 17 probe target located at the centromere of chromosome 17. (biocat.com)
  • The Vysis CEP 12 SpectrumOrange DNA Probe Kit is intended to detect AT rich alpha satellite sequences in the centromere region of chromosome 12 in conjunction with routine diagnostic cytogenetic testing. (molecularcatalog.abbott)
  • The CEP 12 DNA Probe Kit has been optimized only for identifying chromosome 12 in interphase nuclei from peripheral blood specimens from patients with B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia. (molecularcatalog.abbott)
  • Isolation and characterization of Y chromosome DNA probes. (barrowneuro.org)
  • and Golbus, M S, "Isolation and characterization of Y chromosome DNA probes. (barrowneuro.org)
  • Besides premade probes, also genome wide, custom Pinpoint FISH assays engineered to meet your specific requirements are offered. (biocat.com)
  • Employing the DNA blot analysis only one COMT-encoding gene was found in the rat genome. (lu.se)
  • DNA probes are artificially synthesized oligonucleotide sequences. (geneticeducation.co.in)
  • DNA microarrays are simply platforms that consist of small solid supports onto which the sequences from thousands of different genes are attached at fixed locations. (medscape.com)
  • Many new nucleic acid-based diagnostic tools or assays have been developed that allow analysis of DNA and RNA molecules in clinical samples. (enzolifesciences.com)
  • DNA/RNA probe assays are faster and sensitive so that many conventional diagnostic tests for viruses and bacteria involving culturing of the organisms are being fast replaced by molecular probe assays. (enzolifesciences.com)
  • While culture tests can take days, molecular probe assays can be performed within a few hours or minutes. (enzolifesciences.com)
  • thereafter, DNA probes (AccuProbe and GenoType line-probe assays [Hain Lifescience GmbH, Nehren, Germany]) were used. (cdc.gov)
  • The annealed primers ultimately become part of the probe itself, because the Klenow fragment of DNA polymerase I extends the primers in the 3′ direction and, in so doing, incorporates the label. (enzolifesciences.com)
  • It involves randomly nicking the backbone of a double-stranded DNA with dilute concentrations of DNase I. At extremely low concentrations, this enzyme nicks a template at four or five sites, producing a free 3′-OH group that can act as a primer at each nicking location. (enzolifesciences.com)
  • The response of luminescence intensity to low concentrations of double stranded DNA in presence of alkaloids was found to be linear and can be potentially used for quantification of DNA by means of luminescence spectrometry. (muni.cz)
  • In this study, we demonstrate that gDNA-based probe selection on the Affymetrix Human U133+2 GeneChip array can be used to study gene expression profiles in sheep tissues. (cambridge.org)
  • The discovery of DNA markers closely linked to the gene for Huntington's disease (HD) has allowed development of predictive and prenatal testing programmes for HD. (bmj.com)
  • A DNA probe is a labeled fragment of DNA that contains a nucleotide sequence specific for the gene or chromosomal region of interest. (enzolifesciences.com)
  • DNA probes carry the information which we use to study a target sequence or gene. (geneticeducation.co.in)
  • Three digoxigenin-labeled DNA probes were synthesized on the basis of the sequence of the 1.6-kb fragment: the sequence of probe SSA-1 contained the proton-translocating ATPase (uncC) and the entire intergenic region, the sequence of probe SSA-2 contained only the intergenic region, and the sequence of probe SSA-3 contained an internal region of the murA gene. (nyu.edu)
  • Two DNA probes isolated from the region 5′ to the HLA-B gene are described. (umn.edu)
  • Because the locations of the probes are known, the intensity and pattern of the labeled mRNA can be used to measure the expression of the targeted gene. (medscape.com)
  • Even though many different types of surfaces have been studied as substrates for deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) attachment, the development of a new type of substrate, which is reproducible, stable, highly controlled and easily transferred to practical applications, is still needed. (umd.edu)
  • The electrochemical behavior of Redmond Red-modified DNA at gold surfaces exhibits stable, quasi-reversible voltammetry with a midpoint potential centered around −50 mV versus NHE. (caltech.edu)
  • were further confirmed by DNA stable-isotope probing analysis of a sample taken from the Moor House peatland (England). (lancs.ac.uk)
  • Active microorganisms have been identified previously using stable isotope probing (SIP) or bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) labeling. (nature.com)
  • The labeled DNA probe combines with amplicon to form stable RNA: DNA hybrids. (cdc.gov)
  • Exonuclease treatment removes these non-reacted probes as well as any remaining linear DNA in the reaction. (wikipedia.org)
  • Nick translation is efficient for both linear and covalently closed DNA molecules, and labeling reaction are completed in less than an hour. (enzolifesciences.com)
  • Redmond Red, reporting only if well-stacked in the duplex, represents a sensitive probe to detect abasic sites electrochemically in a DNA-mediated reaction. (caltech.edu)
  • The GEN-PROBE TMA reaction replicates a specific region of the small ribosomal subunit from trichomonas vaginalis via DNA and RNA intermediates and generates RNA amplicon molecules. (cdc.gov)
  • Besides demonstrating that the probe selection method can be used to study the ovine transcriptome, the benefits of this approach are that it can greatly increase the number of annotated and novel genes that can be studied beyond those currently possible using ovine- or bovine-specific microarrays. (cambridge.org)
  • A search for a similar sequence in the GenBank database with the BLASTN program revealed that the 1.6-kb DNA fragment comprised an intergenic region between two housekeeping genes, uncC (proton-translocating ATPase) and murA (UDP-N-acetylglucosamine enolpyruvyl transferase). (nyu.edu)
  • Therefore, in our study, E. coli complex, multi-factorial mechanism involv- isolates from diarrhoeal cases were ana- ing a large number of virulence factors that lysed using specific DNA probes for genes vary with pathotype. (who.int)
  • Isolates were screened for presence different toxins and 2 (2.2%) isolates were of genes encoding LT and ST enterotoxins, positive with all 4 DNA probes. (who.int)
  • The architecture and density of immobilized probe molecules depend on the type of the solid surface on which they are anchored. (umd.edu)
  • In the case of the longer, more flexible DNA with 100 bases, the DNA molecules strongly interacted with each other and formed big cluster, of 330~440nm in diameter on the surface. (umd.edu)
  • Small molecules that target specific G4 DNA structures and signal their presence would therefore be of great value as chemical research tools with potential to further advance towards diagnostic and therapeutic developments. (bvsalud.org)
  • This review overviews some representative polynuclear ruthenium complexes acting as DNA structural probes, DNA binders and in vitro anticancer agents, which were developed during last decades. (eurekaselect.com)
  • Specific molecular probes and primers are designed for this purpose. (enzolifesciences.com)
  • Note that DNA probes are just like DNA primers, but are a bit longer and contain a detectable tag or label. (geneticeducation.co.in)
  • The internal region contains two universal PCR primer sites that are common to all MIPs as well as a probe-release site, which is usually a restriction site. (wikipedia.org)
  • Results obtained from Restriction fragment length polymorphism typing show that the mahority of circulating Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains in Sri Lanka belong to a limited number of families, but the degree of IS6160 DNA polymorphism among strains were high. (who.int)
  • Its technology in combination with Cancer Genetics' DNA-FISH probes "will allow laboratories to perform simultaneous multicolor FISH testing with complex image analysis in academic and clinical settings," Cancer Genetics, which went public last month, said. (genomeweb.com)
  • Synthetic targets were also designed so that their level of complementarity with their respective probe was fully complement, or with mismatches of 4 and 6 bases. (studylibid.com)
  • Of the thousands of plaques screened, 13 did not hybridize to radiolabeled 46,XX total chromosomal DNA. (barrowneuro.org)
  • Chelirubine and macarpine were even successfully used for fluorescent DNA-specific staining of living cells due to the lower toxicity. (muni.cz)
  • The DNA probe hybridizes with a specific mRNA, if present. (musc.edu)
  • The use of DNA probes provides a specific, sensitive, rapid, and inexpensive replacement for cell culture techniques for diagnosing infections. (musc.edu)
  • Salmonella typhi's spesific probe was conjugated to gold nanoparticles and Escherichia coli's specific probe was conjugated to silver nanoparticles while universal probe for each bacteria was conjugated to magnetic beads. (studylibid.com)
  • Clone Y5 was male specific in three of four restriction enzyme digests although in the fourth a light hybridizing band was observed in both male and female DNA. (barrowneuro.org)
  • The probe SSA-2-specific intergenic region appeared to be specific for S. sanguinis. (nyu.edu)
  • The results from this study suggest that probe SSA-2 may serve as a species-specific DNA probe for the identification of clinical isolates of S. sanguinis. (nyu.edu)
  • However, this study shows that it is indeed possible to develop such compounds and present insights into the molecular details of specific G4 DNA recognition and signaling to advance future studies of G4 biology . (bvsalud.org)
  • Specific probes bind to the DNA, in order to determine what type of polio present. (cdc.gov)
  • In conclusion, we have demonstrated that natural products, phenantridine alkaloids, can be used as alternative probes to synthetic DNA dyes such as ethidium bromide. (muni.cz)
  • The individual DNA strands are called probes. (medscape.com)
  • Conventional labels for the DNA probe include the radioisotope labels 32P and 125I and the chemical label biotin. (musc.edu)
  • Ideally, DNA probes can be labeled with fluorescent, radioactive, Biotin, chemiluminescent, Enzyme or any chemical labeling depending on the requirement of the experiment. (geneticeducation.co.in)
  • It shares homology with the mating-type protein, Mc, from the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe and a conserved DNA-binding motif present in the nuclear high-mobility-group proteins HMG1 and HMG2. (nih.gov)
  • Glass or quartz nanopipettes have found increasing use as tools for studying the biophysical properties of DNA and proteins, and as sensor devices. (imperial.ac.uk)
  • An example of the The antibiotic susceptibility test showed results of the dot blot test with the EAST-1 that 140 (70.0%) isolates carried resistance probe is shown in Figure 1. (who.int)
  • To do this, we examined over 200 arbitrarily primed PCR (AP-PCR) amplicon patterns obtained with DNA from clinical isolates of S. sanguinis. (nyu.edu)
  • A 1.6-kb DNA amplicon that was common to all AP-PCR profiles was extracted from agarose gels and then cloned and sequenced. (nyu.edu)
  • In this study, I aim to understand the attachment of nucleic acid onto the surfaces of As-terminated GaAs- based semiconductors and focus on improving the "brush-structure", which is essential for high quality of biochip based on a DNA layer. (umd.edu)
  • Thomas, J.A. Ruthenium(II) polypyridyl complexes and DNA--from structural probes to cellular imaging and therapeutics. (eurekaselect.com)
  • DNA Probes" is a descriptor in the National Library of Medicine's controlled vocabulary thesaurus, MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) . (musc.edu)
  • Probe release In some versions of the protocol, the probe-release site (commonly a restriction site) is cleaved by restriction enzymes such that the probe becomes linearized. (wikipedia.org)
  • The tags from each probe are released by cleaving the tag release site with restriction enzymes. (wikipedia.org)
  • Clone Y1 hybridized to multiple restriction enzyme fragments in both male and female DNA with more intense bands in male DNA. (barrowneuro.org)
  • The purified fragments analysis showed that 92 (46.0%) of the were used as probes after labelling with a 200 isolates examined were toxigenic. (who.int)
  • In recent decades, traditional methods of microorganism phenotyping have been replaced or added by the procedures associated to recombinant DNA 12-14 . (bvsalud.org)
  • For the DNA extraction and purification from the clinical samples two methods, the standard phenol extraction procedure desctibed by Sambrook etal (1982) and the guanidinium thiocyanate method described by Boom et al(1990) were used. (who.int)
  • Extra repeats in DNA may contribute to some of autism's heritability. (spectrumnews.org)
  • These repeats can expand when they are passed down from parents to children: If a nucleotide, or combination of them, is repeated 10 times in a parents' DNA, it may be repeated hundreds of times in their child, for example. (spectrumnews.org)
  • DNA hybridised to the rye 1RS chromatin under high stringency conditions, indicating the presence of shared tandem repeats among the cereals. (nature.com)
  • Furthermore, the use of Taq or other thermostable DNA polymerases permits labeling reactions to be performed at higher temperatures via PCR, thereby reducing the incidence of enzyme-mediated point mutations during probe synthesis. (enzolifesciences.com)
  • Importantly, with Redmond Red positioned opposite an abasic site within the DNA duplex, the electrochemical response is significantly enhanced compared to Redmond Red positioned across from a base. (caltech.edu)
  • Keberadaan bakteri ditandai dengan turunnya nilai absorbansi dari nanopartikel, yang mengindikasikan telah terjadi proses hibridisasi antara probe dengan target. (studylibid.com)
  • Dalam penelitian ini, penulis merancang probe spesifik bakteri Escherichia coli dan Salmonella typhi yang digunakan untuk dapat terhibridisasi pada target DNA sampel, dan membuat target sintetik dengan berbagai variasi, yaitu fully complement, mismatch 4 basa, dan mismatch 6 basa. (studylibid.com)
  • With this design, when the probe hybridizes to the target, it undergoes an inversion in configuration (as suggested by the name of the technique) and circularizes. (wikipedia.org)
  • These probes, however, are designed such that a gap delimited by the hybridized ends of the probes remains over the target region. (wikipedia.org)
  • The captured target can also be identified by sequencing the probe, now also containing the target. (wikipedia.org)
  • The intertwined relation between the presented factors is likely the reason for the lack of examples using rational design to develop compounds with turn-on emission that specifically target certain G4 DNA structures. (bvsalud.org)
  • SIP encompasses a series of methods that involve the incorporation of heavy isotopes into newly synthetized DNA and its separation on a density gradient 16 . (nature.com)
  • The use of molecular beacons, coupled with a sensitive spectrofluorometer and sample temperature control, facilitates the measurement of extremely low concentrations of DNA or RNA. (edinst.com)
  • In addition, I studied the effect of DNA length and the presence of a good solvent, such as water, on the oligonucleotides on a GaAs surface. (umd.edu)
  • However, the FOIA documents suggest the presence of three tubes of DNA, conflicting with the Secret Service's initial reports. (thegatewaypundit.com)
  • iv Perancangan Probe DNA Biosensor Berbasis UV Spektrofomotri (Aplikasi pada Salmonella dan E.coli) Arief M. Firmansyah Pembimbing : (1) Kestrilia Rega Prilianti, S.Si. (studylibid.com)
  • Diketahui pula biosensor yang digunakan dapat memberikan hasil yang baik pada suhu tertentu, yaitu 55°C. Kata kunci: biosensor, probe, nanopartikel emas, nanopartikel perak v Design Probe for DNA Biosensor Base on UV Spectrofotometer (Aplication for Salmonella and E.coli) Arief M. Firmansyah Pembimbing : (1) Kestrilia Rega Prilianti, S.Si. (studylibid.com)
  • Below are the most recent publications written about "DNA Probes" by people in Profiles. (musc.edu)