Short sequences (generally about 10 base pairs) of DNA that are complementary to sequences of messenger RNA and allow reverse transcriptases to start copying the adjacent sequences of mRNA. Primers are used extensively in genetic and molecular biology techniques.
Macromolecular molds for the synthesis of complementary macromolecules, as in DNA REPLICATION; GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION of DNA to RNA, and GENETIC TRANSLATION of RNA into POLYPEPTIDES.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
A reverse transcriptase encoded by the POL GENE of HIV. It is a heterodimer of 66 kDa and 51 kDa subunits that are derived from a common precursor protein. The heterodimer also includes an RNAse H activity (RIBONUCLEASE H, HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS) that plays an essential role the viral replication process.
An enzyme that synthesizes DNA on an RNA template. It is encoded by the pol gene of retroviruses and by certain retrovirus-like elements. EC 2.7.7.49.
A ribonuclease that specifically cleaves the RNA moiety of RNA:DNA hybrids. It has been isolated from a wide variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms as well as RETROVIRUSES.
A genus of ciliate protozoa having a dorsoventrally flattened body with widely spaced rows of short bristle-like cilia on the dorsal surface.
Guanine nucleotides which contain deoxyribose as the sugar moiety.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.
DNA-dependent DNA polymerases found in bacteria, animal and plant cells. During the replication process, these enzymes catalyze the addition of deoxyribonucleotide residues to the end of a DNA strand in the presence of DNA as template-primer. They also possess exonuclease activity and therefore function in DNA repair.
A polynucleotide consisting essentially of chains with a repeating backbone of phosphate and ribose units to which nitrogenous bases are attached. RNA is unique among biological macromolecules in that it can encode genetic information, serve as an abundant structural component of cells, and also possesses catalytic activity. (Rieger et al., Glossary of Genetics: Classical and Molecular, 5th ed)
A deoxyribonucleotide polymer that is the primary genetic material of all cells. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms normally contain DNA in a double-stranded state, yet several important biological processes transiently involve single-stranded regions. DNA, which consists of a polysugar-phosphate backbone possessing projections of purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine), forms a double helix that is held together by hydrogen bonds between these purines and pyrimidines (adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine).
The phosphate esters of DIDEOXYNUCLEOSIDES.
The process by which a DNA molecule is duplicated.
An essential ribonucleoprotein reverse transcriptase that adds telomeric DNA to the ends of eukaryotic CHROMOSOMES.
An antiviral antibiotic produced by Cephalosporium aphidicola and other fungi. It inhibits the growth of eukaryotic cells and certain animal viruses by selectively inhibiting the cellular replication of DNA polymerase II or the viral-induced DNA polymerases. The drug may be useful for controlling excessive cell proliferation in patients with cancer, psoriasis or other dermatitis with little or no adverse effect upon non-multiplying cells.
A single chain of deoxyribonucleotides that occurs in some bacteria and viruses. It usually exists as a covalently closed circle.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of viruses.
A DNA-dependent DNA polymerase characterized in prokaryotes and may be present in higher organisms. It has both 3'-5' and 5'-3' exonuclease activity, but cannot use native double-stranded DNA as template-primer. It is not inhibited by sulfhydryl reagents and is active in both DNA synthesis and repair. EC 2.7.7.7.
The spatial arrangement of the atoms of a nucleic acid or polynucleotide that results in its characteristic 3-dimensional shape.
The monomeric units from which DNA or RNA polymers are constructed. They consist of a purine or pyrimidine base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group. (From King & Stansfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)
A characteristic feature of enzyme activity in relation to the kind of substrate on which the enzyme or catalytic molecule reacts.
Inhibitors of reverse transcriptase (RNA-DIRECTED DNA POLYMERASE), an enzyme that synthesizes DNA on an RNA template.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
Ribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of viruses.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
The parts of a macromolecule that directly participate in its specific combination with another molecule.
A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria (GRAM-NEGATIVE FACULTATIVELY ANAEROBIC RODS) commonly found in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals. It is usually nonpathogenic, but some strains are known to produce DIARRHEA and pyogenic infections. Pathogenic strains (virotypes) are classified by their specific pathogenic mechanisms such as toxins (ENTEROTOXIGENIC ESCHERICHIA COLI), etc.
The type species of LENTIVIRUS and the etiologic agent of AIDS. It is characterized by its cytopathic effect and affinity for the T4-lymphocyte.
A multistage process that includes cloning, physical mapping, subcloning, determination of the DNA SEQUENCE, and information analysis.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of bacteria.
Technique that utilizes low-stringency polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification with single primers of arbitrary sequence to generate strain-specific arrays of anonymous DNA fragments. RAPD technique may be used to determine taxonomic identity, assess kinship relationships, analyze mixed genome samples, and create specific probes.
Binary classification measures to assess test results. Sensitivity or recall rate is the proportion of true positives. Specificity is the probability of correctly determining the absence of a condition. (From Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 2d ed)
The insertion of recombinant DNA molecules from prokaryotic and/or eukaryotic sources into a replicating vehicle, such as a plasmid or virus vector, and the introduction of the resultant hybrid molecules into recipient cells without altering the viability of those cells.
A transfer RNA which is specific for carrying lysine to sites on the ribosomes in preparation for protein synthesis.
The relationships of groups of organisms as reflected by their genetic makeup.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
Constituent of 30S subunit prokaryotic ribosomes containing 1600 nucleotides and 21 proteins. 16S rRNA is involved in initiation of polypeptide synthesis.
The restriction of a characteristic behavior, anatomical structure or physical system, such as immune response; metabolic response, or gene or gene variant to the members of one species. It refers to that property which differentiates one species from another but it is also used for phylogenetic levels higher or lower than the species.
DNA sequences encoding RIBOSOMAL RNA and the segments of DNA separating the individual ribosomal RNA genes, referred to as RIBOSOMAL SPACER DNA.
The biosynthesis of RNA carried out on a template of DNA. The biosynthesis of DNA from an RNA template is called REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION.
A single-stranded DNA-dependent RNA polymerase that functions to initiate, or prime, DNA synthesis by synthesizing oligoribonucleotide primers. EC 2.7.7.-.
Acrylic acids or acrylates which are substituted in the C-2 position with a methyl group.
The sequential correspondence of nucleotides in one nucleic acid molecule with those of another nucleic acid molecule. Sequence homology is an indication of the genetic relatedness of different organisms and gene function.
An adhesion procedure for orthodontic attachments, such as plastic DENTAL CROWNS. This process usually includes the application of an adhesive material (DENTAL CEMENTS) and letting it harden in-place by light or chemical curing.
The functional hereditary units of BACTERIA.
Laboratory techniques that involve the in-vitro synthesis of many copies of DNA or RNA from one original template.
Dental cements composed either of polymethyl methacrylate or dimethacrylate, produced by mixing an acrylic monomer liquid with acrylic polymers and mineral fillers. The cement is insoluble in water and is thus resistant to fluids in the mouth, but is also irritating to the dental pulp. It is used chiefly as a luting agent for fabricated and temporary restorations. (Jablonski's Dictionary of Dentistry, 1992, p159)
The arrangement of two or more amino acid or base sequences from an organism or organisms in such a way as to align areas of the sequences sharing common properties. The degree of relatedness or homology between the sequences is predicted computationally or statistically based on weights assigned to the elements aligned between the sequences. This in turn can serve as a potential indicator of the genetic relatedness between the organisms.
Polymers made up of a few (2-20) nucleotides. In molecular genetics, they refer to a short sequence synthesized to match a region where a mutation is known to occur, and then used as a probe (OLIGONUCLEOTIDE PROBES). (Dorland, 28th ed)
Synthetic or natural oligonucleotides used in hybridization studies in order to identify and study specific nucleic acid fragments, e.g., DNA segments near or within a specific gene locus or gene. The probe hybridizes with a specific mRNA, if present. Conventional techniques used for testing for the hybridization product include dot blot assays, Southern blot assays, and DNA:RNA hybrid-specific antibody tests. Conventional labels for the probe include the radioisotope labels 32P and 125I and the chemical label biotin.
A heat stable DNA-DIRECTED DNA POLYMERASE from the bacteria Thermus aquaticus. It is widely used for the amplification of genes through the process of POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION. EC 2.7.7.-.
A technique for identifying individuals of a species that is based on the uniqueness of their DNA sequence. Uniqueness is determined by identifying which combination of allelic variations occur in the individual at a statistically relevant number of different loci. In forensic studies, RESTRICTION FRAGMENT LENGTH POLYMORPHISM of multiple, highly polymorphic VNTR LOCI or MICROSATELLITE REPEAT loci are analyzed. The number of loci used for the profile depends on the ALLELE FREQUENCY in the population.
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
Species- or subspecies-specific DNA (including COMPLEMENTARY DNA; conserved genes, whole chromosomes, or whole genomes) used in hybridization studies in order to identify microorganisms, to measure DNA-DNA homologies, to group subspecies, etc. The DNA probe hybridizes with a specific mRNA, if present. Conventional techniques used for testing for the hybridization product include dot blot assays, Southern blot assays, and DNA:RNA hybrid-specific antibody tests. Conventional labels for the DNA probe include the radioisotope labels 32P and 125I and the chemical label biotin. The use of DNA probes provides a specific, sensitive, rapid, and inexpensive replacement for cell culture techniques for diagnosing infections.
Electrophoresis in which agar or agarose gel is used as the diffusion medium.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of plants.
A variety of simple repeat sequences that are distributed throughout the GENOME. They are characterized by a short repeat unit of 2-8 basepairs that is repeated up to 100 times. They are also known as short tandem repeats (STRs).
The genetic constitution of the individual, comprising the ALLELES present at each GENETIC LOCUS.
Ribonucleic acid in bacteria having regulatory and catalytic roles as well as involvement in protein synthesis.
Single-stranded complementary DNA synthesized from an RNA template by the action of RNA-dependent DNA polymerase. cDNA (i.e., complementary DNA, not circular DNA, not C-DNA) is used in a variety of molecular cloning experiments as well as serving as a specific hybridization probe.
Variation occurring within a species in the presence or length of DNA fragment generated by a specific endonuclease at a specific site in the genome. Such variations are generated by mutations that create or abolish recognition sites for these enzymes or change the length of the fragment.
Widely used technique which exploits the ability of complementary sequences in single-stranded DNAs or RNAs to pair with each other to form a double helix. Hybridization can take place between two complimentary DNA sequences, between a single-stranded DNA and a complementary RNA, or between two RNA sequences. The technique is used to detect and isolate specific sequences, measure homology, or define other characteristics of one or both strands. (Kendrew, Encyclopedia of Molecular Biology, 1994, p503)
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of fungi.
Genotypic differences observed among individuals in a population.
The internal resistance of a material to moving some parts of it parallel to a fixed plane, in contrast to stretching (TENSILE STRENGTH) or compression (COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH). Ionic crystals are brittle because, when subjected to shear, ions of the same charge are brought next to each other, which causes repulsion.
A variation of the PCR technique in which cDNA is made from RNA via reverse transcription. The resultant cDNA is then amplified using standard PCR protocols.
A method (first developed by E.M. Southern) for detection of DNA that has been electrophoretically separated and immobilized by blotting on nitrocellulose or other type of paper or nylon membrane followed by hybridization with labeled NUCLEIC ACID PROBES.
A phenotypically recognizable genetic trait which can be used to identify a genetic locus, a linkage group, or a recombination event.
Proteins found in any species of bacterium.
Use of restriction endonucleases to analyze and generate a physical map of genomes, genes, or other segments of DNA.
The degree of similarity between sequences of amino acids. This information is useful for the analyzing genetic relatedness of proteins and species.
The regular and simultaneous occurrence in a single interbreeding population of two or more discontinuous genotypes. The concept includes differences in genotypes ranging in size from a single nucleotide site (POLYMORPHISM, SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE) to large nucleotide sequences visible at a chromosomal level.
The intergenic DNA segments that are between the ribosomal RNA genes (internal transcribed spacers) and between the tandemly repeated units of rDNA (external transcribed spacers and nontranscribed spacers).
Constituent of the 40S subunit of eukaryotic ribosomes. 18S rRNA is involved in the initiation of polypeptide synthesis in eukaryotes.
Cements that act through infiltration and polymerization within the dentinal matrix and are used for dental restoration. They can be adhesive resins themselves, adhesion-promoting monomers, or polymerization initiators that act in concert with other agents to form a dentin-bonding system.
Enzymes that catalyze the template-directed incorporation of ribonucleotides into an RNA chain. EC 2.7.7.-.
A large collection of DNA fragments cloned (CLONING, MOLECULAR) from a given organism, tissue, organ, or cell type. It may contain complete genomic sequences (GENOMIC LIBRARY) or complementary DNA sequences, the latter being formed from messenger RNA and lacking intron sequences.
A group of deoxyribonucleotides (up to 12) in which the phosphate residues of each deoxyribonucleotide act as bridges in forming diester linkages between the deoxyribose moieties.

Activation of systemic acquired silencing by localised introduction of DNA. (1/43244)

BACKGROUND: In plants, post-transcriptional gene silencing results in RNA degradation after transcription. Among tobacco transformants carrying a nitrate reductase (Nia) construct under the control of the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter (35S-Nia2), one class of transformants spontaneously triggers Nia post-transcriptional gene silencing (class II) whereas another class does not (class I). Non-silenced plants of both classes become silenced when grafted onto silenced stocks, indicating the existence of a systemic silencing signal. Graft-transmitted silencing is maintained in class II but not in class I plants when removed from silenced stocks, indicating similar requirements for spontaneous triggering and maintenance. RESULTS: Introduction of 35S-Nia2 DNA by the gene transfer method called biolistics led to localised acquired silencing (LAS) in bombarded leaves of wild-type, class I and class II plants, and to systemic acquired silencing (SAS) in class II plants. SAS occurred even if the targeted leaf was removed 2 days after bombardment, indicating that the systemic signal is produced, transmitted and amplified rapidly. SAS was activated by sense, antisense and promoterless Nia2 DNA constructs, indicating that transcription is not required although it does stimulate SAS. CONCLUSIONS: SAS was activated by biolistic introduction of promoterless constructs, indicating that the DNA itself is a potent activator of post-transcriptional gene silencing. The systemic silencing signal invaded the whole plant by cell-to-cell and long-distance propagation, and reamplification of the signal.  (+info)

Impaired translesion synthesis in xeroderma pigmentosum variant extracts. (2/43244)

Xeroderma pigmentosum variant (XPV) cells are characterized by a cellular defect in the ability to synthesize intact daughter DNA strands on damaged templates. Molecular mechanisms that facilitate replication fork progression on damaged DNA in normal cells are not well defined. In this study, we used single-stranded plasmid molecules containing a single N-2-acetylaminofluorene (AAF) adduct to analyze translesion synthesis (TLS) catalyzed by extracts of either normal or XPV primary skin fibroblasts. In one of the substrates, the single AAF adduct was located at the 3' end of a run of three guanines that was previously shown to induce deletion of one G by a slippage mechanism. Primer extension reactions performed by normal cellular extracts from four different individuals produced the same distinct pattern of TLS, with over 80% of the products resulting from the elongation of a slipped intermediate and the remaining 20% resulting from a nonslipped intermediate. In contrast, with cellular extracts from five different XPV patients, the TLS reaction was strongly reduced, yielding only low amounts of TLS via the nonslipped intermediate. With our second substrate, in which the AAF adduct was located at the first G in the run, thus preventing slippage from occurring, we confirmed that normal extracts were able to perform TLS 10-fold more efficiently than XPV extracts. These data demonstrate unequivocally that the defect in XPV cells resides in translesion synthesis independently of the slippage process.  (+info)

Overexpression of CuZn superoxide dismutase protects RAW 264.7 macrophages against nitric oxide cytotoxicity. (3/43244)

Initiation of nitric oxide (NO.)-mediated apoptotic cell death in RAW 264.7 macrophages is associated with up-regulation of mitochondrial manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD; SOD2) and down-regulation of cytosolic copper zinc superoxide dismutase (CuZnSOD; SOD1) at their individual mRNA and protein levels. To evaluate the decreased CuZnSOD expression and the initiation of apoptosis we stably transfected macrophages to overexpress human CuZnSOD. Individual clones revealed a 2-fold increase in CuZnSOD activity. Expression of a functional and thus protective CuZnSOD was verified by attenuated superoxide (O2(.)-)-mediated apoptotic as well as necrotic cell death. In this study we showed that SOD-overexpressing macrophages (R-SOD1-12) were also protected against NO.-initiated programmed cell death. Protection was substantial towards NO. derived from exogenously added NO donors or when NO. was generated by inducible NO synthase activation, and was evident at the level of p53 accumulation, caspase activation and DNA fragmentation. Stimulation of parent and SOD-overexpressing cells with a combination of lipopolysaccharide and murine interferon gamma produced equivalent amounts of nitrite/nitrate, which ruled out attenuated inducible NO. synthase activity during protection. Because protection by a O2(.)--scavenging system during NO. -intoxication implies a role of NO. and O2(.)- in the progression of cell damage, we used uric acid to delineate the role of peroxynitrite during NO.-elicited apoptosis. The peroxynitrite scavenger uric acid left S-nitrosoglutathione or spermine-NO-elicited apoptosis unaltered, blocking only 3-morpholinosydnonimine-mediated cell death. As a result we exclude peroxynitrite from contributing, to any major extent, to NO. -mediated apoptosis. Therefore protection observed with CuZnSOD overexpression is unlikely to stem from interference with peroxynitrite formation and/or action. Unequivocally, the down-regulation of CuZnSOD is associated with NO. cytotoxicity, whereas CuZnSOD overexpression protects macrophages from apoptosis.  (+info)

Co-expression of glutathione S-transferase with methionine aminopeptidase: a system of producing enriched N-terminal processed proteins in Escherichia coli. (4/43244)

We describe here an Escherichia coli expression system that produces recombinant proteins enriched in the N-terminal processed form, by using glutathione S-transferase cGSTM1-1 and rGSTT1-1 as models, where c and r refer to chick and rat respectively. Approximately 90% of the cGSTM1-1 or rGSTT1-1 overexpressed in E. coli under the control of a phoA promoter retained the initiator methionine residue that was absent from the mature isoenzymes isolated from tissues. The amount of initiator methionine was decreased to 40% of the expressed cGSTM1-1 when the isoenzyme was co-expressed with an exogenous methionine aminopeptidase gene under the control of a separate phoA promoter. The recombinant proteins expressed were mainly methionine aminopeptidase. The yield of cGSTM1-1 was decreased to 10% of that expressed in the absence of the exogenous methionine aminopeptidase gene. By replacing the phoA with its natural promoter, the expression of methionine aminopeptidase decreased drastically. The yield of the co-expressed cGSTM1-1 was approx. 60% of that in the absence of the exogenous methionine aminopeptidase gene; approx. 65% of the initiator methionine residues were removed from the enzyme. Under similar conditions, N-terminal processing was observed in approx. 70% of the recombinant rGSTT1-1 expressed. By increasing the concentration of phosphate in the growth medium, the amount of initiator methionine on cGSTM1-1 was decreased to 14% of the overexpressed isoenzymes, whereas no further improvement could be observed for rGSTT1-1. The initiator methionine residue does not affect the enzymic activities of either cGSTM1-1 or rGSTT1-1. However, the epoxidase activity and the 4-nitrobenzyl chloride-conjugating activity of the purified recombinant rGSTT1-1 are markedly higher that those reported recently for the same isoenzyme isolated from rat livers.  (+info)

Differential regulation of the human nidogen gene promoter region by a novel cell-type-specific silencer element. (5/43244)

Transfection analyses of the human nidogen promoter region in nidogen-producing fibroblasts from adult skin revealed multiple positive and negative cis-acting elements controlling nidogen gene expression. Characterization of the positive regulatory domains by gel mobility-shift assays and co-transfection studies in Drosophila SL2 cells unequivocally demonstrated that Sp1-like transcription factors are essential for a high expression of the human nidogen gene. Analysis of the negative regulatory domains identified a novel silencer element between nt -1333 and -1322, which is bound by a distinct nuclear factor, by using extracts from adult but not from embryonal fibroblasts. In embryonal fibroblasts, which express significantly higher amounts of nidogen mRNA as compared with adult fibroblasts, this inhibitory nidogen promoter region did not affect nidogen and SV40 promoter activities. The silencer element seems to be active only in nidogen-producing cells. Therefore this regulatory element might function in vivo to limit nidogen gene expression in response to external stimuli. However, none of the identified regulatory elements, including the silencer, contribute significantly to cell-specific expression of the human nidogen gene. Instead we provide evidence that gene expression in epidermal keratinocytes that are not producing nidogen is repressed by methylation-specific and chromatin-dependent mechanisms.  (+info)

Role of retinoid receptors in the regulation of mucin gene expression by retinoic acid in human tracheobronchial epithelial cells. (6/43244)

To investigate which retinoid receptors are critical in the regulation by all-trans-retinoic acid (RA) of the mucin genes MUC2, MUC5AC and MUC5B in cultured normal human tracheobronchial epithelial (NHTBE) cells, we used pan-RAR-, pan-RXR- and RAR- isotype (alpha, beta and gamma)-selective agonists and RARalpha- and RARgamma-selective antagonists (RAR is RA receptor and RXR is retinoid X receptor). RAR-, RARalpha- and RARgamma-selective agonists strongly induced mucin mRNAs in a dose-dependent manner, while the RARbeta-selective retinoid only weakly induced mucin gene expression at very high concentrations (1 microM). The pan-RXR-selective agonist by itself did not induce mucin gene expression, but acted synergistically with suboptimal concentrations of the pan-RAR agonist. A retinoid with selective anti-activator-protein-1 activity only marginally induced mucin gene expression. The RARalpha antagonist strongly inhibited mucin gene induction and mucous cell differentiation caused by RA and by the RARalpha- and RARgamma-selective retinoids. In contrast, the RARgamma antagonist only weakly inhibited RARalpha-selective-retinoid-induced mucin gene expression, but completely blocked mucin gene expression induced by the RARgamma-selective retinoid. Our studies indicate that RARalpha is the major retinoid receptor subtype mediating RA-dependent mucin gene expression and mucous cell differentiation, but that the RARgamma isotype can also induce mucin genes. Furthermore these studies suggest that RARbeta is probably not (directly) involved in RA-induced mucin gene expression.  (+info)

Differential regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor and its receptor fms-like-tyrosine kinase is mediated by nitric oxide in rat renal mesangial cells. (7/43244)

Under conditions associated with local and systemic inflammation, mesangial cells and invading immune cells are likely to be responsible for the release of large amounts of nitric oxide (NO) in the glomerulus. To further define the mechanisms of NO action in the glomerulus, we attempted to identify genes which are regulated by NO in rat glomerular mesangial cells. We identified vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and its receptor fms-like tyrosine kinase (FLT-1) to be under the regulatory control of exogenously applied NO in these cells. Using S-nitroso-glutathione (GSNO) as an NO-donating agent, VEGF expression was strongly induced, whereas expression of its FLT-1 receptor simultaneously decreased. Expressional regulation of VEGF and FLT-1 mRNA was transient and occurred rapidly within 1-3 h after GSNO treatment. Expression of a second VEGF-specific receptor, fetal liver kinase-1 (FLK-1/KDR), could not be detected. The inflammatory cytokine interleukin-1beta mediated a moderate increase in VEGF expression after 24 h and had no influence on FLT-1 expression. In contrast, platelet-derived growth factor-BB and basic fibroblast growth factor had no effect on VEGF expression, but strongly induced FLT-1 mRNA levels. Obviously, there is a differential regulation of VEGF and its receptor FLT-1 by NO, cytokines and growth factors in rat mesangial cells.  (+info)

Comparison of the fibrin-binding activities in the N- and C-termini of fibronectin. (8/43244)

Fibronectin (Fn) binds to fibrin in clots by covalent and non-covalent interactions. The N- and C-termini of Fn each contain one non-covalent fibrin-binding site, which are composed of type 1 (F1) structural repeats. We have previously localized the N-terminal site to the fourth and fifth F1 repeats (4F1.5F1). In the current studies, using proteolytic and recombinant proteins representing both the N- and C-terminal fibrin-binding regions, we localized and characterized the C-terminal fibrin-binding site, compared the relative fibrin-binding activities of both sites and determined the contribution of each site to the fibrin-binding activity of intact Fn. By fibrin-affinity chromatography, a protein composed of the 10F1 repeat through to the C-terminus of Fn (10F1-COOH), expressed in COS-1 cells, and 10F1-12F1, produced in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, displayed fibrin-binding activity. However, since 10F1 and 10F1.11F1 were not active, the presence of 12F1 is required for fibrin binding. A proteolytic fragment of 14.4 kDa, beginning 14 residues N-terminal to 10F1, was isolated from the fibrin-affinity matrix. Radio-iodinated 14.4 kDa fibrin-binding peptide/protein (FBP) demonstrated a dose-dependent and saturable binding to fibrin-coated wells that was both competitively inhibited and reversed by unlabelled 14.4 kDa FBP. Comparison of the fibrin-binding affinities of proteolytic FBPs from the N-terminus (25.9 kDa FBP), the C-terminus (14.4 kDa) and intact Fn by ELISA yielded estimated Kd values of 216, 18 and 2.1 nM, respectively. The higher fibrin-binding affinity of the N-terminus was substantiated by the ability of both a recombinant 4F1.5F1 and a monoclonal antibody (mAb) to this site to maximally inhibit biotinylated Fn binding to fibrin by 80%, and by blocking the 90% inhibitory activity of a polyclonal anti-Fn, by absorption with the 25.9 kDa FBP. We propose that whereas the N-terminal site appears to contribute to most of the binding activity of native Fn to fibrin, the specific binding of the C-terminal site may strengthen this interaction.  (+info)

DNA primers are short single-stranded DNA molecules that serve as a starting point for DNA synthesis. They are typically used in laboratory techniques such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing. The primer binds to a complementary sequence on the DNA template through base pairing, providing a free 3'-hydroxyl group for the DNA polymerase enzyme to add nucleotides and synthesize a new strand of DNA. This allows for specific and targeted amplification or analysis of a particular region of interest within a larger DNA molecule.

A genetic template refers to the sequence of DNA or RNA that contains the instructions for the development and function of an organism or any of its components. These templates provide the code for the synthesis of proteins and other functional molecules, and determine many of the inherited traits and characteristics of an individual. In this sense, genetic templates serve as the blueprint for life and are passed down from one generation to the next through the process of reproduction.

In molecular biology, the term "template" is used to describe the strand of DNA or RNA that serves as a guide or pattern for the synthesis of a complementary strand during processes such as transcription and replication. During transcription, the template strand of DNA is transcribed into a complementary RNA molecule, while during replication, each parental DNA strand serves as a template for the synthesis of a new complementary strand.

In genetic engineering and synthetic biology, genetic templates can be manipulated and modified to introduce new functions or alter existing ones in organisms. This is achieved through techniques such as gene editing, where specific sequences in the genetic template are targeted and altered using tools like CRISPR-Cas9. Overall, genetic templates play a crucial role in shaping the structure, function, and evolution of all living organisms.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

HIV Reverse Transcriptase is an enzyme that is encoded by the HIV-1 and HIV-2 viruses. It plays a crucial role in the replication cycle of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes AIDS.

Reverse transcriptase is responsible for transcribing the viral RNA genome into DNA, a process known as reverse transcription. This allows the viral genetic material to integrate into the host cell's DNA and replicate along with it, leading to the production of new virus particles.

The enzyme has three distinct activities: a polymerase activity that synthesizes DNA using RNA as a template, an RNase H activity that degrades the RNA template during reverse transcription, and a DNA-dependent DNA polymerase activity that synthesizes DNA using a DNA template.

Reverse transcriptase inhibitors are a class of antiretroviral drugs used to treat HIV infection. They work by binding to and inhibiting the activity of the reverse transcriptase enzyme, thereby preventing the virus from replicating.

RNA-directed DNA polymerase is a type of enzyme that can synthesize DNA using an RNA molecule as a template. This process is called reverse transcription, and it is the mechanism by which retroviruses, such as HIV, replicate their genetic material. The enzyme responsible for this reaction in retroviruses is called reverse transcriptase.

Reverse transcriptase is an important target for antiretroviral therapy used to treat HIV infection and AIDS. In addition to its role in viral replication, RNA-directed DNA polymerase also has applications in molecular biology research, such as in the production of complementary DNA (cDNA) copies of RNA molecules for use in downstream applications like cloning and sequencing.

Ribonuclease H (RNase H) is an enzyme that specifically degrades the RNA portion of an RNA-DNA hybrid. It cleaves the phosphodiester bond between the ribose sugar and the phosphate group in the RNA strand, leaving the DNA strand intact. This enzyme plays a crucial role in several cellular processes, including DNA replication, repair, and transcription.

There are two main types of RNase H: type 1 and type 2. Type 1 RNase H is found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, while type 2 RNase H is primarily found in eukaryotes. The primary function of RNase H is to remove RNA primers that are synthesized during DNA replication. These RNA primers are replaced with DNA nucleotides by another enzyme called polymerase δ, leaving behind a gap in the DNA strand. RNase H then cleaves the RNA-DNA hybrid, allowing for the repair of the gap and the completion of DNA replication.

RNase H has also been implicated in the regulation of gene expression, as it can degrade RNA-DNA hybrids formed during transcription. This process, known as transcription-coupled RNA decay, helps to prevent the accumulation of aberrant RNA molecules and ensures proper gene expression.

In addition to its cellular functions, RNase H has been studied for its potential therapeutic applications. For example, inhibitors of RNase H have been shown to have antiviral activity against HIV-1, as they prevent the degradation of viral RNA during reverse transcription. On the other hand, activators of RNase H have been explored as a means to enhance the efficiency of RNA interference (RNAi) therapies by promoting the degradation of target RNA molecules.

"Euplotes" is a genus of ciliate protozoans, which are single-celled organisms with hair-like structures called cilia. These cilia help the organism move and also aid in feeding. "Euplotes" species are typically found in freshwater or brackish environments and have a complex cell structure with two types of nuclei and specialized organelles for digestion. They are often used as model organisms in studies of cellular differentiation, evolution, and ecology.

Deoxyguanine nucleotides are chemical compounds that are the building blocks of DNA, one of the fundamental molecules of life. Specifically, deoxyguanine nucleotides contain a sugar molecule called deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and the nitrogenous base guanine.

Guanine is one of the four nitrogenous bases found in DNA, along with adenine, thymine, and cytosine. In DNA, guanine always pairs with cytosine through hydrogen bonding, forming a stable base pair that is crucial for maintaining the structure and integrity of the genetic code.

Deoxyguanine nucleotides are synthesized in cells during the process of DNA replication, which occurs prior to cell division. During replication, the double helix structure of DNA is unwound, and each strand serves as a template for the synthesis of a new complementary strand. Deoxyguanine nucleotides are added to the growing chain of nucleotides by an enzyme called DNA polymerase, which catalyzes the formation of a phosphodiester bond between the deoxyribose sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate group of the next.

Abnormalities in the synthesis or metabolism of deoxyguanine nucleotides can lead to genetic disorders and cancer. For example, mutations in genes that encode enzymes involved in the synthesis of deoxyguanine nucleotides have been linked to inherited diseases such as xeroderma pigmentosum and Bloom syndrome, which are characterized by increased sensitivity to sunlight and a predisposition to cancer. Additionally, defects in the repair of damaged deoxyguanine nucleotides can lead to the accumulation of mutations and contribute to the development of cancer.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a laboratory technique used to amplify specific regions of DNA. It enables the production of thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence in a rapid and efficient manner, making it an essential tool in various fields such as molecular biology, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and research.

The PCR process involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling to separate the DNA strands, allow primers (short sequences of single-stranded DNA) to attach to the target regions, and extend these primers using an enzyme called Taq polymerase, resulting in the exponential amplification of the desired DNA segment.

In a medical context, PCR is often used for detecting and quantifying specific pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites) in clinical samples, identifying genetic mutations or polymorphisms associated with diseases, monitoring disease progression, and evaluating treatment effectiveness.

DNA-directed DNA polymerase is a type of enzyme that synthesizes new strands of DNA by adding nucleotides to an existing DNA template in a 5' to 3' direction. These enzymes are essential for DNA replication, repair, and recombination. They require a single-stranded DNA template, a primer with a free 3' hydroxyl group, and the four deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates (dNTPs) as substrates to carry out the polymerization reaction.

DNA polymerases also have proofreading activity, which allows them to correct errors that occur during DNA replication by removing mismatched nucleotides and replacing them with the correct ones. This helps ensure the fidelity of the genetic information passed from one generation to the next.

There are several different types of DNA polymerases, each with specific functions and characteristics. For example, DNA polymerase I is involved in both DNA replication and repair, while DNA polymerase III is the primary enzyme responsible for DNA replication in bacteria. In eukaryotic cells, DNA polymerase alpha, beta, gamma, delta, and epsilon have distinct roles in DNA replication, repair, and maintenance.

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) is a single-stranded, linear polymer of ribonucleotides. It is a nucleic acid present in the cells of all living organisms and some viruses. RNAs play crucial roles in various biological processes such as protein synthesis, gene regulation, and cellular signaling. There are several types of RNA including messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), small nuclear RNA (snRNA), microRNA (miRNA), and long non-coding RNA (lncRNA). These RNAs differ in their structure, function, and location within the cell.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the genetic material present in the cells of organisms where it is responsible for the storage and transmission of hereditary information. DNA is a long molecule that consists of two strands coiled together to form a double helix. Each strand is made up of a series of four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - that are linked together by phosphate and sugar groups. The sequence of these bases along the length of the molecule encodes genetic information, with A always pairing with T and C always pairing with G. This base-pairing allows for the replication and transcription of DNA, which are essential processes in the functioning and reproduction of all living organisms.

Dideoxynucleotides are analogs of nucleotides, which are the building blocks of DNA and RNA. In a nucleotide, there is a sugar molecule (deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in RNA) attached to a phosphate group and one of four nitrogenous bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine in DNA; adenine, guanine, cytosine, or uracil in RNA).

In a dideoxynucleotide, there are two fewer oxygen molecules on the sugar component. Specifically, instead of having a hydroxyl group (-OH) at both the 2' and 3' carbons of the sugar, a dideoxynucleotide has a hydrogen atom (-H) at the 3' carbon and a hydroxyl or another group at the 2' carbon.

Dideoxynucleotides are used in scientific research and medical diagnostics, most notably in the Sanger method of DNA sequencing. In this process, DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to a single-stranded DNA template during replication. When a dideoxynucleotide is incorporated into the growing DNA chain, it acts as a terminator because there is no 3' hydroxyl group for the next nucleotide to be added. By running multiple reactions with different dideoxynucleotides and comparing the lengths of the resulting DNA fragments, researchers can determine the sequence of the template DNA.

Dideoxynucleotides are also used as antiretroviral drugs in the treatment of HIV infection. They inhibit the reverse transcriptase enzyme that HIV uses to convert its RNA genome into DNA, thus preventing the virus from replicating. Examples of dideoxynucleoside analog reverse transcriptase inhibitors (ddNRTIs) include zidovudine (AZT), didanosine (ddI), stavudine (d4T), and lamivudine (3TC).

DNA replication is the biological process by which DNA makes an identical copy of itself during cell division. It is a fundamental mechanism that allows genetic information to be passed down from one generation of cells to the next. During DNA replication, each strand of the double helix serves as a template for the synthesis of a new complementary strand. This results in the creation of two identical DNA molecules. The enzymes responsible for DNA replication include helicase, which unwinds the double helix, and polymerase, which adds nucleotides to the growing strands.

Telomerase is an enzyme that adds repetitive DNA sequences (telomeres) to the ends of chromosomes, which are lost during each cell division due to the incomplete replication of the ends of linear chromosomes. Telomerase is not actively present in most somatic cells, but it is highly expressed in germ cells and stem cells, allowing them to divide indefinitely. However, in many types of cancer cells, telomerase is abnormally activated, which leads to the maintenance or lengthening of telomeres, contributing to their unlimited replicative potential and tumorigenesis.

Aphidicolin is an antimicrotubule agent that is specifically a inhibitor of DNA polymerase alpha. It is an antibiotic that is produced by the fungus Cephalosporium aphidicola and is used in research to study the cell cycle and DNA replication. In clinical medicine, it has been explored as a potential anticancer agent, although its use is not currently approved for this indication.

Single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) is a form of DNA that consists of a single polynucleotide chain. In contrast, double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) consists of two complementary polynucleotide chains that are held together by hydrogen bonds.

In the double-helix structure of dsDNA, each nucleotide base on one strand pairs with a specific base on the other strand through hydrogen bonding: adenine (A) with thymine (T), and guanine (G) with cytosine (C). This base pairing provides stability to the double-stranded structure.

Single-stranded DNA, on the other hand, lacks this complementary base pairing and is therefore less stable than dsDNA. However, ssDNA can still form secondary structures through intrastrand base pairing, such as hairpin loops or cruciform structures.

Single-stranded DNA is found in various biological contexts, including viral genomes, transcription bubbles during gene expression, and in certain types of genetic recombination. It also plays a critical role in some laboratory techniques, such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing.

Viral DNA refers to the genetic material present in viruses that consist of DNA as their core component. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is one of the two types of nucleic acids that are responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information in living organisms. Viruses are infectious agents much smaller than bacteria that can only replicate inside the cells of other organisms, called hosts.

Viral DNA can be double-stranded (dsDNA) or single-stranded (ssDNA), depending on the type of virus. Double-stranded DNA viruses have a genome made up of two complementary strands of DNA, while single-stranded DNA viruses contain only one strand of DNA.

Examples of dsDNA viruses include Adenoviruses, Herpesviruses, and Poxviruses, while ssDNA viruses include Parvoviruses and Circoviruses. Viral DNA plays a crucial role in the replication cycle of the virus, encoding for various proteins necessary for its multiplication and survival within the host cell.

DNA Polymerase I is a type of enzyme that plays a crucial role in DNA replication and repair in prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria. It is responsible for synthesizing new strands of DNA by adding nucleotides to the 3' end of an existing strand, using the complementary strand as a template.

DNA Polymerase I has several key functions during DNA replication:

1. **5' to 3' exonuclease activity:** It can remove nucleotides from the 5' end of a DNA strand in a process called excision repair, which helps to correct errors that may have occurred during DNA replication.
2. **3' to 5' exonuclease activity:** This enzyme can also proofread newly synthesized DNA by removing incorrect nucleotides from the 3' end of a strand, ensuring accurate replication.
3. **Polymerase activity:** DNA Polymerase I adds new nucleotides to the 3' end of an existing strand, extending the length of the DNA molecule during replication and repair processes.
4. **Pyrophosphorolysis:** It can reverse the polymerization reaction by removing a nucleotide from the 3' end of a DNA strand while releasing pyrophosphate, which is an important step in some DNA repair pathways.

In summary, DNA Polymerase I is a versatile enzyme involved in various aspects of DNA replication and repair, contributing to the maintenance of genetic information in prokaryotic cells.

Nucleic acid conformation refers to the three-dimensional structure that nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) adopt as a result of the bonding patterns between the atoms within the molecule. The primary structure of nucleic acids is determined by the sequence of nucleotides, while the conformation is influenced by factors such as the sugar-phosphate backbone, base stacking, and hydrogen bonding.

Two common conformations of DNA are the B-form and the A-form. The B-form is a right-handed helix with a diameter of about 20 Å and a pitch of 34 Å, while the A-form has a smaller diameter (about 18 Å) and a shorter pitch (about 25 Å). RNA typically adopts an A-form conformation.

The conformation of nucleic acids can have significant implications for their function, as it can affect their ability to interact with other molecules such as proteins or drugs. Understanding the conformational properties of nucleic acids is therefore an important area of research in molecular biology and medicine.

Nucleotides are the basic structural units of nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA. They consist of a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine or uracil), a pentose sugar (ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA) and one to three phosphate groups. Nucleotides are linked together by phosphodiester bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate group of another, forming long chains known as polynucleotides. The sequence of these nucleotides determines the genetic information carried in DNA and RNA, which is essential for the functioning, reproduction and survival of all living organisms.

Substrate specificity in the context of medical biochemistry and enzymology refers to the ability of an enzyme to selectively bind and catalyze a chemical reaction with a particular substrate (or a group of similar substrates) while discriminating against other molecules that are not substrates. This specificity arises from the three-dimensional structure of the enzyme, which has evolved to match the shape, charge distribution, and functional groups of its physiological substrate(s).

Substrate specificity is a fundamental property of enzymes that enables them to carry out highly selective chemical transformations in the complex cellular environment. The active site of an enzyme, where the catalysis takes place, has a unique conformation that complements the shape and charge distribution of its substrate(s). This ensures efficient recognition, binding, and conversion of the substrate into the desired product while minimizing unwanted side reactions with other molecules.

Substrate specificity can be categorized as:

1. Absolute specificity: An enzyme that can only act on a single substrate or a very narrow group of structurally related substrates, showing no activity towards any other molecule.
2. Group specificity: An enzyme that prefers to act on a particular functional group or class of compounds but can still accommodate minor structural variations within the substrate.
3. Broad or promiscuous specificity: An enzyme that can act on a wide range of structurally diverse substrates, albeit with varying catalytic efficiencies.

Understanding substrate specificity is crucial for elucidating enzymatic mechanisms, designing drugs that target specific enzymes or pathways, and developing biotechnological applications that rely on the controlled manipulation of enzyme activities.

Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (RTIs) are a class of antiretroviral drugs that are primarily used in the treatment and management of HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) infection. They work by inhibiting the reverse transcriptase enzyme, which is essential for the replication of HIV.

HIV is a retrovirus, meaning it has an RNA genome and uses a unique enzyme called reverse transcriptase to convert its RNA into DNA. This process is necessary for the virus to integrate into the host cell's genome and replicate. Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors interfere with this process by binding to the reverse transcriptase enzyme, preventing it from converting the viral RNA into DNA.

RTIs can be further divided into two categories: nucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) and non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs). NRTIs are analogs of the building blocks of DNA, which get incorporated into the growing DNA chain during replication, causing termination of the chain. NNRTIs bind directly to the reverse transcriptase enzyme, causing a conformational change that prevents it from functioning.

By inhibiting the reverse transcriptase enzyme, RTIs can prevent the virus from replicating and reduce the viral load in an infected individual, thereby slowing down the progression of HIV infection and AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome).

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."

1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.

2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.

3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.

4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).

Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.

A viral RNA (ribonucleic acid) is the genetic material found in certain types of viruses, as opposed to viruses that contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). These viruses are known as RNA viruses. The RNA can be single-stranded or double-stranded and can exist as several different forms, such as positive-sense, negative-sense, or ambisense RNA. Upon infecting a host cell, the viral RNA uses the host's cellular machinery to translate the genetic information into proteins, leading to the production of new virus particles and the continuation of the viral life cycle. Examples of human diseases caused by RNA viruses include influenza, COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2), hepatitis C, and polio.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

In the context of medical and biological sciences, a "binding site" refers to a specific location on a protein, molecule, or cell where another molecule can attach or bind. This binding interaction can lead to various functional changes in the original protein or molecule. The other molecule that binds to the binding site is often referred to as a ligand, which can be a small molecule, ion, or even another protein.

The binding between a ligand and its target binding site can be specific and selective, meaning that only certain ligands can bind to particular binding sites with high affinity. This specificity plays a crucial role in various biological processes, such as signal transduction, enzyme catalysis, or drug action.

In the case of drug development, understanding the location and properties of binding sites on target proteins is essential for designing drugs that can selectively bind to these sites and modulate protein function. This knowledge can help create more effective and safer therapeutic options for various diseases.

'Escherichia coli' (E. coli) is a type of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium that commonly inhabits the intestinal tract of humans and warm-blooded animals. It is a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae and one of the most well-studied prokaryotic model organisms in molecular biology.

While most E. coli strains are harmless and even beneficial to their hosts, some serotypes can cause various forms of gastrointestinal and extraintestinal illnesses in humans and animals. These pathogenic strains possess virulence factors that enable them to colonize and damage host tissues, leading to diseases such as diarrhea, urinary tract infections, pneumonia, and sepsis.

E. coli is a versatile organism with remarkable genetic diversity, which allows it to adapt to various environmental niches. It can be found in water, soil, food, and various man-made environments, making it an essential indicator of fecal contamination and a common cause of foodborne illnesses. The study of E. coli has contributed significantly to our understanding of fundamental biological processes, including DNA replication, gene regulation, and protein synthesis.

HIV-1 (Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1) is a species of the retrovirus genus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). It is primarily transmitted through sexual contact, exposure to infected blood or blood products, and from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding. HIV-1 infects vital cells in the human immune system, such as CD4+ T cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells, leading to a decline in their numbers and weakening of the immune response over time. This results in the individual becoming susceptible to various opportunistic infections and cancers that ultimately cause death if left untreated. HIV-1 is the most prevalent form of HIV worldwide and has been identified as the causative agent of the global AIDS pandemic.

DNA Sequence Analysis is the systematic determination of the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. It is a critical component of modern molecular biology, genetics, and genetic engineering. The process involves determining the exact order of the four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - in a DNA molecule or fragment. This information is used in various applications such as identifying gene mutations, studying evolutionary relationships, developing molecular markers for breeding, and diagnosing genetic diseases.

The process of DNA Sequence Analysis typically involves several steps, including DNA extraction, PCR amplification (if necessary), purification, sequencing reaction, and electrophoresis. The resulting data is then analyzed using specialized software to determine the exact sequence of nucleotides.

In recent years, high-throughput DNA sequencing technologies have revolutionized the field of genomics, enabling the rapid and cost-effective sequencing of entire genomes. This has led to an explosion of genomic data and new insights into the genetic basis of many diseases and traits.

Bacterial DNA refers to the genetic material found in bacteria. It is composed of a double-stranded helix containing four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) - that are linked together by phosphodiester bonds. The sequence of these bases in the DNA molecule carries the genetic information necessary for the growth, development, and reproduction of bacteria.

Bacterial DNA is circular in most bacterial species, although some have linear chromosomes. In addition to the main chromosome, many bacteria also contain small circular pieces of DNA called plasmids that can carry additional genes and provide resistance to antibiotics or other environmental stressors.

Unlike eukaryotic cells, which have their DNA enclosed within a nucleus, bacterial DNA is present in the cytoplasm of the cell, where it is in direct contact with the cell's metabolic machinery. This allows for rapid gene expression and regulation in response to changing environmental conditions.

Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) technique is a type of Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)-based method used in molecular biology for DNA fingerprinting and genetic diversity analysis. This technique utilizes random primers of arbitrary nucleotide sequences to amplify random segments of genomic DNA. The amplified products are then separated by electrophoresis, and the resulting banding patterns are analyzed.

In RAPD analysis, the randomly chosen primers bind to multiple sites in the genome, and the intervening regions between the primer binding sites are amplified. Since the primer binding sites can vary among individuals within a species or among different species, the resulting amplicons will also differ. These differences in amplicon size and pattern can be used to distinguish between individuals or populations at the DNA level.

RAPD is a relatively simple and cost-effective technique that does not require prior knowledge of the genome sequence. However, it has some limitations, such as low reproducibility and sensitivity to experimental conditions. Despite these limitations, RAPD remains a useful tool for genetic analysis in various fields, including forensics, plant breeding, and microbial identification.

Sensitivity and specificity are statistical measures used to describe the performance of a diagnostic test or screening tool in identifying true positive and true negative results.

* Sensitivity refers to the proportion of people who have a particular condition (true positives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true positive rate" or "recall." A highly sensitive test will identify most or all of the people with the condition, but may also produce more false positives.
* Specificity refers to the proportion of people who do not have a particular condition (true negatives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true negative rate." A highly specific test will identify most or all of the people without the condition, but may also produce more false negatives.

In medical testing, both sensitivity and specificity are important considerations when evaluating a diagnostic test. High sensitivity is desirable for screening tests that aim to identify as many cases of a condition as possible, while high specificity is desirable for confirmatory tests that aim to rule out the condition in people who do not have it.

It's worth noting that sensitivity and specificity are often influenced by factors such as the prevalence of the condition in the population being tested, the threshold used to define a positive result, and the reliability and validity of the test itself. Therefore, it's important to consider these factors when interpreting the results of a diagnostic test.

Molecular cloning is a laboratory technique used to create multiple copies of a specific DNA sequence. This process involves several steps:

1. Isolation: The first step in molecular cloning is to isolate the DNA sequence of interest from the rest of the genomic DNA. This can be done using various methods such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction), restriction enzymes, or hybridization.
2. Vector construction: Once the DNA sequence of interest has been isolated, it must be inserted into a vector, which is a small circular DNA molecule that can replicate independently in a host cell. Common vectors used in molecular cloning include plasmids and phages.
3. Transformation: The constructed vector is then introduced into a host cell, usually a bacterial or yeast cell, through a process called transformation. This can be done using various methods such as electroporation or chemical transformation.
4. Selection: After transformation, the host cells are grown in selective media that allow only those cells containing the vector to grow. This ensures that the DNA sequence of interest has been successfully cloned into the vector.
5. Amplification: Once the host cells have been selected, they can be grown in large quantities to amplify the number of copies of the cloned DNA sequence.

Molecular cloning is a powerful tool in molecular biology and has numerous applications, including the production of recombinant proteins, gene therapy, functional analysis of genes, and genetic engineering.

I'm happy to help! Here are the definitions for each of those terms:

1. RNA (Ribonucleic Acid): RNA is a nucleic acid that plays a crucial role in the process of gene expression. It carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized. RNA is made up of a long chain of nucleotides, just like DNA, but with some key differences in its structure and composition.
2. Transfer: In the context of biochemistry, "transfer" refers to the movement or transport of molecules from one location to another within a cell or between cells. This process is often facilitated by specific proteins or other molecular carriers.
3. Lys (Lysine): Lysine is an essential amino acid that cannot be synthesized by the human body and must be obtained through diet. It plays important roles in various biological processes, including protein synthesis, enzyme function, hormone production, and energy metabolism. In molecular biology, lysine is often used as a marker for certain types of modifications to proteins or nucleic acids.

Therefore, "RNA, Transfer, Lys" could refer to the transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule that carries a specific amino acid, such as lysine, to the ribosome during protein synthesis. The tRNA molecule recognizes a specific codon on the messenger RNA (mRNA) and brings the corresponding amino acid to the growing polypeptide chain, allowing for the translation of genetic information into a functional protein.

Phylogeny is the evolutionary history and relationship among biological entities, such as species or genes, based on their shared characteristics. In other words, it refers to the branching pattern of evolution that shows how various organisms have descended from a common ancestor over time. Phylogenetic analysis involves constructing a tree-like diagram called a phylogenetic tree, which depicts the inferred evolutionary relationships among organisms or genes based on molecular sequence data or other types of characters. This information is crucial for understanding the diversity and distribution of life on Earth, as well as for studying the emergence and spread of diseases.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a type of RNA that combines with proteins to form ribosomes, which are complex structures inside cells where protein synthesis occurs. The "16S" refers to the sedimentation coefficient of the rRNA molecule, which is a measure of its size and shape. In particular, 16S rRNA is a component of the smaller subunit of the prokaryotic ribosome (found in bacteria and archaea), and is often used as a molecular marker for identifying and classifying these organisms due to its relative stability and conservation among species. The sequence of 16S rRNA can be compared across different species to determine their evolutionary relationships and taxonomic positions.

Species specificity is a term used in the field of biology, including medicine, to refer to the characteristic of a biological entity (such as a virus, bacterium, or other microorganism) that allows it to interact exclusively or preferentially with a particular species. This means that the biological entity has a strong affinity for, or is only able to infect, a specific host species.

For example, HIV is specifically adapted to infect human cells and does not typically infect other animal species. Similarly, some bacterial toxins are species-specific and can only affect certain types of animals or humans. This concept is important in understanding the transmission dynamics and host range of various pathogens, as well as in developing targeted therapies and vaccines.

Ribosomal DNA (rDNA) refers to the specific regions of DNA in a cell that contain the genes for ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Ribosomes are complex structures composed of proteins and rRNA, which play a crucial role in protein synthesis by translating messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins.

In humans, there are four types of rRNA molecules: 18S, 5.8S, 28S, and 5S. These rRNAs are encoded by multiple copies of rDNA genes that are organized in clusters on specific chromosomes. In humans, the majority of rDNA genes are located on the short arms of acrocentric chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21, and 22.

Each cluster of rDNA genes contains both transcribed and non-transcribed spacer regions. The transcribed regions contain the genes for the four types of rRNA, while the non-transcribed spacers contain regulatory elements that control the transcription of the rRNA genes.

The number of rDNA copies varies between species and even within individuals of the same species. The copy number can also change during development and in response to environmental factors. Variations in rDNA copy number have been associated with various diseases, including cancer and neurological disorders.

Genetic transcription is the process by which the information in a strand of DNA is used to create a complementary RNA molecule. This process is the first step in gene expression, where the genetic code in DNA is converted into a form that can be used to produce proteins or functional RNAs.

During transcription, an enzyme called RNA polymerase binds to the DNA template strand and reads the sequence of nucleotide bases. As it moves along the template, it adds complementary RNA nucleotides to the growing RNA chain, creating a single-stranded RNA molecule that is complementary to the DNA template strand. Once transcription is complete, the RNA molecule may undergo further processing before it can be translated into protein or perform its functional role in the cell.

Transcription can be either "constitutive" or "regulated." Constitutive transcription occurs at a relatively constant rate and produces essential proteins that are required for basic cellular functions. Regulated transcription, on the other hand, is subject to control by various intracellular and extracellular signals, allowing cells to respond to changing environmental conditions or developmental cues.

DNA primase is a type of enzyme that plays a crucial role in the process of DNA replication. Its primary function is to synthesize short RNA segments, known as primers, that are required for the initiation of DNA synthesis.

In more detail, during DNA replication, an enzyme called helicase unwinds the double-stranded DNA molecule and creates a replication fork, where the two strands are separated. However, before DNA polymerase can add nucleotides to the new strand, it requires a free 3'-OH group to which it can add the next nucleotide. This free 3'-OH group is provided by the RNA primer synthesized by DNA primase.

DNA primase recognizes and binds to single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) at the replication fork, where it initiates the synthesis of an RNA primer. The primer consists of a short stretch of RNA nucleotides, typically around 10 bases long, that are added to the ssDNA template in a specific sequence. Once the RNA primer is in place, DNA polymerase can begin adding DNA nucleotides to the new strand, starting from the 3'-end of the RNA primer.

After DNA replication is complete, another enzyme called DNA polymerase I removes the RNA primers and replaces them with DNA nucleotides. The resulting gaps are then sealed by DNA ligase, which forms a phosphodiester bond between the adjacent nucleotides to create a continuous strand of DNA.

Overall, DNA primase is an essential enzyme that plays a critical role in the initiation and completion of DNA replication, ensuring the accurate duplication of genetic information from one generation to the next.

Methacrylates are a group of chemical compounds that contain the methacrylate functional group, which is a vinyl group (CH2=CH-) with a carbonyl group (C=O) at the β-position. This structure gives them unique chemical and physical properties, such as low viscosity, high reactivity, and resistance to heat and chemicals.

In medical terms, methacrylates are used in various biomedical applications, such as dental restorative materials, bone cements, and drug delivery systems. For example, methacrylate-based resins are commonly used in dentistry for fillings, crowns, and bridges due to their excellent mechanical properties and adhesion to tooth structures.

However, there have been concerns about the potential toxicity of methacrylates, particularly their ability to release monomers that can cause allergic reactions, irritation, or even mutagenic effects in some individuals. Therefore, it is essential to use these materials with caution and follow proper handling and safety protocols.

Sequence homology in nucleic acids refers to the similarity or identity between the nucleotide sequences of two or more DNA or RNA molecules. It is often used as a measure of biological relationship between genes, organisms, or populations. High sequence homology suggests a recent common ancestry or functional constraint, while low sequence homology may indicate a more distant relationship or different functions.

Nucleic acid sequence homology can be determined by various methods such as pairwise alignment, multiple sequence alignment, and statistical analysis. The degree of homology is typically expressed as a percentage of identical or similar nucleotides in a given window of comparison.

It's important to note that the interpretation of sequence homology depends on the biological context and the evolutionary distance between the sequences compared. Therefore, functional and experimental validation is often necessary to confirm the significance of sequence homology.

Dental bonding is a cosmetic dental procedure in which a tooth-colored resin material (a type of plastic) is applied and hardened with a special light, which ultimately "bonds" the material to the tooth to improve its appearance. According to the American Dental Association (ADA), dental bonding can be used for various purposes, including:

1. Repairing chipped or cracked teeth
2. Improving the appearance of discolored teeth
3. Closing spaces between teeth
4. Protecting a portion of the tooth's root that has been exposed due to gum recession
5. Changing the shape and size of teeth

Dental bonding is generally a quick and painless procedure, often requiring little to no anesthesia. The surface of the tooth is roughened and conditioned to help the resin adhere properly. Then, the resin material is applied, molded, and smoothed to the desired shape. A special light is used to harden the material, which typically takes only a few minutes. Finally, the bonded material is trimmed, shaped, and polished to match the surrounding teeth.

While dental bonding can be an effective solution for minor cosmetic concerns, it may not be as durable or long-lasting as other dental restoration options like veneers or crowns. The lifespan of a dental bonding procedure typically ranges from 3 to 10 years, depending on factors such as oral habits, location of the bonded tooth, and proper care. Regular dental checkups and good oral hygiene practices can help extend the life of dental bonding.

A bacterial gene is a segment of DNA (or RNA in some viruses) that contains the genetic information necessary for the synthesis of a functional bacterial protein or RNA molecule. These genes are responsible for encoding various characteristics and functions of bacteria such as metabolism, reproduction, and resistance to antibiotics. They can be transmitted between bacteria through horizontal gene transfer mechanisms like conjugation, transformation, and transduction. Bacterial genes are often organized into operons, which are clusters of genes that are transcribed together as a single mRNA molecule.

It's important to note that the term "bacterial gene" is used to describe genetic elements found in bacteria, but not all genetic elements in bacteria are considered genes. For example, some DNA sequences may not encode functional products and are therefore not considered genes. Additionally, some bacterial genes may be plasmid-borne or phage-borne, rather than being located on the bacterial chromosome.

Nucleic acid amplification techniques (NAATs) are medical laboratory methods used to increase the number of copies of a specific DNA or RNA sequence. These techniques are widely used in molecular biology and diagnostics, including the detection and diagnosis of infectious diseases, genetic disorders, and cancer.

The most commonly used NAAT is the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling to separate and replicate DNA strands. Other NAATs include loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA), and transcription-mediated amplification (TMA).

NAATs offer several advantages over traditional culture methods for detecting pathogens, including faster turnaround times, increased sensitivity and specificity, and the ability to detect viable but non-culturable organisms. However, they also require specialized equipment and trained personnel, and there is a risk of contamination and false positive results if proper precautions are not taken.

Resin cements are dental materials used to bond or cement restorations, such as crowns, bridges, and orthodontic appliances, to natural teeth or implants. They are called "resin" cements because they are made of a type of synthetic resin material that can be cured or hardened through the use of a chemical reaction or exposure to light.

Resin cements typically consist of three components: a base, a catalyst, and a filler. The base and catalyst are mixed together to create a putty-like consistency, which is then applied to the restoration or tooth surface. Once the cement is in place, it is exposed to light or allowed to chemically cure, which causes it to harden and form a strong bond between the restoration and the tooth.

Resin cements are known for their excellent adhesive properties, as well as their ability to withstand the forces of biting and chewing. They can also be color-matched to natural teeth, making them an aesthetically pleasing option for dental restorations. However, they may not be suitable for all patients or situations, and it is important for dental professionals to carefully consider the specific needs and conditions of each patient when choosing a cement material.

In genetics, sequence alignment is the process of arranging two or more DNA, RNA, or protein sequences to identify regions of similarity or homology between them. This is often done using computational methods to compare the nucleotide or amino acid sequences and identify matching patterns, which can provide insight into evolutionary relationships, functional domains, or potential genetic disorders. The alignment process typically involves adjusting gaps and mismatches in the sequences to maximize the similarity between them, resulting in an aligned sequence that can be visually represented and analyzed.

Oligonucleotides are short sequences of nucleotides, the building blocks of DNA and RNA. They typically contain fewer than 100 nucleotides, and can be synthesized chemically to have specific sequences. Oligonucleotides are used in a variety of applications in molecular biology, including as probes for detecting specific DNA or RNA sequences, as inhibitors of gene expression, and as components of diagnostic tests and therapies. They can also be used in the study of protein-nucleic acid interactions and in the development of new drugs.

An oligonucleotide probe is a short, single-stranded DNA or RNA molecule that contains a specific sequence of nucleotides designed to hybridize with a complementary sequence in a target nucleic acid (DNA or RNA). These probes are typically 15-50 nucleotides long and are used in various molecular biology techniques, such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), DNA sequencing, microarray analysis, and blotting methods.

Oligonucleotide probes can be labeled with various reporter molecules, like fluorescent dyes or radioactive isotopes, to enable the detection of hybridized targets. The high specificity of oligonucleotide probes allows for the precise identification and quantification of target nucleic acids in complex biological samples, making them valuable tools in diagnostic, research, and forensic applications.

Taq polymerase is not a medical term per se, but it is a biological term commonly used in the field of molecular biology and genetics. It's often mentioned in medical contexts related to DNA analysis and amplification. Here's a definition:

Taq polymerase is a thermostable enzyme originally isolated from the bacterium Thermus aquaticus, which lives in hot springs. This enzyme has the ability to synthesize new strands of DNA by adding nucleotides complementary to a given DNA template, a process known as DNA polymerization. It plays a crucial role in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a technique used to amplify specific DNA sequences exponentially. The thermostability of Taq polymerase allows it to withstand the high temperatures required during PCR cycling, making it an essential tool for various genetic analyses and diagnostic applications in medicine.

DNA fingerprinting, also known as DNA profiling or genetic fingerprinting, is a laboratory technique used to identify and compare the unique genetic makeup of individuals by analyzing specific regions of their DNA. This method is based on the variation in the length of repetitive sequences of DNA called variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs) or short tandem repeats (STRs), which are located at specific locations in the human genome and differ significantly among individuals, except in the case of identical twins.

The process of DNA fingerprinting involves extracting DNA from a sample, amplifying targeted regions using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and then separating and visualizing the resulting DNA fragments through electrophoresis. The fragment patterns are then compared to determine the likelihood of a match between two samples.

DNA fingerprinting has numerous applications in forensic science, paternity testing, identity verification, and genealogical research. It is considered an essential tool for providing strong evidence in criminal investigations and resolving disputes related to parentage and inheritance.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. This information is used by the cell's machinery to construct proteins, a process known as translation. After being transcribed from DNA, mRNA travels out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Once the protein has been synthesized, the mRNA may be degraded and recycled. Post-transcriptional modifications can also occur to mRNA, such as alternative splicing and addition of a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail, which can affect its stability, localization, and translation efficiency.

A DNA probe is a single-stranded DNA molecule that contains a specific sequence of nucleotides, and is labeled with a detectable marker such as a radioisotope or a fluorescent dye. It is used in molecular biology to identify and locate a complementary sequence within a sample of DNA. The probe hybridizes (forms a stable double-stranded structure) with its complementary sequence through base pairing, allowing for the detection and analysis of the target DNA. This technique is widely used in various applications such as genetic testing, diagnosis of infectious diseases, and forensic science.

Electrophoresis, Agar Gel is a laboratory technique used to separate and analyze DNA, RNA, or proteins based on their size and electrical charge. In this method, the sample is mixed with agarose gel, a gelatinous substance derived from seaweed, and then solidified in a horizontal slab-like format. An electric field is applied to the gel, causing the negatively charged DNA or RNA molecules to migrate towards the positive electrode. The smaller molecules move faster through the gel than the larger ones, resulting in their separation based on size. This technique is widely used in molecular biology and genetics research, as well as in diagnostic testing for various genetic disorders.

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the genetic material present in the cells of all living organisms, including plants. In plants, DNA is located in the nucleus of a cell, as well as in chloroplasts and mitochondria. Plant DNA contains the instructions for the development, growth, and function of the plant, and is passed down from one generation to the next through the process of reproduction.

The structure of DNA is a double helix, formed by two strands of nucleotides that are linked together by hydrogen bonds. Each nucleotide contains a sugar molecule (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. There are four types of nitrogenous bases in DNA: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). Adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine, forming the rungs of the ladder that make up the double helix.

The genetic information in DNA is encoded in the sequence of these nitrogenous bases. Large sequences of bases form genes, which provide the instructions for the production of proteins. The process of gene expression involves transcribing the DNA sequence into a complementary RNA molecule, which is then translated into a protein.

Plant DNA is similar to animal DNA in many ways, but there are also some differences. For example, plant DNA contains a higher proportion of repetitive sequences and transposable elements, which are mobile genetic elements that can move around the genome and cause mutations. Additionally, plant cells have cell walls and chloroplasts, which are not present in animal cells, and these structures contain their own DNA.

Microsatellite repeats, also known as short tandem repeats (STRs), are repetitive DNA sequences made up of units of 1-6 base pairs that are repeated in a head-to-tail manner. These repeats are spread throughout the human genome and are highly polymorphic, meaning they can have different numbers of repeat units in different individuals.

Microsatellites are useful as genetic markers because of their high degree of variability. They are commonly used in forensic science to identify individuals, in genealogy to trace ancestry, and in medical research to study genetic diseases and disorders. Mutations in microsatellite repeats have been associated with various neurological conditions, including Huntington's disease and fragile X syndrome.

Genotype, in genetics, refers to the complete heritable genetic makeup of an individual organism, including all of its genes. It is the set of instructions contained in an organism's DNA for the development and function of that organism. The genotype is the basis for an individual's inherited traits, and it can be contrasted with an individual's phenotype, which refers to the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism that result from the expression of its genes in combination with environmental influences.

It is important to note that an individual's genotype is not necessarily identical to their genetic sequence. Some genes have multiple forms called alleles, and an individual may inherit different alleles for a given gene from each parent. The combination of alleles that an individual inherits for a particular gene is known as their genotype for that gene.

Understanding an individual's genotype can provide important information about their susceptibility to certain diseases, their response to drugs and other treatments, and their risk of passing on inherited genetic disorders to their offspring.

Bacterial RNA refers to the genetic material present in bacteria that is composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA). Unlike higher organisms, bacteria contain a single circular chromosome made up of DNA, along with smaller circular pieces of DNA called plasmids. These bacterial genetic materials contain the information necessary for the growth and reproduction of the organism.

Bacterial RNA can be divided into three main categories: messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA). mRNA carries genetic information copied from DNA, which is then translated into proteins by the rRNA and tRNA molecules. rRNA is a structural component of the ribosome, where protein synthesis occurs, while tRNA acts as an adapter that brings amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis.

Bacterial RNA plays a crucial role in various cellular processes, including gene expression, protein synthesis, and regulation of metabolic pathways. Understanding the structure and function of bacterial RNA is essential for developing new antibiotics and other therapeutic strategies to combat bacterial infections.

Complementary DNA (cDNA) is a type of DNA that is synthesized from a single-stranded RNA molecule through the process of reverse transcription. In this process, the enzyme reverse transcriptase uses an RNA molecule as a template to synthesize a complementary DNA strand. The resulting cDNA is therefore complementary to the original RNA molecule and is a copy of its coding sequence, but it does not contain non-coding regions such as introns that are present in genomic DNA.

Complementary DNA is often used in molecular biology research to study gene expression, protein function, and other genetic phenomena. For example, cDNA can be used to create cDNA libraries, which are collections of cloned cDNA fragments that represent the expressed genes in a particular cell type or tissue. These libraries can then be screened for specific genes or gene products of interest. Additionally, cDNA can be used to produce recombinant proteins in heterologous expression systems, allowing researchers to study the structure and function of proteins that may be difficult to express or purify from their native sources.

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) is a term used in molecular biology and genetics. It refers to the presence of variations in DNA sequences among individuals, which can be detected by restriction enzymes. These enzymes cut DNA at specific sites, creating fragments of different lengths.

In RFLP analysis, DNA is isolated from an individual and treated with a specific restriction enzyme that cuts the DNA at particular recognition sites. The resulting fragments are then separated by size using gel electrophoresis, creating a pattern unique to that individual's DNA. If there are variations in the DNA sequence between individuals, the restriction enzyme may cut the DNA at different sites, leading to differences in the length of the fragments and thus, a different pattern on the gel.

These variations can be used for various purposes, such as identifying individuals, diagnosing genetic diseases, or studying evolutionary relationships between species. However, RFLP analysis has largely been replaced by more modern techniques like polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based methods and DNA sequencing, which offer higher resolution and throughput.

Nucleic acid hybridization is a process in molecular biology where two single-stranded nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) with complementary sequences pair together to form a double-stranded molecule through hydrogen bonding. The strands can be from the same type of nucleic acid or different types (i.e., DNA-RNA or DNA-cDNA). This process is commonly used in various laboratory techniques, such as Southern blotting, Northern blotting, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and microarray analysis, to detect, isolate, and analyze specific nucleic acid sequences. The hybridization temperature and conditions are critical to ensure the specificity of the interaction between the two strands.

Fungal DNA refers to the genetic material present in fungi, which are a group of eukaryotic organisms that include microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as larger organisms like mushrooms. The DNA of fungi, like that of all living organisms, is made up of nucleotides that are arranged in a double helix structure.

Fungal DNA contains the genetic information necessary for the growth, development, and reproduction of fungi. This includes the instructions for making proteins, which are essential for the structure and function of cells, as well as other important molecules such as enzymes and nucleic acids.

Studying fungal DNA can provide valuable insights into the biology and evolution of fungi, as well as their potential uses in medicine, agriculture, and industry. For example, researchers have used genetic engineering techniques to modify the DNA of fungi to produce drugs, biofuels, and other useful products. Additionally, understanding the genetic makeup of pathogenic fungi can help scientists develop new strategies for preventing and treating fungal infections.

Genetic variation refers to the differences in DNA sequences among individuals and populations. These variations can result from mutations, genetic recombination, or gene flow between populations. Genetic variation is essential for evolution by providing the raw material upon which natural selection acts. It can occur within a single gene, between different genes, or at larger scales, such as differences in the number of chromosomes or entire sets of chromosomes. The study of genetic variation is crucial in understanding the genetic basis of diseases and traits, as well as the evolutionary history and relationships among species.

Shear strength is a property of a material that describes its ability to withstand forces that cause internal friction and sliding of one portion of the material relative to another. In the context of human tissues, shear strength is an important factor in understanding how tissues respond to various stresses and strains, such as those experienced during physical activities or injuries.

For example, in the case of bones, shear strength is a critical factor in determining their ability to resist fractures under different types of loading conditions. Similarly, in soft tissues like ligaments and tendons, shear strength plays a crucial role in maintaining the integrity of these structures during movement and preventing excessive deformation or injury.

It's worth noting that measuring the shear strength of human tissues can be challenging due to their complex structure and anisotropic properties. As such, researchers often use specialized techniques and equipment to quantify these properties under controlled conditions in the lab.

Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to amplify and detect specific DNA sequences. This technique is particularly useful for the detection and quantification of RNA viruses, as well as for the analysis of gene expression.

The process involves two main steps: reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In the first step, reverse transcriptase enzyme is used to convert RNA into complementary DNA (cDNA) by reading the template provided by the RNA molecule. This cDNA then serves as a template for the PCR amplification step.

In the second step, the PCR reaction uses two primers that flank the target DNA sequence and a thermostable polymerase enzyme to repeatedly copy the targeted cDNA sequence. The reaction mixture is heated and cooled in cycles, allowing the primers to anneal to the template, and the polymerase to extend the new strand. This results in exponential amplification of the target DNA sequence, making it possible to detect even small amounts of RNA or cDNA.

RT-PCR is a sensitive and specific technique that has many applications in medical research and diagnostics, including the detection of viruses such as HIV, hepatitis C virus, and SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19). It can also be used to study gene expression, identify genetic mutations, and diagnose genetic disorders.

Southern blotting is a type of membrane-based blotting technique that is used in molecular biology to detect and locate specific DNA sequences within a DNA sample. This technique is named after its inventor, Edward M. Southern.

In Southern blotting, the DNA sample is first digested with one or more restriction enzymes, which cut the DNA at specific recognition sites. The resulting DNA fragments are then separated based on their size by gel electrophoresis. After separation, the DNA fragments are denatured to convert them into single-stranded DNA and transferred onto a nitrocellulose or nylon membrane.

Once the DNA has been transferred to the membrane, it is hybridized with a labeled probe that is complementary to the sequence of interest. The probe can be labeled with radioactive isotopes, fluorescent dyes, or chemiluminescent compounds. After hybridization, the membrane is washed to remove any unbound probe and then exposed to X-ray film (in the case of radioactive probes) or scanned (in the case of non-radioactive probes) to detect the location of the labeled probe on the membrane.

The position of the labeled probe on the membrane corresponds to the location of the specific DNA sequence within the original DNA sample. Southern blotting is a powerful tool for identifying and characterizing specific DNA sequences, such as those associated with genetic diseases or gene regulation.

Genetic markers are specific segments of DNA that are used in genetic mapping and genotyping to identify specific genetic locations, diseases, or traits. They can be composed of short tandem repeats (STRs), single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs), or variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs). These markers are useful in various fields such as genetic research, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and breeding programs. They can help to track inheritance patterns, identify genetic predispositions to diseases, and solve crimes by linking biological evidence to suspects or victims.

Bacterial proteins are a type of protein that are produced by bacteria as part of their structural or functional components. These proteins can be involved in various cellular processes, such as metabolism, DNA replication, transcription, and translation. They can also play a role in bacterial pathogenesis, helping the bacteria to evade the host's immune system, acquire nutrients, and multiply within the host.

Bacterial proteins can be classified into different categories based on their function, such as:

1. Enzymes: Proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the bacterial cell.
2. Structural proteins: Proteins that provide structural support and maintain the shape of the bacterial cell.
3. Signaling proteins: Proteins that help bacteria to communicate with each other and coordinate their behavior.
4. Transport proteins: Proteins that facilitate the movement of molecules across the bacterial cell membrane.
5. Toxins: Proteins that are produced by pathogenic bacteria to damage host cells and promote infection.
6. Surface proteins: Proteins that are located on the surface of the bacterial cell and interact with the environment or host cells.

Understanding the structure and function of bacterial proteins is important for developing new antibiotics, vaccines, and other therapeutic strategies to combat bacterial infections.

Restriction mapping is a technique used in molecular biology to identify the location and arrangement of specific restriction endonuclease recognition sites within a DNA molecule. Restriction endonucleases are enzymes that cut double-stranded DNA at specific sequences, producing fragments of various lengths. By digesting the DNA with different combinations of these enzymes and analyzing the resulting fragment sizes through techniques such as agarose gel electrophoresis, researchers can generate a restriction map - a visual representation of the locations and distances between recognition sites on the DNA molecule. This information is crucial for various applications, including cloning, genome analysis, and genetic engineering.

Sequence homology, amino acid, refers to the similarity in the order of amino acids in a protein or a portion of a protein between two or more species. This similarity can be used to infer evolutionary relationships and functional similarities between proteins. The higher the degree of sequence homology, the more likely it is that the proteins are related and have similar functions. Sequence homology can be determined through various methods such as pairwise alignment or multiple sequence alignment, which compare the sequences and calculate a score based on the number and type of matching amino acids.

Genetic polymorphism refers to the occurrence of multiple forms (called alleles) of a particular gene within a population. These variations in the DNA sequence do not generally affect the function or survival of the organism, but they can contribute to differences in traits among individuals. Genetic polymorphisms can be caused by single nucleotide changes (SNPs), insertions or deletions of DNA segments, or other types of genetic rearrangements. They are important for understanding genetic diversity and evolution, as well as for identifying genetic factors that may contribute to disease susceptibility in humans.

The ribosomal spacer in DNA refers to the non-coding sequences of DNA that are located between the genes for ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These spacer regions are present in the DNA of organisms that have a nuclear genome, including humans and other animals, plants, and fungi.

In prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria, there are two ribosomal RNA genes, 16S and 23S, separated by a spacer region known as the intergenic spacer (IGS). In eukaryotic cells, there are multiple copies of ribosomal RNA genes arranged in clusters called nucleolar organizer regions (NORs), which are located on the short arms of several acrocentric chromosomes. Each cluster contains hundreds to thousands of copies of the 18S, 5.8S, and 28S rRNA genes, separated by non-transcribed spacer regions known as internal transcribed spacers (ITS) and external transcribed spacers (ETS).

The ribosomal spacer regions in DNA are often used as molecular markers for studying evolutionary relationships among organisms because they evolve more rapidly than the rRNA genes themselves. The sequences of these spacer regions can be compared among different species to infer their phylogenetic relationships and to estimate the time since they diverged from a common ancestor. Additionally, the length and composition of ribosomal spacers can vary between individuals within a species, making them useful for studying genetic diversity and population structure.

18S rRNA (ribosomal RNA) is the smaller subunit of the eukaryotic ribosome, which is the cellular organelle responsible for protein synthesis. The "18S" refers to the sedimentation coefficient of this rRNA molecule, which is a measure of its rate of sedimentation in a centrifuge and is expressed in Svedberg units (S).

The 18S rRNA is a component of the 40S subunit of the ribosome, and it plays a crucial role in the decoding of messenger RNA (mRNA) during protein synthesis. Specifically, the 18S rRNA helps to form the structure of the ribosome and contains several conserved regions that are involved in binding to mRNA and guiding the movement of transfer RNAs (tRNAs) during translation.

The 18S rRNA is also a commonly used molecular marker for evolutionary studies, as its sequence is highly conserved across different species and can be used to infer phylogenetic relationships between organisms. Additionally, the analysis of 18S rRNA gene sequences has been widely used in various fields such as ecology, environmental science, and medicine to study biodiversity, biogeography, and infectious diseases.

Dentin-bonding agents are substances used in dentistry to create a strong and durable bond between the dental restoration material (such as composite resin, glass ionomer cement, or crowns) and the dentin surface of a tooth. Dentin is the hard tissue that lies beneath the enamel and consists of microscopic tubules filled with fluid.

The primary function of dentin-bonding agents is to improve the adhesion of restorative materials to the tooth structure, enhancing the retention and durability of dental fillings, crowns, veneers, and other types of restorations. These agents typically contain one or more types of bonding resins, such as hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA), 4-methacryloxyethyl trimellitate anhydride (4-META), and/or phosphoric acid ester monomers.

The application process for dentin-bonding agents usually involves several steps, including:

1. Etching the dentin surface with a mild acid to remove the smear layer and expose the collagen network within the dentin tubules.
2. Applying a primer that penetrates into the etched dentin and promotes the infiltration of bonding resins into the dentinal tubules.
3. Applying an adhesive, which is typically a mixture of hydrophilic and hydrophobic monomers, to form a stable bond between the tooth structure and the restoration material.
4. Light-curing the adhesive to polymerize the resin and create a strong mechanical bond with the dentin surface.

Dentin-bonding agents have significantly improved the clinical success of various dental restorations by enhancing their retention, reducing microleakage, and minimizing postoperative sensitivity. However, they may still be susceptible to degradation over time due to factors such as moisture contamination, enzymatic degradation, or hydrolysis, which can lead to the failure of dental restorations. Therefore, continuous advancements in dentin-bonding technology are essential for improving the long-term success and durability of dental restorations.

RNA nucleotidyltransferases are a class of enzymes that catalyze the template-independent addition of nucleotides to the 3' end of RNA molecules, using nucleoside triphosphates as substrates. These enzymes play crucial roles in various biological processes, including RNA maturation, quality control, and regulation.

The reaction catalyzed by RNA nucleotidyltransferases involves the formation of a phosphodiester bond between the 3'-hydroxyl group of the RNA substrate and the alpha-phosphate group of the incoming nucleoside triphosphate. This results in the elongation of the RNA molecule by one or more nucleotides, depending on the specific enzyme and context.

Examples of RNA nucleotidyltransferases include poly(A) polymerases, which add poly(A) tails to mRNAs during processing, and terminal transferases, which are involved in DNA repair and V(D)J recombination in the immune system. These enzymes have been implicated in various diseases, including cancer and neurological disorders, making them potential targets for therapeutic intervention.

A "gene library" is not a recognized term in medical genetics or molecular biology. However, the closest concept that might be referred to by this term is a "genomic library," which is a collection of DNA clones that represent the entire genetic material of an organism. These libraries are used for various research purposes, such as identifying and studying specific genes or gene functions.

Oligodeoxyribonucleotides (ODNs) are relatively short, synthetic single-stranded DNA molecules. They typically contain 15 to 30 nucleotides, but can range from 2 to several hundred nucleotides in length. ODNs are often used as tools in molecular biology research for various applications such as:

1. Nucleic acid detection and quantification (e.g., real-time PCR)
2. Gene regulation (antisense, RNA interference)
3. Gene editing (CRISPR-Cas systems)
4. Vaccine development
5. Diagnostic purposes

Due to their specificity and affinity towards complementary DNA or RNA sequences, ODNs can be designed to target a particular gene or sequence of interest. This makes them valuable tools in understanding gene function, regulation, and interaction with other molecules within the cell.

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... is a software for DNA primer design. The first paper describing this software was published in ... Oligo Primer Analysis Software by Molecular Biology Insights FastPCR Gene Designer Geneious MacVector Netprimer Primer Premier ... Retrieval of Entire Genes from Environmental DNA by Inverse PCR with Pre-Amplification of Target Genes Using Primers Containing ... degenerate primer studies, microsatellite analysis, DNA microarray detection, inverse PCR, genome walking, nucleotide ...
Disease Primers. 3 (1): 17065. doi:10.1038/nrdp.2017.65. PMID 28960184. S2CID 583204. Abugable AA, Morris JL, Palminha NM, ... Mobile DNA. 9 (1): 15. doi:10.1186/s13100-018-0120-9. PMC 5930866. PMID 29743957. Function of Repetitive DNA DNA+Repetitious+ ... Both types of myotonic dystrophy are due to expanded DNA sequences. In DM1 the DNA sequence that is expanded is CCG while in ... Inverted repeats can play structural roles in DNA and RNA by forming stem loops and cruciforms. For humans, some repeated DNA ...
Unlike S1 mapping, however, primer extension can only be used to locate the 5'-end of an mRNA transcript because the DNA ... The hybridization probe for primer extension is a synthesized oligonucleotide, whereas S1 mapping requires isolation of a DNA ... preferably by using the same primer on the DNA template strand. The exact nucleotide by which the transcription starts at can ... The primer is allowed to anneal to the RNA and reverse transcriptase is used to synthesize cDNA from the RNA until it reaches ...
2021-02-11). "Ancient DNA analysis". Nature Reviews Methods Primers. 1 (1): 1-26. doi:10.1038/s43586-020-00011-0. ISSN 2662- ... Richter KK, Codlin MC, Seabrook M, Warinner C (May 2022). "A primer for ZooMS applications in archaeology". Proceedings of the ... However, like the research of aDNA (ancient DNA preserved in archaeological remains), it has been limited by several challenges ... Proteins tend to degrade more slowly than DNA, especially biomineralised proteins. While ancient lipids can be used to ...
Nat Rev Dis Primers. 1: 15016. doi:10.1038/nrdp.2015.16. PMC 5381807. PMID 27188665. O'Leary JJ, Kennedy MM, McGee JO (February ... A DNA virus is a virus that has a genome made of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that is replicated by a DNA polymerase. They can ... DNA viruses constitute two Baltimore groups: Group I: double-stranded DNA viruses, and Group II: single-stranded DNA viruses. ... called double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses, and those that have one strand of DNA in their genome, called single-stranded DNA ( ...
The removal of the RNA primer allows DNA ligase to ligate the DNA-DNA nick between the new fragment and the previous strand. ... DNA polymerase III arrives at the RNA primer and begins replicating the DNA, adding onto the 3'OH of the primer ... Because DNA synthesis cannot start de novo, an RNA primer, complementary to part of the single-stranded DNA, is synthesized by ... X can also mediate the switch from RNA primer to DNA. DNA polymerase III synthesizes base pairs at a rate of around 1000 ...
RPR makes use of random primers. These random primers are annealed to template DNA and are then extended by the Klenow fragment ... This is followed by a PCR without primers. In the PCR, DNA fragments with sufficiently overlapping sequences will anneal to ... Since DNA shuffling enables the recombination of genes, protein activities can be enhanced. For example, DNA shuffling has been ... DNA shuffling allows for the fabrication of retroviral vectors with these attributes. For example, DNA shuffling with molecular ...
... is an example of directed sequencing because the primer is designed from a known region of DNA to guide the ... The overall process is as follows: A primer that matches the beginning of the DNA to sequence is used to synthesize a short DNA ... Here the DNA is broken into different pieces (not all broken at the same place), cloned and sequenced with primers specific for ... The end of the sequenced strand is used as a primer for the next part of the long DNA sequence, hence the term "walking". The ...
"Primers, 16S ribosomal DNA - François Lutzoni's Lab". lutzonilab.net. Archived from the original on 2012-12-27. Eden PA, ... primers. Mitochondrial and chloroplastic rRNA are also amplified. The most common primer pair was devised by Weisburg et al. ( ... The two primers are almost identical, but 27F has an M instead of a C. AGAGTTTGATCMTGGCTCAG compared with 8F. In addition to ... James, Greg (15 May 2018). "Universal Bacterial Identification by PCR and DNA Sequencing of 16S rRNA Gene". PCR for Clinical ...
Finally, the strand displacing polymerase begins DNA synthesis where the primer has bound to the target DNA. By using two ... for rapid detection of viral genomic DNA or RNA, pathogenic bacterial genomic DNA, as well as short length aptamer DNA. The ... "Rapid PCR". Dna.utah.edu. Retrieved 2014-06-21. "PCR primers work using standard RPA reagents". TwistDx. Retrieved 2015-10-19.[ ... Recombinases are capable of pairing oligonucleotide primers with homologous sequence in duplex DNA. SSB bind to displaced ...
Daisy chaining is when DNA undergoing PCR amplification forms tangles that resemble a 'daisy chain.' During PCR, primers or ... It occurs when DNA undergoing PCR amplification forms tangles that resemble a 'daisy chain.' In essence it teaches DNA to count ... since the denaturing and annealing processes will still continue without primers, the single-stranded DNA molecules will ... Daisy chaining DNA is a form of gene editing, or "gene drive", which, unlike CRISPR, is self limiting. This means that any ...
Universal matK primers can be used for DNA barcoding of angiosperms. LtrA, an open reading frame found in the Lactococcus ... Jing YU, Jian-Hua XU, Shi-Liang ZH (May 2011). "New universal matK primers for DNA barcoding angiosperms". Journal of ...
Crawford, Blair (2015-02-19). "A primer on DNA forensics". Ottawa Citizen. Retrieved 2020-03-03. "Government Bill (House of ... The National DNA Data Bank of Canada (NDDB) is a national DNA Database that was set up in 2000. Managed by the RCMP, it provide ... National DNA Data Bank National Missing Persons DNA Program (Articles with short description, Short description matches ... The database hold 642,758 DNA profiles as of December 31, 2022. The first DNA analysis in Canada for investigative purposes was ...
Primers in Biology. pp. 62-75. ISBN 978-0878935086. Ausiannikava D, Allers T (January 2017). "Diversity of DNA Replication in ... This leads to Cdt1 having decreased stability on the DNA and falling off of the complex leading to Mcm2-7 loading on to the DNA ... ORC directs DNA replication throughout the genome and is required for its initiation. ORC and Noc3p bound at replication ... The binding of ATP by Orc1 is required for ORC binding to DNA and is essential for cell viability. The ATPase activity of Orc1 ...
Primosomes gives RNA primers for DNA synthesis to strands.[citation needed] ΦX174 is closely related to other microviridae, ... The phi X 174 (or ΦX174) bacteriophage is a single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) virus that infects Escherichia coli, and the first DNA- ... Nobel prize winner Arthur Kornberg used ΦX174 as a model to first prove that DNA synthesized in a test tube by purified enzymes ... H protein (or the DNA Pilot Protein) pilots the viral genome through the bacterial membrane of E.coli bacteria most likely via ...
"Can DNA-Based Ecosystem Assessments Quantify Species Abundance? Testing Primer Bias and Biomass--Sequence Relationships with an ... Consortium for the Barcode of Life Algae DNA barcoding DNA Barcoding DNA barcoding in diet assessment Fish DNA barcoding ... DNA metabarcoding is a method of DNA barcoding that uses universal genetic markers to identify DNA of a mixture of organisms. ... Microbial DNA barcoding is the use of DNA metabarcoding to characterize a mixture of microorganisms. ...
Excision of gene coding sequences from genomic DNA. "BRENDA: 3.1.30.1". Eun, HM (1996). "Nucleases". Enzymology primer for ... An excess of the enzyme is required to degrade double-stranded DNA or RNA and DNA-RNA hybrids, and in this case, AT-rich ... Nuclease MB is a specific DNA and RNA exo-endonuclease which will degrade single-stranded extensions from the ends of DNA and ... The enzyme degrades single-stranded DNA or RNA to nucleoside 5'-monophosphates, but does not digest double-stranded DNA, double ...
Two sets of primers are used in two successive reactions. In the first PCR, one pair of primers is used to generate DNA ... January 1988). "Primer-directed enzymatic amplification of DNA with a thermostable DNA polymerase". Science. 239 (4839): 487-91 ... Two amplifications are then carried out on the bisulfite-treated DNA: one primer set anneals to DNA with cytosines ( ... uses a recombinase to specifically pair primers with double-stranded DNA on the basis of homology, thus directing DNA synthesis ...
Caramanica, Jon (February 7, 2018). "A K-Pop Primer for Olympic Listening". The New York Times. Archived from the original on ... 뮤직뱅크' 방탄소년단 'DNA' 연이은 1위 행진 4관왕…케이윌-B1A4 컴백무대 ['Music Bank' BTS 'DNA' 1st march four crowns… K.Will-B1A4 Comeback Stage]. Busan ... DNA - 방탄소년단 [DNA - BTS]. Melon. Archived from the original on September 22, 2017. Retrieved August 3, 2020. Boyle, Kelly ( ... Ahn, Tae-Hyun (September 24, 2017). '인기가요' 방탄소년단, 역대급 컴백무대로 증명한 우월 'DNA' ['Inkigayo' BTS, superior 'DNA' proved to be the best ...
Evans, Nathan T.; Lamberti, Gary A. (January 2018). "Freshwater fisheries assessment using environmental DNA: A primer on the ... DNA barcoding DNA barcoding in diet assessment Algae DNA barcoding Microbial DNA barcoding Aquatic macroinvertebrate DNA ... DNA barcoding methods for fish are used to identify groups of fish based on DNA sequences within selected regions of a genome. ... Primer design is crucial for metabarcoding success. Some studies on primer development have described cytochrome B and 16S as ...
Forensic DNA analysis : a primer for courts. London: Royal Society. 2017. ISBN 978-1-78252-301-7. OCLC 1039675621. Bowcott, ... A national DNA database is a DNA database maintained by the government for storing DNA profiles of its population. Each DNA ... A DNA database or DNA databank is a database of DNA profiles which can be used in the analysis of genetic diseases, genetic ... As the DNA profiles can be stored indefinitely in DNA database, it has raised concerns that these DNA samples can be used for ...
Universal primer cocktails for fish DNA barcoding. Molecular Ecology Notes. 7, 544-54. Prince C. 2009. Practical Manual of ...
Along the DNA template, primase intersperses RNA primers that DNA polymerase uses to synthesize DNA from in the 5′→3′ direction ... such as DNA sequencing and polymerase chain reaction) usually use DNA primers, since they are more temperature stable. Primers ... A synthetic primer may also be referred to as an oligo, short for oligonucleotide. DNA polymerase (responsible for DNA ... Starting from the free 3'-OH of the primer, known as the primer terminus, a DNA polymerase can extend a newly synthesized ...
A genetic marker is a gene or DNA sequence with a known location on a chromosome that can be used to identify individuals or ... the development and use of evolutionarily conserved sets of PCR primers. the use of microsatellite loci that vary among ... The marker could be a short DNA sequence, such as a sequence surrounding a single base-pair change, known as a single ... the development of advanced DNA sequencing techniques. Many things utilized for studying larger organisms has not been possible ...
The amount of DNA produced in LAMP is considerably higher[citation needed] than PCR-based amplification. Primer design could be ... The larger number of primers per target in LAMP increases the likelihood of primer-primer interactions for multiplexed target ... Because LAMP uses 4 (or 6) primers targeting 6 (or 8) regions within a fairly small segment of the genome, and because primer ... open-source or commercial software packages are generally used to assist with LAMP primer design, although the primer design ...
The chimeric DNA of parental size is then amplified using end terminal primers in regular PCR.[page needed] This in vitro ... Gene specific primers are then annealed to the single stranded DNA. These genes are then extended during a PCR cycle. This ... A first round of PCR using these primer sets is performed and two double stranded DNA duplexes are formed. A second round of ... It begins with isolation of the desired gene by functional screening from metagenomic DNA sample. Next, specific primers are ...
"DNA Polymorphisms Amplified by Arbitrary Primers Are Useful as Genetic Markers". Nucleic Acids Research. 18 (22): 6531-6535. ... Books Kidwell, K. K.; Osborn, T. C. (1992). "Simple Plant DNA Isolation Procedures". In Beckman, J. S.; Osborn, T. C. (eds.). ... Doyle, J. J.; Doyle, J. L. (1987). "A Rapid DNA Isolation Procedure for Small Quantities of Fresh Leaf Tissue". Phytochemical ... Sharma, R.; Mahla, R. H.; Mohapatra, T.; Bhargava, C. S.; Shama, M. M. (2003). "Isolating Plant Genomic DNA Without Liquid ...
of the domestic fowl using DNA polymorphisms amplified by arbitrary primers". Parasitology Research. 79 (2): 98-102. doi: ... DNA assays and recombinant DNA techniques. PCR has proven most useful for outbreak surveillance. Prior to these methods, ...
MethPrimerDB Contains 259 primer sets from human, mouse and rat for DNA methylation analysis. The Histone Database Contains 254 ... "methPrimerDB: the DNA methylation analysis PCR primer database". Archived from the original on 2014-07-15. Retrieved 2010-01-29 ... MethyLogiX DNA methylation database Contains DNA methylation data of human chromosomes 21 and 22, male germ cells and late- ... The Krembil Family Epigenetics Laboratory Contains DNA methylation data of human chromosomes 21, 22, male germ cells and DNA ...
These tools are used to optimize the design of primers for target DNA or cDNA sequences. Primer optimization has two goals: ... The last 10-12 bases at the 3' end of a primer are sensitive to initiation of polymerase extension and general primer stability ... On the other hand, FastPCR, a commercial application, allows simultaneous testing of a single primer or a set of primers ... nor should the primer pairs bind to conserved regions of a gene family. If the selectivity is poor, a set of primers will ...
DNA polymerase is then able to add DNA nucleotides to the RNA primer and thus begin the process of constructing a new ... The DNA single-strand template serves to guide the synthesis of a complementary strand of DNA. DNA replication begins at a ... Nuclear DNA and mitochondrial DNA differ in many ways, starting with location and structure. Nuclear DNA is located within the ... Nuclear DNA in animals is diploid, ordinarily inheriting the DNA from two parents, while mitochondrial DNA is haploid, coming ...
Trichophyton species DNA is amplified very poorly by the ITS primer set used for most other molds. There is a special set of ... Target Genes, Primer Sets, and Thermocycler Settings for Fungal DNA Amplification. *Anamorph and Teleomorph Names for Candida ... Target Genes, Primer Sets, and Thermocycler Settings for Fungal DNA Amplification. ... This document describes some of the target genes and primers that can be used for DNA sequence-based identification of fungi ...
Mitochondrial DNA Sequencing Primers mtDNA sequencing is useful in evolutionary studies, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) ... Home Catalog Products Sequencing Reagents Mitochondrial DNA Sequencing Primers ... within the D-loop region of human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). ...
Copyright © 2023 Primers, 16s Ribosomal DNA - François Lutzonis Lab - OnePress theme by FameThemes ... Antibodies / Assay Kits / Biology Cells / cDNA / Clia Kits / Culture Cells / Devices / DNA / DNA Templates / DNA Testing / ... Antibodies / Assay Kits / Biology Cells / cDNA / Clia Kits / Culture Cells / Devices / DNA / DNA Templates / DNA Testing / ... Antibodies / Assay Kits / Biology Cells / cDNA / Clia Kits / Culture Cells / Devices / DNA / DNA Templates / DNA Testing / ...
PCR primer DNA, NGS adapters, synthetic genes, pools and panels. Oligo modifications, including LNA bases. ... oPools™ DNA Oligo Pools. Oligo pools are individually synthesized single-stranded DNA sequences that range from 40 to 350 bases ... DNA oligos. Single-stranded, pooled, or duplexed DNA, synthesized to your specifications. Import multiple sequences from an ... 2023 Integrated DNA Technologies, Inc.. Trademarks contained herein are the property of Integrated DNA Technologies, Inc. or ...
Antibodies / Assay Kits / Biology Cells / cDNA / Clia Kits / Culture Cells / Devices / DNA / DNA Templates / DNA Testing / ... Copyright © 2023 Primers, 16s Ribosomal DNA - François Lutzonis Lab - OnePress theme by FameThemes ...
Perhaps the most vital step in the development of a PCR method is the design of suitable primers. ... A set of primers is used to amplify each DNA target region identified for the reaction. The following are considerations for ... A PCR primer consists of two oligonucleotides that hybridize to complementary stands of the DNA template, and thus identify the ... What Every Investigator and Evidence Technician Should Know About DNA Evidence. *Principles of Forensic DNA for Officers of the ...
... and Integrated DNA Technologies, Inc., Coralville, USA announced today they have ent… ... DNA secondary structure, such as hairpin formation, can affect primer performance. The software takes into account performance ... Roche 454 Life Sciences and Integrated DNA Technologies to Enter Worldwide Exclusive Agreement for Primer Design and Supply ... Roche 454 Life Sciences and Integrated DNA Technologies to Enter Worldwide Exclusive Agreement for Primer Design and Supply. A ...
... we provide PCR primers that are easy to use by students and that always provide good results. ... Carolina makes DNA gel electrophoresis easy when studying forensics or genetics. Theres a simple set up with consistent ...
Avoid secondary structure (i.e., hairpins) within each primer and potential dimerization between the primers ... DNA Template. *Use high quality, purified DNA templates. For colony PCR, use OneTaq DNA Polymerase ... High-Fidelity DNA Polymerase. *The amount of DNA polymerase in the reaction can significantly affect PCR performance ... For Q5 and Phusion DNA Polymerases use extension times of 15 sec per 1000 base pairs for low complexity DNA and 30 sec per ...
Chimeric primers: some DNA bases in the primer are replaced with RNA bases, creating a chimeric sequence. The melting ... Integrated DNA Technologies. "Primer design. What is the primer-dimer?". YouTube video. Archived from the original on 2021-12- ... into the primer. The SAMRS DNA could bind to natural DNA, but not to other members of the same SAMRS species. For example, T* ... primers build from SAMRS could avoid primer-primer interactions and allowing sensitive SNP detection as well as multiplex PCR. ...
RT-PCR, reverse transcription PCR; HRV, human rhinovirus; HEV, human enter0virus, HGD, human genomic DNA; PV, member of the ... Repeated here as primer pair 3.. §Amplicon from these primers was most commonly used to identify the HRV type and to assign a ... Results from RT-PCR with 10 different primer pairs, targeting HRVs by using a panel of 57 clinical nucleic acid extracts from ... Usefulness of Published PCR Primers in Detecting Human Rhinovirus Infection Cassandra E. Faux, Katherine E. Arden, Stephen B. ...
Perkembangan Pengetahun Tentang Sel Bintil Akar: Regulasi Simbiosis Antara Akar dan Rhizobium Bacillus cereus Packaging DNA: ... Analisis Pita (Band) DNA Menggunakan Gel-Pro Analyzer July 19, 2020. May 31, 2023. ... Polymerase Chain Reaction (Amplifikasi DNA) Dari seluruh kemajuan dalam bidang biologi molekuler modern, polymerase chain ...
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... a universal PCR primer and the NEBNext Adaptor; designed for use in library prep for DNA, ChIP DNA and RNA, but not Small RNA. ... Includes index primers for library multiplexing. Note: NEBNext® Multiplex Oligos for Illumina® (Index Primer Set 1) (NEB #7335S ... NEBNext® Ultra™ II FS DNA Library Prep Kit for Illumina * NEBNext® Ultra™ II FS DNA Library Prep with Sample Purification Beads ... Our high quality reagents are available for every workflow, including popular DNA assembly methods such as NEBuilder® HiFi DNA ...
PCR primer DNA, NGS adapters, synthetic genes, pools and panels. Oligo modifications, including LNA bases. ... oPools™ DNA Oligo Pools. Oligo pools are individually synthesized single-stranded DNA sequences that range from 40 to 350 bases ... DNA oligos. Single-stranded, pooled, or duplexed DNA, synthesized to your specifications. Import multiple sequences from an ... 2023 Integrated DNA Technologies, Inc.. Trademarks contained herein are the property of Integrated DNA Technologies, Inc. or ...
Primer Design Guide - The Top 5 Factors to Consider For Optimum Performance. ...
The DNA primer is used in PCR amplification while the RNA primer is the main ingredient of replication. ... Primers in molecular biology are used as a start point in DNA synthesis, in vitro as well as in vivo. ... Both are used for the synthesis of DNA or copying DNA. *Both DNA primers and RNA primers are used as a starting point for DNA ... The two types of primers that we know are RNA primers and DNA primers. Each has its importance, as DNA primers are popularly ...
When Blasting primers or peptides via the NCBI web site it automatically detects that the query is a short sequence (,31) and ... Can I BLAST primers, short DNA sequences or peptides? *. November 30, 2020 21:20. ... Blasting Short DNA sequences. The screenshot below shows the Blast settings you should use to match those used by NCBI for DNA ... If you want an alternative to Test with Saved Primers because Test with Saved Primers is computationally intense, we ...
The ultimate sun primer. The naturally protective main ingredient is a pure extract from a special type of watermelon which ... A softening and hydrating cream with 20 natural active ingredients and anti-oxidants which work together to protect the DNA of ... The cream is easily absorbed and leaves no oily residue which makes it perfect as a make-up primer. ... It produces molecules capable of protecting important cell structures, among them proteins and DNA. The extract contains ...
DNA Primers for Sequence Validation. PCR Forward. AAAGCCTTCTCTCCATCCTTCTTCC. PCR Reverse. TTACTGACTGTCCAAGGGTGTTTCC. Sanger ...
Primer Design. Structure of N-Terminal TAG DNA Template. The structure of N-terminal Tag DNA template and the sequence of each ... The two reverse 2nd PCR primers and one forward 2nd PCR primers are universal primers. The other forward 2nd PCR primer ... The primer list is given below.. The 2-step PCR is the first step in the protocol of CFPS700 kit to generate the DNA template ... Structure of C-Terminal TAG DNA Template. The structure of C-terminal Tag DNA template and the sequence of each part are shown ...
Taking advantage of the large number of virus DNA sequences in public databases to select conserved sites for primer design is ... one set of primers for full length genome amplification and four sets of walking primers showed significant improvement. These ... Here we use hepatitis B virus as an example to introduce a simple and efficient way for virus primer design. Based on the ... Researchers can extend the method described here to design universal or subtype specific primers for various types of viruses. ...
Biotin Random Primer DNA Labeling Kit is designed for generating biotin-labeled DNA probes through random primer labeling ... AceSeq™ Biotin Random Primer DNA Labeling Kit is designed for generating biotin-labeled DNA probes through random primer ... This kit can be used to label various DNA templates, including DNA fragments, linearized plasmids, supercoiled DNA, etc. The ... Ordering AceSeq™ Biotin Random Primer DNA Labeling Kit We know how valuable your research is to you, but are you wondering what ...
DNA Primers for Sequence Validation. PCR Forward. TAAAATAGCAACAGCTGAAGAAACG. PCR Reverse. GACAGATGGACAGACACTAACACAG. Sanger ...
pUC 57 DNA. (No reviews yet) Write a Review Write a Review. ... DNA preferentially bind DNA presented on PolIV * dna template ... 100-5000bp DNA Marker Plus, Ready-to-use , SGM03, Bio Basic Storage Condition : -15~-20℃ Shipping Condition : ICE Range: 9 DNA ... 200-2000bp DNA Marker Plus, Ready-to-use , GM401, Bio Basic Storage Condition : -15~-20℃ Shipping Condition : ICE Range: 10 DNA ... 200-2000bp DNA Marker, Ready-to-use , GM339\GM339, Bio Basic Storage Condition : -15~-20℃ Shipping Condition : ICE Range: 6 DNA ...
Most DNA replication events from the heavy strand origin are prematurely terminated, forming a persistent RNA-DNA hybrid, which ... The human mitochondrial transcription machinery generates the RNA primers needed for initiation of heavy strand DNA synthesis. ... Based on our findings, we propose a model for primer formation at the origin of heavy strand DNA replication. ... The human mitochondrial transcription machinery generates the RNA primers needed for initiation of heavy strand DNA synthesis. ...
DNA electrophoresis Is the Subject Area "DNA electrophoresis" applicable to this article? Yes. No. ... DNA Is the Subject Area "DNA" applicable to this article? Yes. No. ...
Pick Primers Design and test primers for this sequence using Primer-BLAST. ... Arachis hypogaea DNA, clone: SAAC14A03, genomic survey sequence Arachis hypogaea DNA, clone: SAAC14A03, genomic survey sequence ...
Search a DNA database for matches with a set of STS primers ... Search a DNA database for matches with a set of STS primers ...
Extracted DNA was stored at −20 °C until further processing.. Screening of microsatellite primers and PCR amplification. For ... Sample preparation and DNA extraction. For DNA extraction, we sampled the thoracic muscles from each individual, which were ... with DNA suspended in 30 μL nuclease-free water. The concentration and quality of extracted DNA were assessed using a Qubit ... DNA was then extracted and purified using the Wizard® Genomic DNA Purification Kit (Promega, A1120) according to the ...
  • There is a special set of ITS primers specifically for amplification of the ITS region of dermatophytes, especially Trichophyton (Gräser, 2000). (cdc.gov)
  • TriLink mitoPrimers™ allow standard amplification of hypervariable region 1 (HV1) and hypervariable region 2 (HV2) within the D-loop region of human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). (trilinkbiotech.com)
  • As a result, the DNA polymerase amplifies the PD, leading to competition for PCR reagents, thus potentially inhibiting amplification of the DNA sequence targeted for PCR amplification. (wikipedia.org)
  • The unique hairpin loop structure of the NEBNext Adaptor minimizes adaptor-dimer formation, and NEBNext index PCR primers enable index incorporation during library amplification. (neb.com)
  • The highly heterogenic characteristic of viruses is the major obstacle to efficient DNA amplification. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Taking advantage of the large number of virus DNA sequences in public databases to select conserved sites for primer design is an optimal way to tackle the difficulties in virus genome amplification. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Polymerase chain reaction showed that compared with the success rate of the most popular primers for whole genome amplification of HBV, one set of primers for full length genome amplification and four sets of walking primers showed significant improvement. (biomedcentral.com)
  • However, the partially double stranded characteristic of HBV DNA structure causes the instability of exposed HBV DNA and the low efficiency of whole genome amplification. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The considerable number of HBV isolates with rather divergent nucleotide sequences and the partially double-stranded characteristic of HBV impose the need for extreme care in the choice of primers for both full length and fragment amplification. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Phylogenetic analysis with DNA amplification technologies. (who.int)
  • These primers amplify approximately 600 basepairs of the ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 region of the ribosomal cistron. (cdc.gov)
  • These primers amplify approximately 620 basepairs of the 28S region of the ribosomal cistron. (cdc.gov)
  • These primers amplify approximately 717 bp of the coding region of the EF-1α gene. (cdc.gov)
  • These primers amplify approximately 495 bp of exons and introns at the 5' end of the β-tubulin gene. (cdc.gov)
  • These primers amplify a section of the intergenic spacer in the ribosomal cistron. (cdc.gov)
  • Development of primer sets designed for use with the PCR to amplify conserved genes from filamentous ascomycetes. (cdc.gov)
  • A set of primers is used to amplify each DNA target region identified for the reaction. (ojp.gov)
  • 7 Primers designed to amplify the partial groEL gene encoding heat-shock protein of Anaplasma phagocytophilum EphplgroELF (5′-ATGGTATGCAGTTTGATCGC-3′) and EphplgroELR (5′-TCTACTCTGTCTTTGCGTTC-3′) were used and expected to yield a 625-bp product for Anaplasma phagocytophilum and for Anaplasma platys , respectively. (who.int)
  • Affinity Plus DNA & RNA Oligonucleotides are custom, single-stranded, and duplexed sequences that contain 1−20 locked nucleic acid nucleotides. (idtdna.com)
  • Oligo pools are individually synthesized single-stranded DNA sequences that range from 40 to 350 bases. (idtdna.com)
  • Can I BLAST primers, short DNA sequences or peptides? (geneious.com)
  • However, you can change the default Blast settings in Geneious to improve Blast with short DNA or protein sequences. (geneious.com)
  • The screenshot below shows the Blast settings you should use to match those used by NCBI for DNA sequences. (geneious.com)
  • These settings match those used by the NCBI Blast web site when Blasting short DNA sequences of 30 nucleotides or less. (geneious.com)
  • Once you have changed the default settings, click on the cog in the bottom left of the Blast set up window and choose "Save current settings" to create a Profile that can be used with other short DNA sequences. (geneious.com)
  • Statistically, even with the word size set to 7 (the minimum for DNA searches) BLAST will typically miss 40% of possible hits when dealing with sequences of 20bp. (geneious.com)
  • Therefore, the 1st PCR forward/reverse primers need to be target gene specific that overlap with the N-terminal and C-terminal sequences of the ORF of the target gene. (sigmaaldrich.com)
  • Based on the alignment of HBV sequences in public databases and a program BxB in Perl script, our method selected several optimal sites for HBV primer design. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In order to identify optimal sites for primer design, we utilized 1020 whole genome sequences in public databases (NCBI, EMBL and DDBJ) and 103 sequences in our laboratory, and developed a program BxB to select conserved regions as candidates for primer design. (biomedcentral.com)
  • We find that this type of non-canonical fork convergence in fission yeast is prone to trigger deletions between repetitive DNA sequences via a mechanism we call Inter-Fork Strand Annealing (IFSA) that depends on the recombination proteins Rad52, Exo1 and Mus81, and is countered by the FANCM-related DNA helicase Fml1. (elifesciences.org)
  • The primer and probe sequences are listed in the appended table. (cdc.gov)
  • The Committee concluded that additional work may be needed to assess the viability of the stocks held in VECTOR, and that further molecular characterization of additional strains may be valuable in helping to identify strains from which further DNA sequences could be determined. (who.int)
  • Each set of reagents is functionally validated together through construction and sequencing of genomic DNA libraries on the Illumina sequencing platform. (neb.com)
  • Problems that arise during DNA replication can drive genomic alterations that are instrumental in the development of cancers and many human genetic disorders. (elifesciences.org)
  • Accurate DNA replication is essential for genomic stability. (rcsb.org)
  • EC 2.1.1.6) was determined from rat cDNA and genomic libraries were screened with DNA probes and specific antiserum. (lu.se)
  • Tick samples (3-5 ticks) were frozen and mashed by liquid nitrogen and then deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was extracted using the G-spin genomic DNA extraction kit (iNrRON Biotechnology Inc., Republic of Korea). (who.int)
  • Single-stranded DNA oligos specifically built for your homology‑directed repair (HDR) experiments. (idtdna.com)
  • Megamer Single-Stranded DNA Fragments are sequence-verified ssDNA fragments 201-2000 bases in length. (idtdna.com)
  • It is important to note that these polymerases can also degrade single stranded primers. (neb.com)
  • DNA polymerases require the presence of a primer (i.e. oligonucleotide of RNA with free 3´ hydroxyl group), a template (i.e single-stranded DNA), and deoxyribonucleotides (d ATP , d CTP, d GTP, and d TTP) in order to function. (online-sciences.com)
  • Other enzymes (e.g. helicase, topoisomerase, and DNA ligase) and protein factors (e.g. origin binding proteins and single-stranded binding proteins) are required for the replication process. (online-sciences.com)
  • Our high quality reagents are available for every workflow, including popular DNA assembly methods such as NEBuilder ® HiFi DNA Assembly and NEBridge ® Golden Gate Assembly . (neb.com)
  • To overcome this limitation, other methods aim to reduce the formation of PDs only, including primer design, and use of different PCR enzyme systems or reagents. (wikipedia.org)
  • One approach to prevent PDs consists of physical-chemical optimization of the PCR system, i.e. changing the concentrations of primers, magnesium chloride, nucleotides, ionic strength and temperature of the reaction. (wikipedia.org)
  • Most DNA replication events from the heavy strand origin are prematurely terminated, forming a persistent RNA-DNA hybrid, which remains annealed to the parental DNA strand. (nih.gov)
  • Based on our findings, we propose a model for primer formation at the origin of heavy strand DNA replication. (nih.gov)
  • DNA replication is the process of DNA synthesis using parent DNA strands as a template. (online-sciences.com)
  • DNA replication begins at specific locations of replication in the cell , and it produces two identical replicas of DNA from one original DNA molecule . (online-sciences.com)
  • DNA replication is a biological process that occurs in all living organisms acting as the most essential part of biological inheritance. (online-sciences.com)
  • DNA replication is semiconservative: Each DNA strand serves as a template for synthesis of a new strand producing two DNA molecules , each with one new strand and one old strand. (online-sciences.com)
  • Having multiple origins of replication provides a mechanism for rapidly replicating the great length of eukaryotic DNA molecules. (online-sciences.com)
  • DNA replication occurs in the nucleus during the synthetic (S) phase of the eukaryotic cell cycle . (online-sciences.com)
  • Eukaryotic DNA replication initiates at multiple origin sites along each chromosome and terminates when replication forks (RFs) from adjacent origins converge. (elifesciences.org)
  • This so-called recombination-dependent replication (RDR) helps ensure that DNA is fully replicated prior to sister chromatid segregation, thereby avoiding mitotic catastrophes. (elifesciences.org)
  • One mechanism by which high-fidelity DNA polymerases maintain replication accuracy involves stalling of the polymerase in response to covalent incorporation of mismatched base pairs, thereby favoring subsequent mismatch excision. (rcsb.org)
  • Some polymerases retain a "short-term memory" of replication errors, responding to mismatches up to four base pairs in from the primer terminus. (rcsb.org)
  • Furthermore, we have observed the effects of extending a mismatch up to six base pairs from the primer terminus and find that long-range distortions in the DNA transmit the presence of the mismatch back to the enzyme active site, suggesting the structural basis for the short-term memory of replication errors. (rcsb.org)
  • citation needed] Primer-design software uses algorithms that check for the potential of DNA secondary structure formation and annealing of primers to itself or within primer pairs. (wikipedia.org)
  • developed two pairs of primers for nested PCR. (biomedcentral.com)
  • They are divided into two pairs, which bond together from opposite strands of a DNA molecule to form the rungs of its characteristic double-helix shape. (newscientist.com)
  • In the near future, Romesberg expects the new base pairs will be used to synthesize DNA with novel and unnatural properties. (newscientist.com)
  • Chromosome 7 spans about 159 million DNA building blocks (base pairs) and represents more than 5 percent of the total DNA in cells. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The region, which is 1.5 to 1.8 million DNA base pairs (Mb) in length, includes 25 to 27 genes. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The human mitochondrial transcription machinery generates the RNA primers needed for initiation of heavy strand DNA synthesis. (nih.gov)
  • Transcription from the light strand promoter is prematurely terminated at positions 300-282 in the mitochondrial genome, which coincide with the major RNA-DNA transition points in the D-loop of human mitochondria. (nih.gov)
  • DNA polymerase γ synthesizes mitochondrial DNA . (online-sciences.com)
  • Nine new species-locus-specific primers for three different loci of mitochondrial DNA, namely D-loop, cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI), and cytochrome b, were successfully designed. (uthm.edu.my)
  • PCR for the purpose of cloning or other procedures requiring a low error rate benefits from thermophilic, proofreading DNA polymerases. (neb.com)
  • New England Biolabs offers several proofreading DNA Polymerases including Q5™ ( NEB #M0491 ), Phusion® ( NEB #M0530 ), Q5™ Hot Start ( NEB #M0493 ) Phusion® Hot Start Flex ( NEB #M0535 ), One Taq ® ( NEB #M0480 ), LongAmp® Taq ( NEB #M0323 ), Vent® ( NEB #M0254 ) and Deep Vent® ( NEB #M0258 ) DNA polymerases. (neb.com)
  • Q5, Phusion, Vent and Deep Vent DNA Polymerases do not efficiently read through deoxyuridine or deoxyinosine in the template DNA strand, but One Taq DNA Polymerase can. (neb.com)
  • Although DNA polymerases used in PCR are most active around 70 °C, they have some polymerizing activity also at lower temperatures, which can cause DNA synthesis from primers after annealing to each other. (wikipedia.org)
  • DNA polymerases utilize one deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate as a source of the deoxyribonucleoside monophosphate for the growing DNA strand by the removal of pyrophosphate. (online-sciences.com)
  • The third step occurs in the next cycle, when a single strand of the product of step II is used as a template to which fresh primers anneal leading to synthesis of more PD product. (wikipedia.org)
  • The RNA-primed synthesis of DNA demonstrating the template function of the complementary strand parental DNA . (online-sciences.com)
  • The synthesis of a DNA molecule can be divided into three stages: initiation, elongation, and termination. (online-sciences.com)
  • Regardless of its precise form, collapse renders the fork incompetent for further DNA synthesis. (elifesciences.org)
  • Integrated DNA Technologies (IDT) is the largest supplier of custom nucleic acids in the United States, serving academic, government, and commercial researchers in biotechnology, clinical diagnostics, and pharmaceutical development. (pressebox.com)
  • It is part of the "Nucleic:Primers" command group(s). (manpages.org)
  • This kit can be used to label various DNA templates, including DNA fragments, linearized plasmids, supercoiled DNA, etc. (accegen.com)
  • AceSeq™ Biotin Random Primer DNA Labeling Kit is designed for generating biotin-labeled DNA probes through random primer labeling reactions. (accegen.com)
  • This document describes some of the target genes and primers that can be used for DNA sequence-based identification of fungi and the PCR conditions with which to use those primers. (cdc.gov)
  • Other primer sets have been used for other genes, but those described below are the most consistently available in databases for the identification of yeasts and molds that are most likely to be identified in a clinical microbiology laboratory. (cdc.gov)
  • IDT's easy-to-use online fusion primer design tool uses a gen-specific data base number or a supplied reference sequence to build appropriate 454 FusionPrimers for targeted DNA regions, including individual exons or all exons from one or more genes. (pressebox.com)
  • Before a cell divides, DNA must be precisely copied, or "replicated," so that each of the two daughter cells can inherit a complete genome, the full set of genes present in the organism. (jrank.org)
  • Orthopoxviruses and Monkeypox virus were detected in the organs by PCR using consensus primers targeting the virus surface membrane haemagglutinin (HA) genes, while Leptospira species were detected by PCR using primers targeting the rrs and lfb1 genes. (who.int)
  • A PCR primer consists of two oligonucleotides that hybridize to complementary stands of the DNA template, and thus identify the region to be copied. (ojp.gov)
  • In preparation of transcription template, it is necessary to prepare a primer in advance. (sigmaaldrich.com)
  • The 2-step PCR is the first step in the protocol of CFPS700 kit to generate the DNA template to be used in the following transcription and translation. (sigmaaldrich.com)
  • The structure of N-terminal Tag DNA template and the sequence of each part are shown in Figure 1 and Table 1 . (sigmaaldrich.com)
  • We require 500 ng - 1µg of template DNA for reaction. (helsinki.fi)
  • DNA polymerase ε removes the primers of Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand. (online-sciences.com)
  • Tubulin, Actin, and DNA Distribution in 3T3 Cells - A culture of 3T3 cells was immunofluorescently labeled with primary anti-tubulin mouse monoclonal antibodies followed by goat anti-mouse Fab fragments conjugated to the cyanine dye, Cy3. (fsu.edu)
  • As its name implies, a PD consists of two primer molecules that have attached (hybridized) to each other because of strings of complementary bases in the primers. (wikipedia.org)
  • If this construct is stable enough, the DNA polymerase will bind and extend the primers according to the complementary sequence (step II in the figure). (wikipedia.org)
  • HANDS (Homo-Tag Assisted Non-Dimer System): a nucleotide tail, complementary to the 3' end of the primer is added to the 5' end of the primer. (wikipedia.org)
  • Please note that Reverse primer is complementary to the sequence of Table 1 . (sigmaaldrich.com)
  • Chemical modification: in this method a small molecule is covalently bound to the side chain of an amino acid in the active site of the DNA polymerase. (wikipedia.org)
  • It aims at the formation of a copy of the parent DNA molecule for the daughter cell. (online-sciences.com)
  • In eukaryotes , the DNA molecules that make up the genome are packaged with proteins into chromosomes, each of which contains a single linear DNA molecule. (jrank.org)
  • In the first step, two primers anneal at their respective 3' ends (step I in the figure). (wikipedia.org)
  • Because primers are designed to have low complementarity to each other, they may anneal (step I in the figure) only at low temperature, e.g. room temperature, such as during the preparation of the reaction mixture. (wikipedia.org)
  • The species-locus-specific primers are able to anneal to host DNA alone in highly contaminated feces of highlighted species. (uthm.edu.my)
  • Long, high-quality DNA oligos up to 200 bases. (idtdna.com)
  • DNA oligos up to 120 bases manufactured by an exclusive production process to minimize oligonucleotide crosstalk. (idtdna.com)
  • When designing the primer, remember that the readable sequence will not start right after the primer and the sequence quality might be poor during the first 10-20 bases. (helsinki.fi)
  • Allow about 50 bases between your primer and the site of interest. (helsinki.fi)
  • IDT's primary business is the manufacturing of custom, synthetic DNA and RNA oligonucleotides. (pressebox.com)
  • The free 3´ hydroxyl group of the primer acts as an accepter for the first deoxyribonucleotide in the newly formed DNA strand. (online-sciences.com)
  • Amplicon from these primers was most commonly used to identify the HRV type and to assign a species. (cdc.gov)
  • If the sequence result was of low quality, the amplicon was cloned into a plasmid vector using a TOPO TA cloning kit (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, California) and then sequenced using the primers provided with the kit. (who.int)
  • In the detailed protocol below, overlapping length between 1st gene specific primers and ORF is set at 18 bp as the default. (sigmaaldrich.com)
  • Employing the DNA blot analysis only one COMT-encoding gene was found in the rat genome. (lu.se)
  • In general, for unknown molds, the ITS region of the rDNA is used as the primary target with primers ITS-1 and ITS-4 as the most general primer set. (cdc.gov)
  • We have several standard primers for the most common vectors and for bacterial 16S rDNA sequencing. (helsinki.fi)
  • and absence of secondary structures, such as stem-loops, in the DNA target sequence. (wikipedia.org)
  • It produces molecules capable of protecting important cell structures, among them proteins and DNA. (danishreveal.com)
  • The genomes of bacterial cells ( prokaryotes ), which lack a nucleus, are typically circular DNA molecules that associate with special structures in the cell membrane. (jrank.org)
  • The telomeres are the DNA-protein structures at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes, which serve to protect and stabilize the genome. (lu.se)
  • In quantitative PCR, PDs may be detected by melting curve analysis with intercalating dyes, such as SYBR Green I, a nonspecific dye for detection of double-stranded DNA. (wikipedia.org)
  • Perhaps the most vital step in the development of a PCR method is the design of suitable primers. (ojp.gov)
  • These newly designed primers are suitable for most subtypes of HBV. (biomedcentral.com)
  • If you want to use your own primers, take good care that you design them suitable for sequencing. (helsinki.fi)
  • Whether you are performing your first cloning experiment or constructing multi-fragment DNA assemblies, NEB ® has the solution for you. (neb.com)
  • Unfortunately, none of them were similar enough in structure and chemistry to the real thing to be copied accurately by the polymerase enzymes that replicate DNA inside cells. (newscientist.com)
  • The biotin DNA probe labeled with this kit can be used for conventional Northern, Southern, colony or plaque hybridization, dot or slot blot, in situ hybridization, etc. (accegen.com)
  • AceSeq™ Biotin Random Primer DNA Labeling Kit that is free of hazardous chemicals has high efficiency. (accegen.com)
  • The 1st PCR aims to connect the target ORF sequence with the 2nd forward/reverse primers (please see the diagram below). (sigmaaldrich.com)
  • There are two sets of forward and reverse primer sets in the 2nd PCR. (sigmaaldrich.com)
  • The two reverse 2nd PCR primers and one forward 2nd PCR primers are universal primers. (sigmaaldrich.com)
  • Visualizing the molecular interactions of a nucleotide analog, GS-9148, with HIV-1 reverse transcriptase-DNA complex. (neb.com)
  • The Real-time PCR reaction included final concentrations of 1X TaqMan Universal Master Mix, 0.1µM Probe (labeled FAM/Black Hole Quencher-1), 0.4µM forward and reverse primer and 2ul oral rinse DNA in a final reaction volume of 25 ul. (cdc.gov)
  • 454 Life Sciences, a Roche company, and Integrated DNA Technologies, Inc., Coralville, USA announced today they have entered into an exclusive co-promotional agreement wherein IDT will design, synthesize, and purify the fusion primers required for certain 454 Sequencing applications. (pressebox.com)
  • 454 Life Sciences, a center of excellence of Roche Applied Science, develops and commercializes the innovative 454 Sequencing System for ultra-high-throughput DNA sequencing. (pressebox.com)
  • Specific applications include de novo sequencing and re-sequencing of genomes, metagenomics, RNA analysis, and targeted sequencing of DNA regions of interest. (pressebox.com)
  • Integrated DNA Technologies acquires Archer™ next generation sequencing research assays to advance actionable scientific discoveries. (idtdna.com)
  • Faster and more accessible DNA sequencing technologies have enabled, in the past decade, a large number of genomics and metagenomics projects focused on the microbial world [ 3 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In more than 90% of failed sequencing reactions the cause is insufficient DNA quality. (helsinki.fi)
  • Non-invasive prenatal testing (NIPT) by random massively parallel sequencing of maternal plasma DNA for multiple pregnancies is a promising new option for prenatal care since conventional non-invasive screening for fetal trisomies 21, 18 and 13 has limitations and invasive diagnostic methods bear a higher risk for procedure related fetal losses in the case of multiple gestations compared to singletons. (mdpi.com)
  • Direct DNA sequencing was performed using the same PCR primers. (who.int)
  • With our Normalized Oligos, we've made obtaining pure DNA oligos in bulk quantities (up to 10 grams) easy, and many options can now be ordered via our online ordering system! (idtdna.com)
  • NEBNext ® Multiplex Oligos provide adaptors and primers to enable high yield multiplex Illumina ® library production. (neb.com)
  • Note: NEBNext ® Multiplex Oligos for Illumina ® (Index Primer Set 1) ( NEB #7335S ) includes 12 indices. (neb.com)
  • We describe a general approach to rapidly obtain the DNA sequence encoding the variable region of any immunoglobulin chain using the polymerase chain reaction and a mixture of upstream primers corresponding to the leader sequence, and one downstream primer designed from the conserved nucleotide sequence of the constant region. (lu.se)
  • Primer dimers may be visible after gel electrophoresis of the PCR product. (wikipedia.org)
  • Prepare a TAE agarose gel at a concentration according to the DNA size and set in electrophoresis. (sigmaaldrich.com)
  • Is the Subject Area "DNA electrophoresis" applicable to this article? (plos.org)
  • In some cases, these primers may not provide sufficient identification, and a protein coding region may be required. (cdc.gov)
  • RUNX3 protein is a transcription factor, containing a highly conserved DNA binding domain which binds to a DNA core motif of 5′ pyGpyGGT 3′ designated as a "runt domain, RD" which shares a sequence similarity with D. melanogaster RUNX. (hindawi.com)
  • DNA, serological detection of variola virus, antiviral agents and animal models of smallpox. (who.int)
  • Detection of the IS Ecp1B sequence munity, mostly in hospitals and often in ité de l'Antibiogramme de la Société was performed by PCR using primers intensive care units (ICUs) [3]. (who.int)
  • Thus, the objectives of this study were to develop a standardized technique to collecting samples noninvasively, propose newly designed species-locus-specific primers, and optimize conditions for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for Macaca fascicularis, M. nemestrina, Trachypithecus cristatus, and T. obscurus. (uthm.edu.my)
  • Another approach to prevent or reduce PD formation is by modifying the primers so that annealing with themselves or each other does not cause extension. (wikipedia.org)
  • A softening and hydrating cream with 20 natural active ingredients and anti-oxidants which work together to protect the DNA of skin cells and neutralize free radicals formed as a result of UV-radiation, environmental factors and stress. (danishreveal.com)
  • All HPV viral loads and ERV3 were subsequently normalized to a 12µLvolume of DNA to be representative of the 12 uL oral rinse DNA sample volume used the Roche Linear Array assay. (cdc.gov)
  • Viral load: HPV viral copy number in a 12 uL sample equivalent of oral rinse DNA. (cdc.gov)
  • Researchers can extend the method described here to design universal or subtype specific primers for various types of viruses. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Lack of species-locus-specific primers also contributes to difficulties in using noninvasive genetic samples. (uthm.edu.my)
  • A primer dimer (PD) is a potential by-product in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a common biotechnological method. (wikipedia.org)
  • Several methods have been developed to prevent PDs formation until the reaction reaches working temperature (60-70 °C), and these include initial inhibition of the DNA polymerase, or physical separation of reaction components reaction until the reaction mixture reaches the higher temperatures. (wikipedia.org)
  • Slow release of magnesium: DNA polymerase requires magnesium ions for activity, so the magnesium is chemically separated from the reaction by binding to a chemical compound, and is released into the solution only at high temperature Non-covalent binding of inhibitor: in this method a peptide, antibody or aptamer are non-covalently bound to the enzyme at low temperature and inhibit its activity. (wikipedia.org)
  • We require 5 µl of plasmid DNA for a single reaction in concentration of 100ng/µl. (helsinki.fi)
  • Polymemse chain reaction using mixed primers. (lu.se)
  • If you want an alternative to Test with Saved Primers because 'Test with Saved Primers' is computationally intense, we recommend using the Map to Reference function rather than Blast. (geneious.com)
  • Design and test primers for this sequence using Primer-BLAST. (nih.gov)
  • Universal primer sets exist, but they often do not have enough discriminatory power to identify species, or they do not have the discriminatory power to identify species within a species complex, often giving 100% match to multiple species. (cdc.gov)
  • The ITS primer set generally only discriminates Fusarium species into the various species complexes but does not discriminate cryptic species. (cdc.gov)
  • For identification of Fusarium isolates within species complexes, the EF-1α primers should be used (O'Donnell, 2009). (cdc.gov)
  • Similar to Fusarium , the ITS primer set generally only discriminates Scedosporium , Apsergillus , and Penicillium species into the various species complexes but does not discriminate cryptic species. (cdc.gov)
  • For identification of Scedosporium , Aspergillus , and Penicillium isolates within species complexes, the β-tubulin primers should be used (Glass, 1995). (cdc.gov)
  • Trichophyton species DNA is amplified very poorly by the ITS primer set used for most other molds. (cdc.gov)
  • Individual species of Trichosporon are not well discriminated using either the ITS or D1D2 primer sets. (cdc.gov)
  • These primers proved to be efficient in amplifying larger datasets (up to ~1,000 bp) of the targeted species in the optimized PCR conditions. (uthm.edu.my)
  • Adding the two artificial building blocks to the four that naturally comprise DNA could allow wildly different kinds of genetic engineering, they say. (newscientist.com)
  • DNA is the carrier of genetic information. (jrank.org)
  • Your product is now available from Integrated DNA Technologies. (idtdna.com)
  • Trademarks contained herein are the property of Integrated DNA Technologies, Inc. or their respective owners, and may be registered in the USA and/or other jurisdictions. (idtdna.com)
  • 1.5-2.0 mM Mg 2+ is typically optimal for One Taq DNA Polymerase products. (neb.com)
  • The partnership offers Genome Sequencer FLX System users a convenient solution for primer creation, streamlining workflow and relieving bioinformatics burdens. (pressebox.com)
  • Primer extension analysis showed that the transcription start point of the rat liver COMT mRNA was 450 bp upstream from the. (lu.se)