Cephalosporins
Microbial Sensitivity Tests
beta-Lactamases
Cefuroxime
beta-Lactam Resistance
Drug Resistance, Bacterial
Penicillin-Binding Proteins
Acremonium
Gram-Positive Bacterial Infections
Enterococcus faecalis
Drug Resistance, Microbial
Escherichia coli
Plasmids
Drug Resistance
Cephalexin
Cephalosporinase
Ceftriaxone
Cefmenoxime
Ceftizoxime
Drug Resistance, Neoplasm
Bacteria
Penicillin Amidase
Drug Resistance, Multiple, Bacterial
Drug Resistance, Multiple
Cefazolin
Enterobacteriaceae
Cefixime
Penicillins
Disease Resistance
Ceftazidime
Cefamandole
Vascular Resistance
Drug Resistance, Viral
Gram-Negative Bacteria
Enterobacter
Cefonicid
Cefotiam
In vitro activities of cephalosporins and quinolones against Escherichia coli strains isolated from diarrheic dairy calves. (1/261)
The in vitro activities of several cephalosporins and quinolones against 195 strains of Escherichia coli isolated from diary calves affected by neonatal diarrhea were determined. One hundred thirty-seven of these strains produced one or more potential virulence factors (F5, F41, F17, cytotoxic necrotizing factor, verotoxin, and the eae gene), but the remaining 58 strains did not produce any of these factors. From 11 to 18% of the E. coli strains were resistant to cephalothin, nalidixic acid, enoxacin, and enrofloxacin. However, cefuroxime, cefotaxime, and cefquinome were highly effective against the E. coli isolates tested. Some significant differences (P < 0.05) in resistance to quinolones between the strains producing potential virulence factors and nonfimbriated, nontoxigenic, eae-negative strains were found. Thus, eae-positive, necrotoxigenic, and verotoxigenic (except for nalidixic acid) E. coli strains were significantly more sensitive to nalidixic acid, enoxacin, and enrofloxacin than nonfimbriated, nontoxigenic, eae-negative strains. Moreover, eae-positive strains were significantly more sensitive to enoxacin and enrofloxacin than F5-positive strains. Thus, the result of this study suggest that the bovine E. coli strains that produce some potential virulence factors are more sensitive to quinolones than those that do not express these factors. (+info)Use of an oxacillin disk screening test for detection of penicillin- and ceftriaxone-resistant pneumococci. (2/261)
In a context of worldwide emergence of resistance among Streptococcus pneumoniae strains, early detection of strains with decreased susceptibility to beta-lactam antibiotics is important for clinicians. If the 1-microgram oxacillin disk diffusion test is used as described by the National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards, no interpretation is available for strains showing zone sizes of /=2.0 microgram/ml) to penicillin. For ceftriaxone, among 98 strains with no zone of inhibition in response to oxacillin, 68 had intermediate resistance (MIC, 1.0 microgram/ml), and 22 were resistant (MIC, >/=2.0 microgram/ml). To optimize the use of the disk diffusion method, we propose that the absence of a zone of inhibition around the 1-microgram oxacillin disk be regarded as an indicator of nonsusceptibility to penicillin and ceftriaxone and recommend that such strains be reported as nonsusceptible to these antimicrobial agents, pending the results of a MIC quantitation method. (+info)Pharmacodynamics of vancomycin for the treatment of experimental penicillin- and cephalosporin-resistant pneumococcal meningitis. (3/261)
With the emergence of beta-lactam antibiotic resistance among strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae, vancomycin has assumed an important role in the treatment of bacterial meningitis. Using the rabbit meningitis model, we evaluated the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of vancomycin in this setting. Animals were given 80 mg/kg of body weight daily in two or four divided doses to determine the penetration and activity of vancomycin in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF); each regimen was administered with and without dexamethasone. Mean peak (2 h) concentrations in CSF that were four- to eightfold higher than the minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC; 0.5 microgram/ml) for the pathogen were adequate for bacterial clearance. In both groups concentrations in CSF remained higher than the MBC for greater than 80% of the respective dosing intervals, and the penetration of vancomycin into CSF was 20%. Mean concentrations in CSF at 24 to 36 h of therapy were lower than those achieved during the first 12 h, consistent with a decline in the level of antibiotic entry into CSF as inflammation wanes. Rates of bacterial clearance were similar for the two regimens, and for all animals cultures of CSF were sterile by 36 h. The coadministration of dexamethasone significantly reduced the penetration of vancomycin into CSF by 29% and significantly lowered the rate of bacterial clearance during the first 6 h in animals receiving 20-mg/kg doses of vancomycin. For animals receiving 40-mg/kg doses, therapeutic peak concentrations in CSF were obtained even with steroid use, suggesting that the effect of steroids may be circumvented by the use of larger daily doses of vancomycin. (+info)Molecular basis of AmpC hyperproduction in clinical isolates of Escherichia coli. (4/261)
DNA sequencing data showed that five clinical isolates of Escherichia coli with reduced susceptibility to ceftazidime, ceftriaxone, and cefotaxime contain an ampC gene that is preceded by a strong promoter. Transcription from the strong promoter was 8- to 18-fold higher than that from the promoter from a susceptible isolate. RNA studies showed that mRNA stability does not play a role in the control of AmpC synthesis. (+info)In vitro activities of the potent, broad-spectrum carbapenem MK-0826 (L-749,345) against broad-spectrum beta-lactamase-and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli clinical isolates. (5/261)
An important mechanism of bacterial resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics is inactivation by beta-lactam-hydrolyzing enzymes (beta-lactamases). The evolution of the extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs) is associated with extensive use of beta-lactam antibiotics, particularly cephalosporins, and is a serious threat to therapeutic efficacy. ESBLs and broad-spectrum beta-lactamases (BDSBLs) are plasmid-mediated class A enzymes produced by gram-negative pathogens, principally Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae. MK-0826 was highly potent against all ESBL- and BDSBL-producing K. pneumoniae and E. coli clinical isolates tested (MIC range, 0.008 to 0.12 microgram/ml). In E. coli, this activity was associated with high-affinity binding to penicillin-binding proteins 2 and 3. When the inoculum level was increased 10-fold, increasing the amount of beta-lactamase present, the MK-0826 MIC range increased to 0.008 to 1 microgram/ml. By comparison, similar observations were made with meropenem while imipenem MICs were usually less affected. Not surprisingly, MIC increases with noncarbapenem beta-lactams were generally substantially greater, resulting in resistance in many cases. E. coli strains that produce chromosomal (Bush group 1) beta-lactamase served as controls. All three carbapenems were subject to an inoculum effect with the majority of the BDSBL- and ESBL-producers but not the Bush group 1 strains, implying some effect of the plasmid-borne enzymes on potency. Importantly, MK-0826 MICs remained at or below 1 microgram/ml under all test conditions. (+info)Carbapenem resistance in Escherichia coli associated with plasmid-determined CMY-4 beta-lactamase production and loss of an outer membrane protein. (6/261)
Three cefoxitin-resistant Escherichia coli isolates from stool specimens of a patient with leukemia were either resistant, intermediate, or sensitive to imipenem. Conjugation experiments showed that cefoxitin resistance, but not imipenem resistance, was transferable. All isolates were shown by isoelectric focusing to produce two beta-lactamases with isoelectric points of 5.4 (TEM-1, confirmed by sequencing of a PCR product) and >8.5 (consistent with a class C beta-lactamase). The gene coding for the unknown beta-lactamase was cloned and sequenced and revealed an enzyme which had 99.9% sequence identity with the plasmid-determined class C beta-lactamase CMY-2. The cloned beta-lactamase gene differed from blaCMY-2 at one nucleotide position that resulted in an amino acid change, tryptophan to arginine at position 221. We propose that this enzyme be designated CMY-4. Both the imipenem-resistant and -intermediate isolates lacked a 38-kDa outer membrane protein (OMP) that was present in the imipenem-sensitive isolate. The lack of an OMP alone did not explain the difference in carbapenem susceptibilities observed. However, measurement of beta-lactamase activities (including measurements under conditions where TEM-1 beta-lactamase was inhibited) indicated that the imipenem-intermediate isolate expressed six- to eightfold less beta-lactamase than did the other isolates. This study illustrates that carbapenem resistance in E. coli can arise from high-level expression of plasmid-mediated class C beta-lactamase combined with an OMP deficiency. Furthermore, in the presence of an OMP deficiency, the level of expression of a plasmid-mediated class C beta-lactamase is an important factor in determining whether E. coli isolates are fully resistant to carbapenems. (+info)Diversity of substitutions within or adjacent to conserved amino acid motifs of penicillin-binding protein 2X in cephalosporin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates. (7/261)
The sequence of an approximately 1.1-kb DNA fragment of the pbp2x gene, which encodes the transpeptidase domain, was determined for 35 clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae for which the cefotaxime (CTX) MICs varied. Strains with substitutions within a conserved amino acid motif changing STMK to SAFK and a Leu-to-Val change just before the KSG motif were highly resistant to CTX (MIC, >==2 microgram/ml). Strains with substitutions adjacent to SSN or KSG motifs had low-level resistance. The amino acid substitutions were plotted on the three-dimensional crystallographic structure of the transpeptidase domain of PBP2X. Transformants containing pbp2x from strains with high-level CTX resistance increased the CTX MIC from 0. 016 microgram/ml to 0.5 to 1.0 microgram/ml. (+info)Efficacy of beta-lactam and inhibitor combinations in a diffusion chamber model in rabbits. (8/261)
Using a diffusion chamber in rabbits, we evaluated therapy with the combination of ceftriaxone plus the beta-lactamase inhibitor tazobactam in comparison with ceftriaxone alone. One sensitive and one resistant strain of Escherichia coli, Enterobacter cloacae and Klebsiella pneumoniae were inoculated into one of the six diffusion chambers, implanted in the same animal. In order to simulate pharmacokinetics in humans, both substances were administered in decreasing doses. Ceftriaxone was given 0, 2, 4 and 6 h after infection in dosages of 45, 35, 25 and 15 mg/kg of body weight, while tazobactam was administered either in one dose at 0 h, or divided into two doses at 0 and 1 h or 0 and 4 h, or divided into three doses at 0, 1 and 4 h after infection. The ratio of ceftriaxone:tazobactam was fixed at 8:1. Ceftriaxone, in combination with tazobactam, given in one dose immediately after infection showed a significant reduction in bacterial count. All other combinations of ceftriaxone and tazobactam did not differ from ceftriaxone in monotherapy. Co-administration of the beta-lactamase inhibitor tazobactam significantly enhanced the activity of ceftriaxone against all three tested species. (+info)Cephalosporin resistance refers to the ability of bacteria to resist the antibacterial effects of cephalosporins, a group of widely used antibiotics. These drugs work by interfering with the bacterial cell wall synthesis, thereby inhibiting bacterial growth and reproduction. However, some bacteria have developed mechanisms that enable them to survive in the presence of cephalosporins.
There are several ways in which bacteria can become resistant to cephalosporins. One common mechanism is through the production of beta-lactamases, enzymes that can break down the beta-lactam ring structure of cephalosporins and other related antibiotics. This makes the drugs ineffective against the bacteria.
Another mechanism of resistance involves changes in the bacterial cell membrane or the penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) that prevent the binding of cephalosporins to their target sites. These changes can occur due to genetic mutations or the acquisition of new genes through horizontal gene transfer.
Cephalosporin resistance is a significant public health concern, as it can limit the treatment options for bacterial infections and increase the risk of morbidity and mortality. The overuse and misuse of antibiotics are major drivers of antibiotic resistance, including cephalosporin resistance. Therefore, it is essential to use these drugs judiciously and follow proper infection prevention and control measures to prevent the spread of resistant bacteria.
Cephalosporins are a class of antibiotics that are derived from the fungus Acremonium, originally isolated from seawater and cow dung. They have a similar chemical structure to penicillin and share a common four-membered beta-lactam ring in their molecular structure.
Cephalosporins work by inhibiting the synthesis of bacterial cell walls, which ultimately leads to bacterial death. They are broad-spectrum antibiotics, meaning they are effective against a wide range of bacteria, including both Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms.
There are several generations of cephalosporins, each with different spectra of activity and pharmacokinetic properties. The first generation cephalosporins have a narrow spectrum of activity and are primarily used to treat infections caused by susceptible Gram-positive bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pneumoniae.
Second-generation cephalosporins have an expanded spectrum of activity that includes some Gram-negative organisms, such as Escherichia coli and Haemophilus influenzae. Third-generation cephalosporins have even broader spectra of activity and are effective against many resistant Gram-negative bacteria, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae.
Fourth-generation cephalosporins have activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms, including some that are resistant to other antibiotics. They are often reserved for the treatment of serious infections caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria.
Cephalosporins are generally well tolerated, but like penicillin, they can cause allergic reactions in some individuals. Cross-reactivity between cephalosporins and penicillin is estimated to occur in 5-10% of patients with a history of penicillin allergy. Other potential adverse effects include gastrointestinal symptoms (such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea), neurotoxicity, and nephrotoxicity.
Cefotaxime is a third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic, which is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections. It works by inhibiting the synthesis of the bacterial cell wall. Cefotaxime has a broad spectrum of activity and is effective against many Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including some that are resistant to other antibiotics.
Cefotaxime is often used to treat serious infections such as pneumonia, meningitis, and sepsis. It may also be used to prevent infections during surgery or in people with weakened immune systems. The drug is administered intravenously or intramuscularly, and its dosage depends on the type and severity of the infection being treated.
Like all antibiotics, cefotaxime can cause side effects, including diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and rash. In rare cases, it may cause serious allergic reactions or damage to the kidneys or liver. It is important to follow the prescribing physician's instructions carefully when taking this medication.
Microbial sensitivity tests, also known as antibiotic susceptibility tests (ASTs) or bacterial susceptibility tests, are laboratory procedures used to determine the effectiveness of various antimicrobial agents against specific microorganisms isolated from a patient's infection. These tests help healthcare providers identify which antibiotics will be most effective in treating an infection and which ones should be avoided due to resistance. The results of these tests can guide appropriate antibiotic therapy, minimize the potential for antibiotic resistance, improve clinical outcomes, and reduce unnecessary side effects or toxicity from ineffective antimicrobials.
There are several methods for performing microbial sensitivity tests, including:
1. Disk diffusion method (Kirby-Bauer test): A standardized paper disk containing a predetermined amount of an antibiotic is placed on an agar plate that has been inoculated with the isolated microorganism. After incubation, the zone of inhibition around the disk is measured to determine the susceptibility or resistance of the organism to that particular antibiotic.
2. Broth dilution method: A series of tubes or wells containing decreasing concentrations of an antimicrobial agent are inoculated with a standardized microbial suspension. After incubation, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) is determined by observing the lowest concentration of the antibiotic that prevents visible growth of the organism.
3. Automated systems: These use sophisticated technology to perform both disk diffusion and broth dilution methods automatically, providing rapid and accurate results for a wide range of microorganisms and antimicrobial agents.
The interpretation of microbial sensitivity test results should be done cautiously, considering factors such as the site of infection, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the antibiotic, potential toxicity, and local resistance patterns. Regular monitoring of susceptibility patterns and ongoing antimicrobial stewardship programs are essential to ensure optimal use of these tests and to minimize the development of antibiotic resistance.
Beta-lactamases are enzymes produced by certain bacteria that can break down and inactivate beta-lactam antibiotics, such as penicillins, cephalosporins, and carbapenems. This enzymatic activity makes the bacteria resistant to these antibiotics, limiting their effectiveness in treating infections caused by these organisms.
Beta-lactamases work by hydrolyzing the beta-lactam ring, a structural component of these antibiotics that is essential for their antimicrobial activity. By breaking down this ring, the enzyme renders the antibiotic ineffective against the bacterium, allowing it to continue growing and potentially causing harm.
There are different classes of beta-lactamases (e.g., Ambler Class A, B, C, and D), each with distinct characteristics and mechanisms for breaking down various beta-lactam antibiotics. The emergence and spread of bacteria producing these enzymes have contributed to the growing problem of antibiotic resistance, making it increasingly challenging to treat infections caused by these organisms.
To overcome this issue, researchers have developed beta-lactamase inhibitors, which are drugs that can bind to and inhibit the activity of these enzymes, thus restoring the effectiveness of certain beta-lactam antibiotics. Examples of such combinations include amoxicillin/clavulanate (Augmentin) and piperacillin/tazobactam (Zosyn).
Cefuroxime is a type of antibiotic known as a cephalosporin, which is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections. It works by interfering with the bacteria's ability to form a cell wall, which is necessary for its survival. Without a functional cell wall, the bacteria are unable to grow and multiply, and are eventually destroyed by the body's immune system.
Cefuroxime is effective against many different types of bacteria, including both Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms. It is often used to treat respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, skin and soft tissue infections, and bone and joint infections.
Like all antibiotics, cefuroxime should be used only under the direction of a healthcare provider, and it is important to take the full course of treatment as prescribed, even if symptoms improve before the medication is finished. Misuse of antibiotics can lead to the development of drug-resistant bacteria, which are more difficult to treat and can pose a serious threat to public health.
Anti-bacterial agents, also known as antibiotics, are a type of medication used to treat infections caused by bacteria. These agents work by either killing the bacteria or inhibiting their growth and reproduction. There are several different classes of anti-bacterial agents, including penicillins, cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones, macrolides, and tetracyclines, among others. Each class of antibiotic has a specific mechanism of action and is used to treat certain types of bacterial infections. It's important to note that anti-bacterial agents are not effective against viral infections, such as the common cold or flu. Misuse and overuse of antibiotics can lead to antibiotic resistance, which is a significant global health concern.
Enterobacteriaceae are a large family of gram-negative bacteria that are commonly found in the human gut and surrounding environment. Infections caused by Enterobacteriaceae can occur when these bacteria enter parts of the body where they are not normally present, such as the bloodstream, urinary tract, or abdominal cavity.
Enterobacteriaceae infections can cause a range of symptoms depending on the site of infection. For example:
* Urinary tract infections (UTIs) caused by Enterobacteriaceae may cause symptoms such as frequent urination, pain or burning during urination, and lower abdominal pain.
* Bloodstream infections (bacteremia) caused by Enterobacteriaceae can cause fever, chills, and sepsis, a potentially life-threatening condition characterized by a whole-body inflammatory response to infection.
* Pneumonia caused by Enterobacteriaceae may cause cough, chest pain, and difficulty breathing.
* Intra-abdominal infections (such as appendicitis or diverticulitis) caused by Enterobacteriaceae can cause abdominal pain, fever, and changes in bowel habits.
Enterobacteriaceae infections are typically treated with antibiotics, but the increasing prevalence of antibiotic-resistant strains of these bacteria has made treatment more challenging in recent years. Preventing the spread of Enterobacteriaceae in healthcare settings and promoting good hygiene practices can help reduce the risk of infection.
Beta-lactam resistance is a type of antibiotic resistance in which bacteria have developed the ability to inactivate or circumvent the action of beta-lactam antibiotics. Beta-lactams are a class of antibiotics that include penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems, and monobactams. They work by binding to and inhibiting the activity of enzymes called penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), which are essential for bacterial cell wall synthesis.
Bacteria can develop beta-lactam resistance through several mechanisms:
1. Production of beta-lactamases: These are enzymes that bacteria produce to break down and inactivate beta-lactam antibiotics. Some bacteria have acquired genes that encode for beta-lactamases that can hydrolyze and destroy the beta-lactam ring, rendering the antibiotic ineffective.
2. Alteration of PBPs: Bacteria can also develop mutations in their PBPs that make them less susceptible to beta-lactams. These alterations can reduce the affinity of PBPs for beta-lactams or change their conformation, preventing the antibiotic from binding effectively.
3. Efflux pumps: Bacteria can also develop efflux pumps that actively pump beta-lactam antibiotics out of the cell, reducing their intracellular concentration and limiting their effectiveness.
4. Biofilm formation: Some bacteria can form biofilms, which are communities of microorganisms that adhere to surfaces and are encased in a protective matrix. Biofilms can make bacteria more resistant to beta-lactams by preventing the antibiotics from reaching their targets.
Beta-lactam resistance is a significant public health concern because it limits the effectiveness of these important antibiotics. The overuse and misuse of beta-lactams have contributed to the emergence and spread of resistant bacteria, making it essential to use these antibiotics judiciously and develop new strategies to combat bacterial resistance.
Bacterial drug resistance is a type of antimicrobial resistance that occurs when bacteria evolve the ability to survive and reproduce in the presence of drugs (such as antibiotics) that would normally kill them or inhibit their growth. This can happen due to various mechanisms, including genetic mutations or the acquisition of resistance genes from other bacteria.
As a result, bacterial infections may become more difficult to treat, requiring higher doses of medication, alternative drugs, or longer treatment courses. In some cases, drug-resistant infections can lead to serious health complications, increased healthcare costs, and higher mortality rates.
Examples of bacterial drug resistance include methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE), and multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB). Preventing the spread of bacterial drug resistance is crucial for maintaining effective treatments for infectious diseases.
Penicillin-Binding Proteins (PBPs) are essential bacterial enzymes that play a crucial role in the synthesis and maintenance of the bacterial cell wall. They are called "penicillin-binding" because they possess the ability to bind to penicillin and other beta-lactam antibiotics, which subsequently inhibits their function and leads to the death of the bacteria. PBPs are primary targets for many clinically important antibiotics, including penicillins, cephalosporins, and carbapenems. Inhibition of these proteins interferes with the cross-linking of peptidoglycan in the bacterial cell wall, causing structural weakness and osmotic lysis of the bacteria.
"Acremonium" is a genus of filamentous fungi that are commonly found in soil, decaying vegetation, and water. Some species of Acremonium can cause infections in humans, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems. These infections can affect various organs and tissues, including the skin, nails, lungs, and eyes.
The medical definition of "Acremonium" is therefore a type of fungus that can cause a variety of infectious diseases, particularly in immunocompromised individuals. It's important to note that Acremonium infections are relatively rare, but they can be serious and require prompt medical treatment.
Gram-positive bacterial infections refer to illnesses or diseases caused by Gram-positive bacteria, which are a group of bacteria that turn purple when stained using the Gram stain method. This staining technique is used in microbiology to differentiate between two main types of bacteria based on their cell wall composition.
Gram-positive bacteria have a thick layer of peptidoglycan in their cell walls, which retains the crystal violet stain used in the Gram staining process. Some common examples of Gram-positive bacteria include Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Enterococcus faecalis.
Gram-positive bacterial infections can range from mild skin infections to severe and life-threatening conditions such as pneumonia, meningitis, and sepsis. The symptoms of these infections depend on the type of bacteria involved and the location of the infection in the body. Treatment typically involves the use of antibiotics that are effective against Gram-positive bacteria, such as penicillin, vancomycin, or clindamycin. However, the emergence of antibiotic resistance among Gram-positive bacteria is a growing concern and can complicate treatment in some cases.
Enterococcus faecalis is a species of gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic bacteria that are part of the normal gut microbiota in humans and animals. It is a type of enterococci that can cause a variety of infections, including urinary tract infections, bacteremia, endocarditis, and meningitis, particularly in hospitalized patients or those with compromised immune systems.
E. faecalis is known for its ability to survive in a wide range of environments and resist various antibiotics, making it difficult to treat infections caused by this organism. It can also form biofilms, which further increase its resistance to antimicrobial agents and host immune responses. Accurate identification and appropriate treatment of E. faecalis infections are essential to prevent complications and ensure positive patient outcomes.
Microbial drug resistance is a significant medical issue that refers to the ability of microorganisms (such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites) to withstand or survive exposure to drugs or medications designed to kill them or limit their growth. This phenomenon has become a major global health concern, particularly in the context of bacterial infections, where it is also known as antibiotic resistance.
Drug resistance arises due to genetic changes in microorganisms that enable them to modify or bypass the effects of antimicrobial agents. These genetic alterations can be caused by mutations or the acquisition of resistance genes through horizontal gene transfer. The resistant microbes then replicate and multiply, forming populations that are increasingly difficult to eradicate with conventional treatments.
The consequences of drug-resistant infections include increased morbidity, mortality, healthcare costs, and the potential for widespread outbreaks. Factors contributing to the emergence and spread of microbial drug resistance include the overuse or misuse of antimicrobials, poor infection control practices, and inadequate surveillance systems.
To address this challenge, it is crucial to promote prudent antibiotic use, strengthen infection prevention and control measures, develop new antimicrobial agents, and invest in research to better understand the mechanisms underlying drug resistance.
'Escherichia coli' (E. coli) is a type of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium that commonly inhabits the intestinal tract of humans and warm-blooded animals. It is a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae and one of the most well-studied prokaryotic model organisms in molecular biology.
While most E. coli strains are harmless and even beneficial to their hosts, some serotypes can cause various forms of gastrointestinal and extraintestinal illnesses in humans and animals. These pathogenic strains possess virulence factors that enable them to colonize and damage host tissues, leading to diseases such as diarrhea, urinary tract infections, pneumonia, and sepsis.
E. coli is a versatile organism with remarkable genetic diversity, which allows it to adapt to various environmental niches. It can be found in water, soil, food, and various man-made environments, making it an essential indicator of fecal contamination and a common cause of foodborne illnesses. The study of E. coli has contributed significantly to our understanding of fundamental biological processes, including DNA replication, gene regulation, and protein synthesis.
Bacterial DNA refers to the genetic material found in bacteria. It is composed of a double-stranded helix containing four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) - that are linked together by phosphodiester bonds. The sequence of these bases in the DNA molecule carries the genetic information necessary for the growth, development, and reproduction of bacteria.
Bacterial DNA is circular in most bacterial species, although some have linear chromosomes. In addition to the main chromosome, many bacteria also contain small circular pieces of DNA called plasmids that can carry additional genes and provide resistance to antibiotics or other environmental stressors.
Unlike eukaryotic cells, which have their DNA enclosed within a nucleus, bacterial DNA is present in the cytoplasm of the cell, where it is in direct contact with the cell's metabolic machinery. This allows for rapid gene expression and regulation in response to changing environmental conditions.
Bacterial proteins are a type of protein that are produced by bacteria as part of their structural or functional components. These proteins can be involved in various cellular processes, such as metabolism, DNA replication, transcription, and translation. They can also play a role in bacterial pathogenesis, helping the bacteria to evade the host's immune system, acquire nutrients, and multiply within the host.
Bacterial proteins can be classified into different categories based on their function, such as:
1. Enzymes: Proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the bacterial cell.
2. Structural proteins: Proteins that provide structural support and maintain the shape of the bacterial cell.
3. Signaling proteins: Proteins that help bacteria to communicate with each other and coordinate their behavior.
4. Transport proteins: Proteins that facilitate the movement of molecules across the bacterial cell membrane.
5. Toxins: Proteins that are produced by pathogenic bacteria to damage host cells and promote infection.
6. Surface proteins: Proteins that are located on the surface of the bacterial cell and interact with the environment or host cells.
Understanding the structure and function of bacterial proteins is important for developing new antibiotics, vaccines, and other therapeutic strategies to combat bacterial infections.
A plasmid is a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is separate from the chromosomal DNA of a bacterium or other organism. Plasmids are typically not essential for the survival of the organism, but they can confer beneficial traits such as antibiotic resistance or the ability to degrade certain types of pollutants.
Plasmids are capable of replicating independently of the chromosomal DNA and can be transferred between bacteria through a process called conjugation. They often contain genes that provide resistance to antibiotics, heavy metals, and other environmental stressors. Plasmids have also been engineered for use in molecular biology as cloning vectors, allowing scientists to replicate and manipulate specific DNA sequences.
Plasmids are important tools in genetic engineering and biotechnology because they can be easily manipulated and transferred between organisms. They have been used to produce vaccines, diagnostic tests, and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for various applications, including agriculture, medicine, and industry.
Drug resistance, also known as antimicrobial resistance, is the ability of a microorganism (such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites) to withstand the effects of a drug that was originally designed to inhibit or kill it. This occurs when the microorganism undergoes genetic changes that allow it to survive in the presence of the drug. As a result, the drug becomes less effective or even completely ineffective at treating infections caused by these resistant organisms.
Drug resistance can develop through various mechanisms, including mutations in the genes responsible for producing the target protein of the drug, alteration of the drug's target site, modification or destruction of the drug by enzymes produced by the microorganism, and active efflux of the drug from the cell.
The emergence and spread of drug-resistant microorganisms pose significant challenges in medical treatment, as they can lead to increased morbidity, mortality, and healthcare costs. The overuse and misuse of antimicrobial agents, as well as poor infection control practices, contribute to the development and dissemination of drug-resistant strains. To address this issue, it is crucial to promote prudent use of antimicrobials, enhance surveillance and monitoring of resistance patterns, invest in research and development of new antimicrobial agents, and strengthen infection prevention and control measures.
Cephalexin is a type of antibiotic known as a first-generation cephalosporin. It works by interfering with the bacteria's ability to form a cell wall, which is essential for its survival. Without a functional cell wall, the bacterial cells become unstable and eventually die.
Cephalexin is effective against a wide range of gram-positive and some gram-negative bacteria, making it a useful antibiotic for treating various types of infections, such as respiratory tract infections, skin and soft tissue infections, bone and joint infections, and urinary tract infections.
Like all antibiotics, cephalexin should be used only to treat bacterial infections, as it has no effect on viral infections. It is important to take the full course of treatment as directed by a healthcare professional, even if symptoms improve before the medication is finished, to ensure that the infection is fully treated and to reduce the risk of antibiotic resistance.
Common side effects of cephalexin include nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, and stomach pain. In rare cases, more serious side effects such as allergic reactions, severe skin rashes, or liver damage may occur. It is important to seek medical attention immediately if any signs of an allergic reaction or serious side effect are experienced while taking cephalexin.
A cephalosporinase is an enzyme that can break down and inactivate cephalosporins, a group of antibiotics commonly used to treat various bacterial infections. Bacteria that produce this enzyme are referred to as "cephalosporin-resistant" or "cephalosporinase-producing" organisms. The production of cephalosporinases by bacteria can lead to treatment failures and make infections more difficult to manage.
Cephalosporins are broad-spectrum antibiotics, which means they can be effective against a wide range of bacterial species. However, some bacteria have developed resistance mechanisms, such as the production of cephalosporinases, to counteract their effects. These enzymes hydrolyze the beta-lactam ring in cephalosporins, rendering them ineffective.
There are different classes of cephalosporinases (e.g., Ambler classes A, C, and D), each with distinct characteristics and substrate profiles. Some cephalosporinases can hydrolyze a broader range of cephalosporins than others, leading to varying degrees of resistance.
To overcome cephalosporinase-mediated resistance, alternative antibiotics or combinations of antibiotics may be used. Additionally, the development of new cephalosporins with improved stability against these enzymes is an ongoing area of research in the field of antimicrobial drug discovery.
Ceftriaxone is a third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic, which is used to treat a wide range of bacterial infections. It works by inhibiting the synthesis of the bacterial cell wall. Ceftriaxone has a broad spectrum of activity and is effective against many gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, including some that are resistant to other antibiotics.
Ceftriaxone is available in injectable form and is commonly used to treat serious infections such as meningitis, pneumonia, and sepsis. It is also used to prevent infections after surgery or trauma. The drug is generally well-tolerated, but it can cause side effects such as diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and rash. In rare cases, it may cause serious side effects such as anaphylaxis, kidney damage, and seizures.
It's important to note that Ceftriaxone should be used only under the supervision of a healthcare professional, and that it is not recommended for use in individuals with a history of allergic reactions to cephalosporins or penicillins. Additionally, as with all antibiotics, it should be taken as directed and for the full duration of the prescribed course of treatment, even if symptoms improve before the treatment is finished.
Cephalothin is a type of antibiotic known as a first-generation cephalosporin. It is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections, including respiratory tract infections, skin and soft tissue infections, bone and joint infections, and urinary tract infections.
Cephalothin works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form cell walls, which are essential for their survival. It binds to specific proteins in the bacterial cell wall, causing the wall to become unstable and ultimately leading to the death of the bacterium.
Like other antibiotics, cephalothin is only effective against certain types of bacteria, and it should be used under the direction of a healthcare professional. It is important to take the full course of treatment as directed, even if symptoms improve, to ensure that the infection is fully treated and to reduce the risk of developing antibiotic resistance.
Common side effects of cephalothin include gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. More serious side effects may include allergic reactions, kidney damage, and seizures. It is important to inform your healthcare provider of any medical conditions you have or medications you are taking before starting treatment with cephalothin.
Cephaloridine is a type of antibiotic that belongs to the class of cephalosporins. It is used for treating various bacterial infections, including respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, skin and soft tissue infections, bone and joint infections, and septicemia.
Cephaloridine works by inhibiting the synthesis of the bacterial cell wall, leading to bacterial death. It is administered intramuscularly or intravenously and is known for its broad-spectrum activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. However, due to its potential nephrotoxicity (kidney toxicity), it has largely been replaced by other antibiotics with similar spectra of activity but better safety profiles.
It's important to note that the use of cephaloridine should be reserved for infections caused by bacteria that are resistant to other antibiotics, and its administration should be closely monitored by a healthcare professional to minimize the risk of adverse effects.
Cefmenoxime is a second-generation cephalosporin antibiotic, which is used to treat various bacterial infections. It works by inhibiting the synthesis of the bacterial cell wall. Cefmenoxime has a broad spectrum of activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including some strains that are resistant to other antibiotics.
Common indications for cefmenoxime include respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, skin and soft tissue infections, bone and joint infections, and intra-abdominal infections. It is also used as a prophylactic agent during surgery to reduce the risk of postoperative infections.
Cefmenoxime is usually administered intravenously or intramuscularly, and its dosage may vary depending on the type and severity of the infection, as well as the patient's age and renal function. Common side effects of cefmenoxime include gastrointestinal symptoms such as diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting, as well as allergic reactions such as rash, itching, and hives.
It is important to note that the use of antibiotics should be based on a careful assessment of the patient's condition and the susceptibility of the infecting organism. Overuse or misuse of antibiotics can lead to the development of antibiotic resistance, which can make subsequent infections more difficult to treat.
Ceftizoxime is a type of antibiotic known as a third-generation cephalosporin. It works by interfering with the bacteria's ability to form a cell wall, which is necessary for its survival. Ceftizoxime is effective against a wide range of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, including many that are resistant to other antibiotics.
It is commonly used to treat various types of infections, such as pneumonia, urinary tract infections, skin infections, and intra-abdominal infections. Ceftizoxime is available in both intravenous (IV) and oral forms, although the IV form is more commonly used in clinical practice.
Like all antibiotics, ceftizoxime should be used only to treat bacterial infections, as it has no effect on viral infections. Overuse or misuse of antibiotics can lead to the development of antibiotic resistance, which makes it more difficult to treat infections in the future.
It is important to note that ceftizoxime should only be used under the supervision of a healthcare provider, who will determine the appropriate dosage and duration of treatment based on the patient's individual needs and medical history.
Drug resistance in neoplasms (also known as cancer drug resistance) refers to the ability of cancer cells to withstand the effects of chemotherapeutic agents or medications designed to kill or inhibit the growth of cancer cells. This can occur due to various mechanisms, including changes in the cancer cell's genetic makeup, alterations in drug targets, increased activity of drug efflux pumps, and activation of survival pathways.
Drug resistance can be intrinsic (present at the beginning of treatment) or acquired (developed during the course of treatment). It is a significant challenge in cancer therapy as it often leads to reduced treatment effectiveness, disease progression, and poor patient outcomes. Strategies to overcome drug resistance include the use of combination therapies, development of new drugs that target different mechanisms, and personalized medicine approaches that consider individual patient and tumor characteristics.
Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that are among the earliest known life forms on Earth. They are typically characterized as having a cell wall and no membrane-bound organelles. The majority of bacteria have a prokaryotic organization, meaning they lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
Bacteria exist in diverse environments and can be found in every habitat on Earth, including soil, water, and the bodies of plants and animals. Some bacteria are beneficial to their hosts, while others can cause disease. Beneficial bacteria play important roles in processes such as digestion, nitrogen fixation, and biogeochemical cycling.
Bacteria reproduce asexually through binary fission or budding, and some species can also exchange genetic material through conjugation. They have a wide range of metabolic capabilities, with many using organic compounds as their source of energy, while others are capable of photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.
Bacteria are highly adaptable and can evolve rapidly in response to environmental changes. This has led to the development of antibiotic resistance in some species, which poses a significant public health challenge. Understanding the biology and behavior of bacteria is essential for developing strategies to prevent and treat bacterial infections and diseases.
Penicillin amidase is not a medical term per se, but rather a biochemical term. It's also known as penicillin acylase or simply penicillinase. It refers to an enzyme that can break down certain types of penicillin antibiotics by cleaving the amide bond in the beta-lactam ring, which is the core structure of these antibiotics. This makes the antibiotic ineffective.
Beta-lactam antibiotics include penicillins and cephalosporins, among others. Some bacteria produce penicillin amidases as a form of resistance to these antibiotics. The enzyme can be used in biotechnology to produce semi-synthetic penicillins by cleaving the side chain of a parent penicillin and then attaching a different side chain, creating a new antibiotic with potentially different properties.
Multiple bacterial drug resistance (MDR) is a medical term that refers to the resistance of multiple strains of bacteria to several antibiotics or antimicrobial agents. This means that these bacteria have developed mechanisms that enable them to survive and multiply despite being exposed to drugs that were previously effective in treating infections caused by them.
MDR is a significant public health concern because it limits the treatment options available for bacterial infections, making them more difficult and expensive to treat. In some cases, MDR bacteria may cause severe or life-threatening infections that are resistant to all available antibiotics, leaving doctors with few or no effective therapeutic options.
MDR can arise due to various mechanisms, including the production of enzymes that inactivate antibiotics, changes in bacterial cell membrane permeability that prevent antibiotics from entering the bacteria, and the development of efflux pumps that expel antibiotics out of the bacteria. The misuse or overuse of antibiotics is a significant contributor to the emergence and spread of MDR bacteria.
Preventing and controlling the spread of MDR bacteria requires a multifaceted approach, including the judicious use of antibiotics, infection control measures, surveillance, and research into new antimicrobial agents.
"Multiple drug resistance" (MDR) is a term used in medicine to describe the condition where a patient's infection becomes resistant to multiple antimicrobial drugs. This means that the bacteria, virus, fungus or parasite that is causing the infection has developed the ability to survive and multiply despite being exposed to medications that were originally designed to kill or inhibit its growth.
In particular, MDR occurs when an organism becomes resistant to at least one drug in three or more antimicrobial categories. This can happen due to genetic changes in the microorganism that allow it to survive in the presence of these drugs. The development of MDR is a significant concern for public health because it limits treatment options and can make infections harder, if not impossible, to treat.
MDR can develop through several mechanisms, including mutations in the genes that encode drug targets or enzymes involved in drug metabolism, as well as the acquisition of genetic elements such as plasmids and transposons that carry resistance genes. The overuse and misuse of antimicrobial drugs are major drivers of MDR, as they create selective pressure for the emergence and spread of resistant strains.
MDR infections can occur in various settings, including hospitals, long-term care facilities, and communities. They can affect people of all ages and backgrounds, although certain populations may be at higher risk, such as those with weakened immune systems or chronic medical conditions. Preventing the spread of MDR requires a multifaceted approach that includes surveillance, infection control, antimicrobial stewardship, and research into new therapies and diagnostics.
Cefazolin is a type of antibiotic known as a cephalosporin, which is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections. It works by interfering with the bacteria's ability to form a cell wall, which is necessary for its survival. Without a functional cell wall, the bacteria are not able to grow and multiply, and are eventually destroyed by the body's immune system.
Cefazolin is commonly used to treat infections of the skin, bones, joints, heart, lungs, and urinary tract. It may also be used to prevent infection during surgery. Like all antibiotics, cefazolin is only effective against certain types of bacteria, so it is important to know the specific type of bacteria causing an infection before using this medication.
Cefazolin is usually given as an injection into a vein or muscle, and may be administered in a hospital setting or at home with proper training. The dosage and duration of treatment will depend on the severity and location of the infection, as well as the patient's overall health status.
As with any medication, cefazolin can cause side effects, including diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, headache, and rash. In rare cases, it may also cause serious side effects such as allergic reactions, kidney damage, or abnormal blood clotting. It is important to report any unusual symptoms to a healthcare provider promptly.
It is essential to complete the full course of treatment with cefazolin, even if symptoms improve, to ensure that the infection is fully treated and to reduce the risk of antibiotic resistance.
Enterobacteriaceae is a family of gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria that are commonly found in the intestines of humans and animals. Many species within this family are capable of causing various types of infections, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems. Some common examples of Enterobacteriaceae include Escherichia coli (E. coli), Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, and Salmonella enterica.
These bacteria are typically characterized by their ability to ferment various sugars and produce acid and gas as byproducts. They can also be distinguished by their biochemical reactions, such as their ability to produce certain enzymes or resist specific antibiotics. Infections caused by Enterobacteriaceae can range from mild to severe, depending on the species involved and the overall health of the infected individual.
Some infections caused by Enterobacteriaceae include urinary tract infections, pneumonia, bloodstream infections, and foodborne illnesses. Proper hygiene, such as handwashing and safe food handling practices, can help prevent the spread of these bacteria and reduce the risk of infection.
Penicillin resistance is the ability of certain bacteria to withstand the antibacterial effects of penicillin, a type of antibiotic. This occurs when these bacteria have developed mechanisms that prevent penicillin from binding to and inhibiting the function of their cell wall biosynthesis proteins, particularly the enzyme transpeptidase.
One common mechanism of penicillin resistance is the production of beta-lactamases, enzymes that can hydrolyze and inactivate the beta-lactam ring structure present in penicillin and other related antibiotics. Another mechanism involves alterations in the bacterial cell wall that prevent penicillin from binding to its target proteins.
Penicillin resistance is a significant concern in clinical settings, as it can limit treatment options for bacterial infections and may necessitate the use of more potent or toxic antibiotics. It is important to note that misuse or overuse of antibiotics can contribute to the development and spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, including those resistant to penicillin.
Cefixime is a third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic, which is used to treat various bacterial infections. It works by inhibiting the synthesis of the bacterial cell wall. Cefixime is available as an oral suspension or tablet and is commonly prescribed for respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, ear infections, and skin infections.
The medical definition of Cefixime can be stated as follows:
Cefixime: A semisynthetic antibiotic derived from cephalosporin, which is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections. It has a broad spectrum of activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including beta-lactamase producing strains. Cefixime is administered orally and is often prescribed for respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, ear infections, and skin infections. It has a long half-life and high oral bioavailability, making it a convenient option for outpatient treatment.
Common side effects of Cefixime include diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and headache. Serious side effects are rare but may include anaphylaxis, Stevens-Johnson syndrome, and toxic epidermal necrolysis. Caution should be exercised when prescribing Cefixime to patients with a history of allergic reactions to cephalosporins or penicillins.
Penicillins are a group of antibiotics derived from the Penicillium fungus. They are widely used to treat various bacterial infections due to their bactericidal activity, which means they kill bacteria by interfering with the synthesis of their cell walls. The first penicillin, benzylpenicillin (also known as penicillin G), was discovered in 1928 by Sir Alexander Fleming. Since then, numerous semi-synthetic penicillins have been developed to expand the spectrum of activity and stability against bacterial enzymes that can inactivate these drugs.
Penicillins are classified into several groups based on their chemical structure and spectrum of activity:
1. Natural Penicillins (e.g., benzylpenicillin, phenoxymethylpenicillin): These have a narrow spectrum of activity, mainly targeting Gram-positive bacteria such as streptococci and staphylococci. However, they are susceptible to degradation by beta-lactamase enzymes produced by some bacteria.
2. Penicillinase-resistant Penicillins (e.g., methicillin, oxacillin, nafcillin): These penicillins resist degradation by certain bacterial beta-lactamases and are primarily used to treat infections caused by staphylococci, including methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA).
3. Aminopenicillins (e.g., ampicillin, amoxicillin): These penicillins have an extended spectrum of activity compared to natural penicillins, including some Gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Haemophilus influenzae. However, they are still susceptible to degradation by many beta-lactamases.
4. Antipseudomonal Penicillins (e.g., carbenicillin, ticarcillin): These penicillins have activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and other Gram-negative bacteria with increased resistance to other antibiotics. They are often combined with beta-lactamase inhibitors such as clavulanate or tazobactam to protect them from degradation.
5. Extended-spectrum Penicillins (e.g., piperacillin): These penicillins have a broad spectrum of activity, including many Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. They are often combined with beta-lactamase inhibitors to protect them from degradation.
Penicillins are generally well-tolerated antibiotics; however, they can cause allergic reactions in some individuals, ranging from mild skin rashes to life-threatening anaphylaxis. Cross-reactivity between different penicillin classes and other beta-lactam antibiotics (e.g., cephalosporins) is possible but varies depending on the specific drugs involved.
Cefaclor is a type of antibiotic known as a second-generation cephalosporin. It works by interfering with the bacteria's ability to form a cell wall, which is necessary for its survival. Without a functional cell wall, the bacteria eventually die. Cefaclor is effective against a wide range of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, making it a broad-spectrum antibiotic.
Cefaclor is used to treat various types of bacterial infections, including respiratory tract infections (such as bronchitis and pneumonia), ear infections, skin infections, and urinary tract infections. It is available in both oral and intravenous forms.
Like all antibiotics, cefaclor should be used only to treat bacterial infections, as it is not effective against viral infections such as the common cold or flu. Overuse of antibiotics can lead to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which can make future infections more difficult to treat. It is important to take cefaclor exactly as directed by a healthcare professional and to complete the full course of treatment, even if symptoms improve before all of the medication has been taken.
Disease resistance, in a medical context, refers to the inherent or acquired ability of an organism to withstand or limit infection by a pathogen, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites. This resistance can be due to various factors including the presence of physical barriers (e.g., intact skin), chemical barriers (e.g., stomach acid), and immune responses that recognize and eliminate the pathogen.
Inherited disease resistance is often determined by genetics, where certain genetic variations can make an individual more or less susceptible to a particular infection. For example, some people are naturally resistant to certain diseases due to genetic factors that prevent the pathogen from infecting their cells or replicating within them.
Acquired disease resistance can occur through exposure to a pathogen, which triggers an immune response that confers immunity or resistance to future infections by the same pathogen. This is the basis of vaccination, where a weakened or dead form of a pathogen is introduced into the body to stimulate an immune response without causing disease.
Overall, disease resistance is an important factor in maintaining health and preventing the spread of infectious diseases.
Ceftazidime is a third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic, which is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections. It works by interfering with the bacteria's ability to form a cell wall, leading to bacterial cell death. Ceftazidime has a broad spectrum of activity and is effective against many Gram-negative and some Gram-positive bacteria.
It is often used to treat serious infections such as pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and sepsis, particularly when they are caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Ceftazidime is also commonly used in combination with other antibiotics to treat complicated abdominal infections, bone and joint infections, and hospital-acquired pneumonia.
Like all antibiotics, ceftazidime can cause side effects, including diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and allergic reactions. It may also affect the kidneys and should be used with caution in patients with impaired renal function. Ceftazidime is available in both intravenous (IV) and oral forms.
Cefamandole is a second-generation cephalosporin antibiotic, which is a type of antibacterial medication used to treat various infections caused by bacteria. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form cell walls, resulting in weakening and eventual death of the bacterial cells.
Cefamandole has a broad spectrum of activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, making it useful for treating a variety of infections, including respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, skin and soft tissue infections, bone and joint infections, and septicemia.
Like other cephalosporins, cefamandole is generally well-tolerated and has a low incidence of serious side effects. However, it can cause gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, as well as allergic reactions in some people. It may also interact with other medications, so it's important to inform your healthcare provider of all the medications you are taking before starting cefamandole therapy.
It is important to note that antibiotics should only be used to treat bacterial infections and not viral infections, as they are not effective against viruses and can contribute to the development of antibiotic resistance.
Vascular resistance is a measure of the opposition to blood flow within a vessel or a group of vessels, typically expressed in units of mmHg/(mL/min) or sometimes as dynes*sec/cm^5. It is determined by the diameter and length of the vessels, as well as the viscosity of the blood flowing through them. In general, a decrease in vessel diameter, an increase in vessel length, or an increase in blood viscosity will result in an increase in vascular resistance, while an increase in vessel diameter, a decrease in vessel length, or a decrease in blood viscosity will result in a decrease in vascular resistance. Vascular resistance is an important concept in the study of circulation and cardiovascular physiology because it plays a key role in determining blood pressure and blood flow within the body.
Bacterial infections are caused by the invasion and multiplication of bacteria in or on tissues of the body. These infections can range from mild, like a common cold, to severe, such as pneumonia, meningitis, or sepsis. The symptoms of a bacterial infection depend on the type of bacteria invading the body and the area of the body that is affected.
Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that can live in many different environments, including in the human body. While some bacteria are beneficial to humans and help with digestion or protect against harmful pathogens, others can cause illness and disease. When bacteria invade the body, they can release toxins and other harmful substances that damage tissues and trigger an immune response.
Bacterial infections can be treated with antibiotics, which work by killing or inhibiting the growth of bacteria. However, it is important to note that misuse or overuse of antibiotics can lead to antibiotic resistance, making treatment more difficult. It is also essential to complete the full course of antibiotics as prescribed, even if symptoms improve, to ensure that all bacteria are eliminated and reduce the risk of recurrence or development of antibiotic resistance.
Drug resistance, viral, refers to the ability of a virus to continue replicating in the presence of antiviral drugs that are designed to inhibit or stop its growth. This occurs when the virus mutates and changes its genetic makeup in such a way that the drug can no longer effectively bind to and inhibit the function of its target protein, allowing the virus to continue infecting host cells and causing disease.
Viral drug resistance can develop due to several factors, including:
1. Mutations in the viral genome that alter the structure or function of the drug's target protein.
2. Changes in the expression levels or location of the drug's target protein within the virus-infected cell.
3. Activation of alternative pathways that allow the virus to replicate despite the presence of the drug.
4. Increased efflux of the drug from the virus-infected cell, reducing its intracellular concentration and effectiveness.
Viral drug resistance is a significant concern in the treatment of viral infections such as HIV, hepatitis B and C, herpes simplex virus, and influenza. It can lead to reduced treatment efficacy, increased risk of treatment failure, and the need for more toxic or expensive drugs. Therefore, it is essential to monitor viral drug resistance during treatment and adjust therapy accordingly to ensure optimal outcomes.
Gram-negative bacteria are a type of bacteria that do not retain the crystal violet stain used in the Gram staining method, a standard technique used in microbiology to classify and identify different types of bacteria based on their structural differences. This method was developed by Hans Christian Gram in 1884.
The primary characteristic distinguishing Gram-negative bacteria from Gram-positive bacteria is the composition and structure of their cell walls:
1. Cell wall: Gram-negative bacteria have a thin peptidoglycan layer, making it more susceptible to damage and less rigid compared to Gram-positive bacteria.
2. Outer membrane: They possess an additional outer membrane that contains lipopolysaccharides (LPS), which are endotoxins that can trigger strong immune responses in humans and animals. The outer membrane also contains proteins, known as porins, which form channels for the passage of molecules into and out of the cell.
3. Periplasm: Between the inner and outer membranes lies a compartment called the periplasm, where various enzymes and other molecules are located.
Some examples of Gram-negative bacteria include Escherichia coli (E. coli), Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella enterica, Shigella spp., and Neisseria meningitidis. These bacteria are often associated with various infections, such as urinary tract infections, pneumonia, sepsis, and meningitis. Due to their complex cell wall structure, Gram-negative bacteria can be more resistant to certain antibiotics, making them a significant concern in healthcare settings.
Enterobacter is a genus of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that are commonly found in the environment, including in soil, water, and the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and animals. These bacteria are members of the family Enterobacteriaceae and are known to cause a variety of infections in humans, particularly in healthcare settings.
Enterobacter species are capable of causing a range of infections, including urinary tract infections, pneumonia, bacteremia, and wound infections. They are often resistant to multiple antibiotics, which can make treatment challenging. Infections with Enterobacter are typically treated with broad-spectrum antibiotics that are effective against gram-negative bacteria.
It's worth noting that while Enterobacter species can cause infections, they are also a normal part of the microbiota found in the human gut and usually do not cause harm in healthy individuals. However, if the bacterium enters the bloodstream or other sterile sites in the body, it can cause infection and illness.
Cefonicid is a type of antibiotic known as a cephalosporin, which is used to treat various bacterial infections. It works by interfering with the bacteria's ability to form a cell wall, leading to the death of the bacteria. Cefonicid is administered intravenously and is typically used to treat serious infections such as sepsis, pneumonia, and meningitis.
Here is the medical definition of 'Cefonicid':
Cefonicid is a semisynthetic, broad-spectrum, bactericidal antibiotic of the cephalosporin class. It is administered intravenously and has a long half-life, allowing for once- or twice-daily dosing. Cefonicid is stable in the presence of beta-lactamases, including extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs), making it useful for treating infections caused by bacteria that produce these enzymes. It is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections, including pneumonia, meningitis, and sepsis.
Common side effects of cefonicid include diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and local reactions at the injection site. More serious side effects can include allergic reactions, kidney damage, and seizures. Cefonicid should be used with caution in patients with a history of allergy to beta-lactam antibiotics, impaired renal function, or a history of seizure disorders.
Gram-positive bacteria are a type of bacteria that stain dark purple or blue when subjected to the Gram staining method, which is a common technique used in microbiology to classify and identify different types of bacteria based on their structural differences. This staining method was developed by Hans Christian Gram in 1884.
The key characteristic that distinguishes Gram-positive bacteria from other types, such as Gram-negative bacteria, is the presence of a thick layer of peptidoglycan in their cell walls, which retains the crystal violet stain used in the Gram staining process. Additionally, Gram-positive bacteria lack an outer membrane found in Gram-negative bacteria.
Examples of Gram-positive bacteria include Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Bacillus subtilis. Some Gram-positive bacteria can cause various human diseases, while others are beneficial or harmless.
Penicillinase is an enzyme produced by some bacteria that can inactivate penicillin and other beta-lactam antibiotics by breaking down the beta-lactam ring, which is essential for their antimicrobial activity. Bacteria that produce penicillinase are resistant to penicillin and related antibiotics. Penicillinase-resistant penicillins, such as methicillin and oxacillin, have been developed to overcome this form of bacterial resistance.
Cephradine is a type of antibiotic known as a first-generation cephalosporin. It is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections, including respiratory tract infections, skin and soft tissue infections, bone and joint infections, and genitourinary tract infections. Cephradine works by interfering with the bacteria's ability to form a cell wall, which leads to the death of the bacteria.
Cephradine is available in oral (by mouth) and intravenous (into a vein) forms. Common side effects of cephradine include diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and stomach pain. More serious side effects can occur, such as allergic reactions, seizures, and severe skin reactions. It is important to take cephradine exactly as directed by a healthcare professional and to inform them of any medical conditions or medications being taken that could interact with the antibiotic.
Cefotiam is a type of antibiotic known as a cephalosporin, which is used to treat various bacterial infections. It works by interfering with the bacteria's ability to form a cell wall, leading to bacterial cell death. Cefotiam has a broad spectrum of activity and is effective against many gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.
Here is the medical definition of 'Cefotiam':
Cefotiam is a semisynthetic, broad-spectrum, beta-lactam antibiotic belonging to the cephalosporin class. It has activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, including many strains that are resistant to other antibiotics. Cefotiam inhibits bacterial cell wall synthesis by binding to penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), leading to bacterial cell death.
Cefotiam is available in various formulations, including intravenous (IV) and intramuscular (IM) injections, for the treatment of a wide range of infections, such as:
* Lower respiratory tract infections (e.g., pneumonia, bronchitis)
* Urinary tract infections (e.g., pyelonephritis, cystitis)
* Skin and soft tissue infections (e.g., cellulitis, wound infections)
* Bone and joint infections (e.g., osteomyelitis, septic arthritis)
* Intra-abdominal infections (e.g., peritonitis, appendicitis)
* Septicemia (bloodstream infections)
Cefotiam is generally well tolerated, but like other antibiotics, it can cause side effects, including gastrointestinal symptoms (e.g., nausea, vomiting, diarrhea), skin rashes, and allergic reactions. In rare cases, cefotiam may cause serious adverse effects, such as seizures, interstitial nephritis, or hemorrhagicystitis. It should be used with caution in patients with a history of allergy to beta-lactam antibiotics, impaired renal function, or a history of seizure disorders.
It is essential to complete the full course of treatment as prescribed by a healthcare professional, even if symptoms improve, to ensure that the infection is entirely eradicated and to reduce the risk of developing antibiotic resistance.
Muramoylpentapeptide Carboxypeptidase is not a commonly used medical term, but it refers to an enzyme involved in the bacterial cell wall biosynthesis and degradation process. The muramoylpentapeptide is a component of the bacterial cell wall peptidoglycan. Carboxypeptidases are enzymes that cleave peptide bonds, specifically at the carboxyl-terminal end of a protein or peptide.
In this context, Muramoylpentapeptide Carboxypeptidase is an enzyme that removes the terminal D-alanine residue from the muramoylpentapeptide, which is a crucial step in the biosynthesis and recycling of bacterial cell wall components. This enzyme plays a significant role in the regulation of peptidoglycan structure and thus impacts bacterial growth, division, and virulence.
Inhibition or disruption of Muramoylpentapeptide Carboxypeptidase can potentially be used as an antibacterial strategy, targeting essential processes in bacterial cell wall biosynthesis and weakening the structural integrity of pathogenic bacteria.
Cephalosporin
Discovery and development of cephalosporins
Cefozopran
Drug resistance
Cefpirome
Beta-lactam
Enterobacter
Ampicillin
Klebsiella aerogenes
1961 in science
Cefprozil
Typhoid fever
Syphilis
Gonorrhea
Urinary tract infection
Cefquinome
Clostridial necrotizing enteritis
Capnocytophaga canimorsus
Drug of last resort
Dichelobacter nodosus
Proteus penneri
Veillonella parvula
Cefotaxime
Antimicrobial stewardship
Plasmid-mediated resistance
Beta-lactamase
Multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria
Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Citrobacter
Moraxella catarrhalis
Carbapenem and Cephalosporin Resistance in HAI
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Third-Generation Cephalosporin-Resistant Vibrio cholerae, India
CDC Media Relations - MMWR News Synopsis: July 7, 2011
Urinary Tract Infection among Pregnant Women at Pumwani Maternity Hospital, Nairobi, Kenya: Bacterial Etiologic Agents,...
Antimicrobial resistance and population genomics of multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli in pig farms in mainland China |...
Antibiotics32
- Cephalosporins are bactericidal and, like other β-lactam antibiotics, disrupt the synthesis of the peptidoglycan layer forming the bacterial cell wall. (wikipedia.org)
- Resistance to cephalosporin antibiotics can involve either reduced affinity of existing PBP components or the acquisition of a supplementary β-lactam-insensitive PBP. (wikipedia.org)
- The recent ban by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on certain uses of cephalosporin antibiotics in food animals 1 has not won the agency much favor. (nih.gov)
- Third-generation cephalosporins are a class of ß-lactam antibiotics that are often used for the treatment of human infections caused by Gram-negative bacteria, especially Escherichia coli. (pacb.com)
- The sensitivity of the different antibiotics to hydrolysis by the enzyme was not a major determinant in the resistance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa 1978 to them. (microbiologyresearch.org)
- New discoveries about the ways in which enterococci turn their resistance to cephalosporin antibiotics on and off are described in a new study. (sciencedaily.com)
- Patients who are given cephalosporin antibiotics for other problems are also prone to opportunistic E. faecalis infection, since the bacterium is naturally resistant to these antibiotics and flourishes when sensitive bacteria are killed off. (sciencedaily.com)
- But how do enterococci overcome cephalosporin antibiotics? (sciencedaily.com)
- The decision to offer cefiderocol should be guided by results from tests for microbiological susceptibility and mechanisms of resistance that confirm that the infection is susceptible to cefiderocol, and not susceptible to other suitable antibiotics. (nice.org.uk)
- The wide range of antibiotics and the facility with which bacteria evolve and acquire resistance genes results in AR profiles that can range from resistance to a single antibiotic to multidrug resistance. (frontiersin.org)
- Objective To systematically review the literature and, where appropriate, meta-analyse studies investigating subsequent antibiotic resistance in individuals prescribed antibiotics in primary care. (bmj.com)
- Studies comparing the potential for different antibiotics to induce resistance showed no consistent effects. (bmj.com)
- Some antimicrobial resistance may result from indiscriminate or poor use of antibiotics. (bmj.com)
- misuse of antibiotics among prescribers may accompany the increase in the emergence of bacterial resistance. (researchsquare.com)
- Data suggest the declining susceptibility to cephalosporins-the only remaining class of antibiotics available to treat gonorrhea. (cdc.gov)
- Over time, the bacteria have developed resistance to several antibiotics. (cdc.gov)
- Neisseria gonorrhoeae , the bacterium causing gonorrhea, has progressively developed resistance to the antibiotics prescribed to treat it. (cdc.gov)
- Following the spread of gonococcal fluoroquinolone resistance, the cephalosporin antibiotics have been the foundation of recommended treatment for gonorrhea. (cdc.gov)
- Since 2000, we have witnessed the worldwide emergence of Gram-negative "superbugs" such as E. coli ST131 and Klebsiella pneumoniae ST258which not only encode multiple virulence factors associated with extraintestinal disease, but also Class A enzymes that hydrolyze third-generation cephalosporins and carbapenem antibiotics (CTX-M-15 and KPC, respectively). (seattlechildrens.org)
- Some studies have suggested that antibiotic resistance in S. pneumoniae is not clinically relevant 1 - 3 , whereas others 4 have reported higher mortality rates among patients infected with nonsusceptible strains to the administered antibiotics. (ersjournals.com)
- There has been a marked increase in resistance to fluoroquinolones and β-lactams/cephalosporins, antibiotics commonly used to treat salmonellosis. (frontiersin.org)
- However, S. enterica serovars vary in their resistance to these and other antibiotics. (frontiersin.org)
- According to the National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System (NARMS) 2015 Annual Report, 12.4% of S. enterica isolates tested were resistant to three or more classes of antibiotics [ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2016 ]. (frontiersin.org)
- Treatment of disease is with antibiotics such as azithromycin, fluoroquinolones or third generation cephalosporins. (geni.com)
- Resistance to these antibiotics has been developing, which has made treatment of the disease more difficult. (geni.com)
- Third-generation cephalosporin resistance was calculated as resistance (R) to at least one of the following antibiotics: cefotaxime, ceftriaxone and ceftazidime. (who.int)
- This gene confers resistance to all beta-lactam antibiotics including the last generation of cephalosporins used against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. (news-medical.net)
- GoldBio's catalog of cephalosporins contains antibiotics across four generations of cephalosporin activity. (goldbio.com)
- We describe the structural basis of sign epistasis between G238S and R164S, two adaptive mutations in TEM-1 β-lactamase--an enzyme that endows antibiotics resistance. (rcsb.org)
- Separated by 10 Ã…, these mutations initiate two separate trajectories toward increased hydrolysis rates and resistance toward second and third-generation cephalosporins antibiotics. (rcsb.org)
- It is likely, in the future, that clinical diagnostic gene chip will be able to make up a deficiency of existing diagnostic system and help us to choice correct antibiotics, then avoid bacteria producing drug resistance. (ncl.edu.tw)
- In this review, we discuss mechanisms of resistance identified in bacterial agents Staphylococcus aureus and the enterococci towards two priority classes of antibiotics-the fluoroquinolones and the glycopeptides. (springer.com)
Fluoroquinolones9
- Resistance to extended-spectrum cephalosporins (ESCs) or fluoroquinolones in Salmonella enterica has become a global concern ( 1 ). (cdc.gov)
- Resistance to fluoroquinolones in Salmonella strains is usually due to the accumulation of mutations in the quinolone resistance-determining regions (QRDRs) of DNA gyrase genes ( 1 , 4 , 5 ). (cdc.gov)
- Resistance to both ESCs and fluoroquinolones remains extremely rare in salmonellae. (cdc.gov)
- In Taiwan, increasing resistance to fluoroquinolones and the emergence of CMY-2-producing ESC-resistant strains in salmonellae have been noted ( 3 - 6 ). (cdc.gov)
- In 2007, emergence of fluoroquinolone-resistant N. gonorrhoeae in the United States prompted CDC to no longer recommend fluoroquinolones for treatment of gonorrhea, leaving cephalosporins as the only remaining recommended antimicrobial class ( 3 ). (cdc.gov)
- Does Fluoroquinolones and Third-Generation Cephalosporins Restriction Reverse Extended-Spectrum β-Lactamases Klebsiella pneumoniae Resistance Rates? (uniud.it)
- Aim: To decrease the incidence and resistance rates of extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBL) Klebsiella pneumoniae (KP) by restriction of the use of third-generation cephalosporins (3GCs) and fluoroquinolones. (uniud.it)
- Almost a half (over 49%) of all Gram-negative organisms showed resistance prevalence against third generation cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones, Sulfamethoxazole-Trimethoprim, Cefoxitin, Nitrofurantoin and Amoxicillin-clavulanic acid. (scirp.org)
- In preclinical studies, ETX0282 restored cefpodoxime proxetil's antimicrobial activity against a variety of pathogens, including Enterobacteriaceae resistant to fluoroquinolones, cephalosporins and carbapenems. (biospace.com)
Carbapenems3
- Approximately 3.2% of Enterobacteriaceae reported in healthcare-associated infections were resistant to carbapenems and 26.9% were resistant to cephalosporins. (medscape.com)
- citation needed] The commonly quoted figure of 10% of patients with allergic hypersensitivity to penicillins and/or carbapenems also having cross-reactivity with cephalosporins originated from a 1975 study looking at the original cephalosporins, and subsequent "safety first" policy meant this was widely quoted and assumed to apply to all members of the group. (wikipedia.org)
- We detected multidrug-resistance in 91% isolates and found resistance to last-resort drugs including colistin, carbapenems and tigecycline. (nature.com)
Ceftriaxone6
- Chlamydia trachomatis ) and reflecting concern about emerging gonococcal resistance, CDC's 2010 sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) treatment guidelines recommended combination therapy for gonorrhea with a cephalosporin (ceftriaxone 250 mg intramuscularly or cefixime 400 mg orally) plus either azithromycin orally or doxycycline orally, even if nucleic acid amplification testing (NAAT) for C. trachomatis was negative at the time of treatment ( 2 ). (cdc.gov)
- Criteria for resistance to cefixime and ceftriaxone have not been defined by the Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). (cdc.gov)
- Use of ceftiofur might therefore accelerate resistance to ceftriaxone, a first-line cephalosporin for treating human salmonellosis. (nih.gov)
- In 2011, the increases in MICs of cephalosporins prompted the authors of the Canadian Sexually Transmitted Infections Guidelines to update the recommended gonorrhea treatment from a single antimicrobial drug to combination therapy with ceftriaxone (250 mg intramuscularly) and azithromycin (1 g orally in a single dose) as the first-line treatment for uncomplicated anogenital and pharyngeal N. gonorrhoeae infections in adults ( 4 ). (cdc.gov)
- From 2000-2010, the percentage of isolates exhibiting elevated MICs rose from 0.2 percent-1.4 percent of isolates for cefixime (an oral cephalosporin) and from 0.1 percent-0.3 percent for ceftriaxone (an injectable cephalosporin). (cdc.gov)
- Identification of N. gonorrhoeae infections with reduced ceftriaxone susceptibility can be a sign of emerging resistance. (cdc.gov)
Escherichia4
- The proportion of cephalosporin-resistant Escherichia coli increased 7% (risk ratio 1.07, 95% CI 1.04-1.11) per year during 2014-2017. (medscape.com)
- Dissemination of cephalosporin resistance genes between Escherichia coli strains from farm animals and humans by specific plasmid lineages. (pacb.com)
- Piperacillin/tazobactam-resistant, cephalosporin-susceptible Escherichia coli bloodstream infections are driven by multiple acquisition of resistance across diverse sequence types. (ox.ac.uk)
- Resistance to piperacillin/tazobactam (TZP) in Escherichia coli has predominantly been associated with mechanisms that confer resistance to third-generation cephalosporins. (ox.ac.uk)
Genes13
- There are selection pressures and other ecological events occurring within and among human hosts that are also important in driving the exchange of resistance genes among gut bacteria," he says. (nih.gov)
- Hofacre agrees, saying, "Usage in humans by medical doctors may be the greatest selection pressure for maintaining these resistance genes in humans. (nih.gov)
- Recent studies have suggested that these E. coli strains, and their antibiotic resistance genes, can spread from food-producing animals, via the food-chain, to humans. (pacb.com)
- WGS-based plasmid reconstructions revealed three distinct plasmid lineages (IncI1- and IncK-type) that carried cephalosporin resistance genes of the Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase (ESBL)- and AmpC-types. (pacb.com)
- Instead, our data suggest that cephalosporin resistance genes are mainly disseminated in animals and humans via distinct plasmids. (pacb.com)
- These isolates harbored multiple resistance genes, virulence factor-encoding genes, and putative plasmids. (nature.com)
- This bacterial species is not only a leading cause of foodborne infections but also represents a major reservoir of antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) due to its high capacity to accumulate ARGs, mostly through horizontal gene transfer 7 . (nature.com)
- Our molecular typing methods will characterize the dynamics of antibiotic resistance, to distinguish epidemics of resistance genes that spread between plasmids, plasmids that spread between strains, and strains that spread across continents. (seattlechildrens.org)
- The distribution of plasmid entry exclusion genes traS / traT and traY / excA are variable in Salmonella IncF and IncI plasmids, respectively and may account for differences in emergent antimicrobial resistance for some Salmonella serovars. (frontiersin.org)
- There appear to be other plasmid or chromosomal genes at play in plasmid exclusion that may be responsible for the slow development of antibiotic resistance in certain serovars. (frontiersin.org)
- Genes encoding for KPC enzymes are located on plasmids, and other resistance-factor genes are often linked on the same plasmid. (ahrq.gov)
- 15. Analysis of isolates from Bangladesh highlights multiple ways to carry resistance genes in Salmonella Typhi. (nih.gov)
- Sequence variation was analyzed for 146 chromosomal genes related to antimicrobial resistance and horizontally-acquired genes were explored using online databases. (dtu.dk)
Enterobacteriaceae3
- DTR Enterobacteriaceae were intermediate or resistant to all reported agents within carbapenem, cephalosporin, and fluoroquinolone categories, as well as piperacillin-tazobactam and aztreonam when results were available. (medscape.com)
- Pediatric Infection and Intestinal Carriage Due to Extended-Spectrum-Cephalosporin-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae. (seattlechildrens.org)
- 11. Salmonella Typhi acquires diverse plasmids from other Enterobacteriaceae to develop cephalosporin resistance. (nih.gov)
Strains11
- We report the prevalence and characteristics of Salmonella strains resistant to ciprofloxacin and extended-spectrum cephalosporins in Taiwan from January to May 2004. (cdc.gov)
- ESC resistance in Salmonella strains is usually due to the production of plasmid-mediated extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs) or AmpC β-lactamases, and among these β-lactamases, the CMY-2 AmpC enzyme has been reported most often ( 1 - 3 ). (cdc.gov)
- One strain collection included pairs of human and poultry-associated strains that had previously been considered to be identical based on Multi-Locus Sequence Typing, plasmid typing and antibiotic resistance gene sequencing. (pacb.com)
- Our findings failed to demonstrate evidence for recent clonal transmission of cephalosporin-resistant E. coli strains from poultry to humans, as has been suggested based on traditional, low-resolution typing methods. (pacb.com)
- Antimicrobial resistance profiles were determined for Neisseria gonorrhoeae strains isolated in Canada during 2010-2014. (cdc.gov)
- Recent reports have identified E. coli strains with phenotypic resistance to piperacillin/tazobactam but susceptibility to third-generation cephalosporins (TZP-R/3GC-S). In this study we sought to determine the genetic diversity of this phenotype in E. coli (n=58) isolated between 2014-2017 at a single tertiary hospital in Liverpool, UK, as well as the associated resistance mechanisms. (ox.ac.uk)
- Our data suggest a serious resistance trend among UTI strains and more should be done to slow down this trend. (scirp.org)
- 8. Molecular mechanism of azithromycin resistance among typhoidal Salmonella strains in Bangladesh identified through passive pediatric surveillance. (nih.gov)
- Gene chips are suitable for use in clinical diagnosis because of the advantage of detecting many resistance strains at the same time. (ncl.edu.tw)
- The resistome of ST175 was mainly determined by mutational events, with resistance traits common to all or nearly all of the strains, including specific ampR mutations leading to ampC overexpression, specific mutations in oprD conferring carbapenem resistance or a mexZ mutation leading to MexXY overexpression. (dtu.dk)
- The recent emergence of strains resistant to azithromycin and with decreased susceptibility to cephalosporins are threatening the last available treatment options Footnote 9 . (canada.ca)
Infections12
- Cephalosporins can be indicated for the prophylaxis and treatment of infections caused by bacteria susceptible to this particular form of antibiotic. (wikipedia.org)
- Worryingly, the incidence of human infections caused by third-generation cephalosporin-resistant E. coli is increasing worldwide. (pacb.com)
- Indicated in patients who cannot receive or have failed to respond to penicillins and cephalosporins or who have infections with MRSA or another susceptible gram-positive organism. (medscape.com)
- Resistance can rapidly develop in high innoculum infections, or when prosthetic materials are present. (medscape.com)
- The new details about resistance could lead to new therapies for preventing and treating enterococcal infections. (sciencedaily.com)
- Cephalosporins are like a last resort for treating infections that are resistant to other, less powerful drugs, so a patient treated with cephalosporins who acquires an E. faecalis infection essentially goes from the frying pan (their original infection) and into the fire ( E. faecalis infection). (sciencedaily.com)
- Chris Kristich and his colleagues at the Medical College of Wisconsin have uncovered new details about the bacterium's ability to turn resistance on and off, a development that could lead to new therapies for enterococcal infections. (sciencedaily.com)
- If we could figure out a way to make enterococci susceptible to cephalosporins, they could be used to treat or prevent these infections. (sciencedaily.com)
- This may correlate with the emergence of resistance and difficulty to treat just simple dental infections. (researchsquare.com)
- Entasis is developing ETX0282 in combination with cefpodoxime proxetil, an orally available cephalosporin approved for treatment of a variety of bacterial infections. (biospace.com)
- Possession of the resistance 'nanomachinery' by pathogenic microorganisms poses a serious threat to our ability to treat serious microbial infections with current therapies. (springer.com)
- Indeed, resistance exhibited by bacterial pathogens to current antibacterial agents is now recognised to be a major global problem in the fight against infections. (springer.com)
Bacteria14
- While ceftiofur is not used in human medicine in the United States, bacteria resistant to it frequently are resistant to other important cephalosporins used to treat human illnesses. (vin.com)
- First-generation cephalosporins are active predominantly against Gram-positive bacteria, such as Staphylococcus and Streptococcus. (wikipedia.org)
- Successive generations of cephalosporins have increased activity against Gram-negative bacteria, albeit often with reduced activity against Gram-positive organisms. (wikipedia.org)
- These results indicate that the resistance of the bacteria to the β-lactamase-sensitive penicillins and to cephalosporins is dependent on a combined effect of β-lactamase and on an intrinsic resistance, while the resistance of the bacteria to the β-lactamase-resistant penicillins depends on the intrinsic resistance alone. (microbiologyresearch.org)
- The role of penicillinase in determining natural and acquired resistance of Gram-negative bacteria to penicillins. (microbiologyresearch.org)
- In five studies of urinary tract bacteria (14 348 participants), the pooled odds ratio (OR) for resistance was 2.5 (95% confidence interval 2.1 to 2.9) within 2 months of antibiotic treatment and 1.33 (1.2 to 1.5) within 12 months. (bmj.com)
- This is referred to the ability of bacteria or microbes to undergo genetic changes 4 World Health Organization (WHO) warned about the development of antimicrobial resistance as a formidable threat to global health. (researchsquare.com)
- and Dr. Louise Francois Watkins, a Medical Officer, all with CDC's National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System for Enteric Bacteria Team within the National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases. (cdc.gov)
- The emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in bacteria has been recognized as a critical threat to public health. (nih.gov)
- Ceftaroline is a cephalosporin with in vitro activity against Gram-positive and -negative bacteria. (globalrph.com)
- Researchers of the University of Bern have identified a new antibiotic resistance gene in bacteria from dairy cows. (news-medical.net)
- First generation cephalosporins are typically active against gram-positive bacteria with successive generations having an increasingly broadened activity against gram-negative bacteria. (goldbio.com)
- Cefditoren pivoxil is a β-lactam, cephalosporin antibiotic that has shown to be effective against an array of gram positive and negative bacteria. (goldbio.com)
- With this, bacteria acquire additional resistance and generate multidrug resistance. (ncl.edu.tw)
Resistant14
- All isolates resistant to extended-spectrum cephalosporins carried bla CMY-2 , and all ciprofloxacin-resistant Salmonella enterica serotype Choleraesuis isolates were genetically related. (cdc.gov)
- Among the 20 ESC-resistant isolates, 10 isolates were ciprofloxacin-resistant, 4 isolates showed decreased susceptibility to ciprofloxacin (MIC 0.25-1 μg/mL) and resistance to nalidixic acid, and 6 isolates were susceptible to ciprofloxacin and nalidixic acid ( Table 2 ). (cdc.gov)
- Empiric therapy also depends on prevalence of cephalosporin-resistant S pneumoniae (DRSP). (medscape.com)
- In issuing the rule on 6 January 2012, the FDA cited declines in the prevalence of cephalosporin-resistant Salmonella Heidelberg isolates in chicken meat and in humans following voluntary restrictions on the drugs in Canada. (nih.gov)
- We therefore used whole-genome sequencing (WGS) to study the relatedness of cephalosporin-resistant E. coli from humans, chicken meat, poultry and pigs. (pacb.com)
- Fluoroquinolone, but not cephalosporin use, significantly predicted the percentage of fluoroquinolone-resistant isolates, with an increase of 1 defined daily dose (DDD) of fluoroquinolone/100 occupied bed-days (OBDs) corresponding to a 0.32% increase of fluoroquinolone-resistant isolates (p = 0.008). (uniud.it)
- The putative resistance mechanisms were equally diverse, including hyperproduction of TEM-1, either via strong promoters or gene amplification, carriage of inhibitor-resistant β-lactamases, and an S133G bla CTX-M-15 mutation detected for the first time in clinical isolates. (ox.ac.uk)
- We don't know exactly how [enterococci become resistant to cephalosporins]. (sciencedaily.com)
- Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA) are the most widely known example of extensive resistance. (researchsquare.com)
- BACKGROUND It is unclear if parenteral cephalosporin treatment is appropriate in stable elderly patients hospitalized with a urinary tract infection (UTI) in settings with a high prevalence of bacterial resistant organisms. (researchgate.net)
- S pneumoniae reemerged as a more virulent, penicillin-resistant and cephalosporin-resistant organism in the 1980s and 1990s. (medscape.com)
- Although cross-resistance may occur, some isolates resistant to other cephalosporins may be susceptible to ceftaroline. (globalrph.com)
- Over half of the isolates were resistant to ampicillin or amoxicillin and resistance to ciprofloxacin was a significant problem with up to 27 per cent of isolates resistant. (thecattlesite.com)
- To explore the molecular mechanism concerning multidrug resistance, we adopt an antimicrobial sensitivity testing method to analyze the resistance phenotypes that expressed from multidrug resistant isolates collected in northern Taiwan. (ncl.edu.tw)
Penicillins and cephalosporins1
- The structure of both the nucleus and side chain of the penicillins and cephalosporins determined the rate of their hydrolysis by the β-lactamase. (microbiologyresearch.org)
Susceptibility to cephalosporins1
- The proportion of isolates with decreased susceptibility to cephalosporins declined significantly between 2011 and 2014, whereas azithromycin resistance increased significantly during that period. (cdc.gov)
Generation cephalosporin9
- These data sets included the TZP-R/3GC-S phenotype (n=68), and piperacillin/tazobactam and third-generation cephalosporin-susceptible (TZP-S/3GC-S, n=1271) phenotypes. (ox.ac.uk)
- Third-generation cephalosporin with fair gram-negative and gram-positive activity. (medscape.com)
- Third-generation cephalosporin with broad-spectrum, gram-negative activity (including Pseudomonas species). (medscape.com)
- First generation cephalosporin with excellent MSSA coverage. (medscape.com)
- In a retrospective study on 213 hospitalised patients, Burgess and Lewis 14 concluded that it may not be necessary to add a macrolide to a nonpseudomonal third-generation cephalosporin in the initial empirical therapy of CAP. (ersjournals.com)
- Cefaclor is a second generation cephalosporin antibiotic isolated from the Acremonium fungus. (goldbio.com)
- Cefadroxil is a first generation cephalosporin antibiotic with a structure similar to that of cephalexin and cephradine. (goldbio.com)
- Cefamandole nafate is a second generation cephalosporin antibiotic. (goldbio.com)
- Cefdinir is a third generation cephalosporin antibiotic with resistance to many β-lactamase enzymes. (goldbio.com)
Fluoroquinolone resistance2
- During the 1990s and 2000s, fluoroquinolone resistance in N. gonorrhoeae emerged in the United States, becoming prevalent in Hawaii and California and among men who have sex with men (MSM) before spreading throughout the United States. (cdc.gov)
- Fluoroquinolone resistance mechanisms include efflux pumps (MepA, NorA, NorB, NorC, MdeA, LmrS or SdrM in S. aureus and EfmA or EfrAB in the enterococci) for removal of fluoroquinolone from the intracellular environment of bacterial cells and/or protection of the gyrase and topoisomerase IV target sites in Enterococcus faecalis by Qnr-like proteins. (springer.com)
Orally1
- Thus, consumption of alcohol after taking Cephalosporin orally or intravenously is contraindicated, and in severe cases can lead to death. (wikipedia.org)
Third-generation1
- No resistance to third generation cephalosporins was detected. (who.int)
Bacterial8
- Some of these bacterial targets adapt by producing enzymes called β-lactamases, which inactivate cephalosporins and allow the pathogens to survive drug treatment. (nih.gov)
- Conclusion: This study may bring a valuable contribution to the understanding of the intricate association between antibiotic consumption and bacterial resistance. (uniud.it)
- Conclusions Individuals prescribed an antibiotic in primary care for a respiratory or urinary infection develop bacterial resistance to that antibiotic. (bmj.com)
- A main area of focus within the Bacterial Pathogenesis and Antimicrobial Resistance Unit is the application of systems biology approaches to study the evolutionary mechanisms by which resistance emerges in this natural context. (nih.gov)
- Within this context, bacterial pathogens may undergo rapid and dramatic evolution, facilitating host adaptation and the development of antibiotic resistance. (nih.gov)
- The Bacterial Pathogenesis and Antimicrobial Resistance Unit has developed novel approaches to rapid AMR diagnostics based on mass spectrometry and nanopore sequencing. (nih.gov)
- This is one of the findings in Overview of Antimicrobial Usage and Bacterial Resistance in Selected Human and Animal Pathogens in the UK: 2007 , which has recently been published by the Veterinary Medicines Directorate (VMD) and a number of other UK agencies. (thecattlesite.com)
- With 16 and 19 proteins or protein complexes involved in fluoroquinolone and glycopeptide resistances, respectively, and the complexities of bacterial sensing mechanisms that trigger and regulate a wide variety of possible resistance mechanisms, we propose that these antimicrobial resistance mechanisms might be considered complex 'nanomachines' that drive survival of bacterial cells in antibiotic environments. (springer.com)
Neisseria2
- Effective treatment is a cornerstone of U.S. gonorrhea control efforts, but treatment of gonorrhea has been complicated by the ability of Neisseria gonorrhoeae to develop antimicrobial resistance. (cdc.gov)
- [ Jurisdictions can consider including ] Laboratories are encouraged to maintain all Neisseria gonorrhoeae isolates demonstrating reduced cephalosporin susceptibility until further notice. (cdc.gov)
Pneumoniae3
- The effect of antimicrobial resistance and subsequent discordant antimicrobial therapy (DAT) on prognosis of community-acquired pneumonia due to Streptococcus pneumoniae (CAP-SP) has been evaluated in several studies, with conflicting results. (ersjournals.com)
- Penicillin resistance was reported in 26-76% of S pneumoniae isolates from pleural fluid. (medscape.com)
- Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates positive for carbapenemases typically exhibit resistance to almost all available antimicrobial agents, and infection with a KPC-positive organism has been associated with high rates of morbidity and mortality, increased length of stay, and high costs. (ahrq.gov)
Penicillin3
- Patients with severe penicillin (and presumed cephalosporin) allergies often require alternative therapy. (medscape.com)
- This, however, should be viewed in the light of recent epidemiological work suggesting, for many second-generation (or later) cephalosporins, the cross-reactivity rate with penicillin is much lower, having no significantly increased risk of reactivity over the first generation based on the studies examined. (wikipedia.org)
- High concentrations of penicillin G, other penicillins or cephalosporins were necessary for optimal induction. (microbiologyresearch.org)
Plasmids3
- The TZP-R/3GC-S isolates contained a diverse range of plasmids, indicating multiple acquisition events of TZP resistance mechanisms rather than clonal expansion of a particular plasmid or sequence type. (ox.ac.uk)
- It is possible that the spvB -virulence plasmid excludes other plasmids and may explain why antibiotic resistance is slow to develop in certain Salmonella serovars such as S . Enteritidis. (frontiersin.org)
- Plasmids are often important vehicles for disseminating antibiotic resistance, however some Salmonella serovars are slower in developing antibiotic resistance compared to others. (frontiersin.org)
Extralabel3
- The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) this week issued a rule banning some common extralabel uses of cephalosporins in livestock that it deemed present a significant risk to public health. (vin.com)
- It has no effect on veterinarians' ability to prescribe cephalosporins for extralabel uses in other species, including companion animals. (vin.com)
- The FDA issued its first restrictions on cephalosporin use in 2008 in a rule that would have banned extralabel use in food animals without exceptions. (vin.com)
Proportion3
- Therefore, the proportion of cephalosporin prescriptions affected by the new rule can't be easily discerned. (nih.gov)
- To determine the proportion of antimicrobial drug resistance, we used the total number of isolates identified in each province as the denominator. (cdc.gov)
- Level B data provides an indication of the resistance patterns present in clinical settings in the country, but the proportion of resistance should be interpreted with care. (who.int)
Salmonella3
- None of the 26 Salmonella isolates with resistance or decreased susceptibility to ESCs produced ESBL, according to the double-disk synergy method ( 10 ). (cdc.gov)
- Federal monitoring data show that resistance to ceftiofur in Salmonella samples from chickens, turkey, cattle and humans has increased sharply since the late 1990s. (vin.com)
- The question that arises is why are some Salmonella serovars slow to develop antibiotic resistance compared to others? (frontiersin.org)
Pathogens1
- Research on farm-level biosecurity, food chain risk factors, and farm-to-fork baseline data on the prevalence of foodborne pathogens and their antimicrobial resistance and (molecular) epidemiology are also of interest and we encourage such submissions. (mdpi.com)
Infection1
- As antimicrobial resistance was not considered to be of significance in cases of human infection systematic resistance screening of E. coli O157 has been discontinued. (thecattlesite.com)
Emergence of antimicrobial resistance1
- Following the recommended treatment guidelines every time may help slow the emergence of antimicrobial resistance. (cdc.gov)
Prevalence of antimicrobial resistance1
- One of the most pressing problems faced by healthcare services is the increasing prevalence of antimicrobial resistance. (bmj.com)
Enzyme3
- This is thought to be due to the N-methylthiotetrazole side-chain of these cephalosporins, which blocks the enzyme vitamin K epoxide reductase (likely causing hypothrombinemia) and aldehyde dehydrogenase (causing alcohol intolerance). (wikipedia.org)
- According to Kristich, the enzyme IreK is involved in resistance to cephalosporins, since enterococci that lack it are much more sensitive to the drugs. (sciencedaily.com)
- The study coming out in mBio details new findings about another aspect of resistance control: an enzyme called IreP, which takes phosphates off of IreK, thus controlling how active IreK is in the bacterium. (sciencedaily.com)
Cefotaxime1
- 5 , reported that DAT, amongst patients with bacteraemic pneumococcal disease who received monotherapy, was only associated with excess mortality when the isolate displayed high-level resistance to cefuroxime, but not with penicillins or cefotaxime. (ersjournals.com)
Gonorrhoeae3
- Gonorrhea treatment has been complicated by the ability of N. gonorrhoeae to develop resistance to antimicrobials used for treatment. (cdc.gov)
- During September-December 2011, CDC and five external GISP principal investigators, each with N. gonorrhoeae -specific expertise in surveillance, antimicrobial resistance, treatment, and antimicrobial susceptibility testing, reviewed antimicrobial susceptibility trends in GISP through August 2011 to determine whether to update CDC's current recommendations ( 2 ) for treatment of uncomplicated gonorrhea. (cdc.gov)
- We analyzed antimicrobial drug susceptibility levels of N. gonorrhoeae to cephalosporins and azithromycin in Canada since the recommended treatments were updated in 2011. (cdc.gov)
Enterococci3
- Despite the importance of this pathogen in hospitals, scientists still know relatively little about how enterococci skirt cephalosporin attacks. (sciencedaily.com)
- Cephalosporins are historically inactive against Listeria, Atypicals (including Mycoplasma and Chlamydia), MRSA, and Enterococci . (goldbio.com)
- The main interest in enterococci continues to focus on resistance to glycopeptides. (thecattlesite.com)
Dissemination1
- Thus, these results provide valuable information for understanding the genetic basis of resistance and the dynamics of dissemination and evolution of high-risk clones. (dtu.dk)
Mutations1
- ESBLs are predominantly derived from plasmid-mediated TEM- or SHV-type β-lactamases through one or more point mutations that lead to a large number of TEM or SHV derivatives causing serious drug resistance issue. (ncl.edu.tw)
Peptidoglycan1
- Resistance to vancomycin occurs through modification of the D-Ala-D-Ala target in the cell wall peptidoglycan and removal of high affinity precursors, or by target protection via cell wall thickening. (springer.com)
Enterococcus1
- In humans, vancomycin resistance was higher in Enterococcus faecium (five to 35 per cent) than in E. faecalis (zero to four per cent). (thecattlesite.com)
20171
- 2017 . Antimicrobial resistance in Africa: a systematic review . (ajtmh.org)
Coli3
- Compared to the figures published in the previous report the overall resistance to ciprofloxacin and erythromycin in Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli isolated from people has increased sharply. (thecattlesite.com)
- Cephalosporin resistance in E. coli from bacteraemia has continued to increase since the last report. (thecattlesite.com)
- Resistance of E. coli to cephalosporins from veterinary isolates remained low in all four countries compared with 2004 but resistance to tetracyclines in pigs across the UK remained high. (thecattlesite.com)
Antimicrobial agents1
- Gonococci have acquired resistance to many antimicrobial agents used for treatment ( 3 ), however, which makes it imperative to conduct surveillance programs so appropriate treatment recommendations can be determined. (cdc.gov)
Antimicrobials3
- The expanding use of antimicrobials in livestock is an important contributor to the worldwide rapid increase in antimicrobial resistance (AMR). (nature.com)
- Generally, a variable pattern of resistance was seen for all food animal species to most antimicrobials in all four countries. (thecattlesite.com)
- Yet it may be considered an appropriate term to use for the cascade of molecular mechanisms that drive antimicrobial drug resistances in microorganisms, including drug recognition by intricate microbial sensing and signal transduction machinery and the subsequent efflux and/or deactivation machinery that remove the antimicrobials death threat from microbial cells. (springer.com)
Vancomycin resistance1
- both approaches demonstrated that vancomycin interacts with VanS, suggesting that vancomycin itself (or vancomycin with an accessory factor) may be an effector of vancomycin resistance. (springer.com)