Catechol 2,3-Dioxygenase
Estrogens, Catechol
Catechol 1,2-Dioxygenase
Catechol O-Methyltransferase
Dioxygenases
Oxygenases
Catechol Oxidase
Hydroxybenzoates
Equilenin
Pseudomonas
Benzoates
Biodegradation, Environmental
Pseudomonas putida
Benzene
Benzoic Acid
Adipates
Chlorobenzenes
Cresols
Hydroxyestrones
Hydroquinones
Planococcus Bacteria
Acinetobacter
Alcaligenes
Mixed Function Oxygenases
Siderophores
Quinones
Monophenol Monooxygenase
Pseudomonas mendocina
Oxidation-Reduction
Toluidines
Salicylates
Benzophenones
Normetanephrine
Ralstonia
Hydroxylation
Xylenes
Gram-Negative Aerobic Rods and Cocci
Substrate Specificity
Parabens
Action of 3 tyrphostin derivatives on casein kinase II from rat liver. (1/1002)
AIM: To study the action of tyrphostin on casein kinase (CK) II. METHODS: CK II was partially purified from rat livers by sequential DE52 and heparin-Sepharose chromatography. CK II activity was assayed by incubating CK II with dephosphorylated casein and [gamma-32P]ATP. RESULTS: AG34 inhibited the activity of CK II with IC50 33 (27-41) mumol.L-1. Both AG372 (121 mumol.L-1) and AG1112 (150 mumol.L-1) displayed inhibitory effects on the activity of CK II. Kinetic studies of AG34 on CK II showed that it was noncompetitive with casein and ATP. CONCLUSION: AG34, AG372, and AG1112 were potent inhibitors of CK II, and the inhibitory action of AG34 was noncompetitive with casein and ATP. (+info)Inhibition of glutathione synthesis with propargylglycine enhances N-acetylmethionine protection and methylation in bromobenzene-treated Syrian hamsters. (2/1002)
The finding that liver necrosis caused by the environmental glutathione (GSH)-depleting chemical, bromobenzene (BB) is associated with marked impairment in O- and S-methylation of BB metabolites in Syrian hamsters raises questions concerning the role of methyl deficiency in BB toxicity. N-Acetylmethionine (NAM) has proven to be an effective antidote against BB toxicity when given after liver GSH has been depleted extensively. The mechanism of protection by NAM may occur via a replacement of methyl donor and/or via an increase of GSH synthesis. If replacement of the methyl donor is an important process, then blocking the resynthesis of GSH in the methyl-repleted hamsters should not decrease NAM protection. This hypothesis was examined in this study. Propargylglycine (PPG), an irreversible inhibitor of cystathionase, was used to inhibit the utilization of NAM for GSH resynthesis. Two groups of hamsters were pretreated with an intraperitoneal (ip) dose of PPG (30 mg/kg) or saline 24 h before BB administration (800 mg/kg, ip). At 5 h after BB treatment, an ip dose of NAM (1200 mg/kg) was given. Light microscopic examinations of liver sections obtained 24 h after BB treatment indicated that NAM provided better protection (P < 0.05) in the PPG + BB + NAM group than in the BB + NAM group. Liver GSH content, however, was lower in the PPG + BB + NAM group than in the BB + NAM group. The Syrian hamster has a limited capability to N-deacetylated NAM. The substitution of NAM with methionine (Met; 450 mg/kg) resulted in a higher level of GSH in the BB + Met group than in the BB + NAM group (P < 0.05). The enhanced protection by PPG in the PPG + BB + NAM group was accompanied by higher (P < 0.05) urinary excretions of specificO- and S-methylated bromothiocatechols than in the BB + NAM group. The results suggest that NAM protection occurs primarily via a replacement of the methyl donor and that methyl deficiency occurring in response to GSH repletion plays a potential role in BB toxicity. (+info)Adenosylcobalamin-mediated methyl transfer by toluate cis-dihydrodiol dehydrogenase of the TOL plasmid pWW0. (3/1002)
We identified and characterized a methyl transfer activity of the toluate cis-dihydrodiol (4-methyl-3,5-cyclohexadiene-cis-1, 2-diol-1-carboxylic acid) dehydrogenase of the TOL plasmid pWW0 towards toluene cis-dihydrodiol (3-methyl-4,5-cyclohexadiene-cis-1, 2-diol). When the purified enzyme from the recombinant Escherichia coli containing the xylL gene was incubated with toluene cis-dihydrodiol in the presence of NAD+, the end products differed depending on the presence of adenosylcobalamin (coenzyme B12). The enzyme yielded catechol in the presence of adenosylcobalamin, while it gave 3-methylcatechol in the absence of the cofactor. Adenosylcobalamin was transformed to methylcobalamin as a result of the enzyme reaction, which indicates that the methyl group of the substrate was transferred to adenosylcobalamin. Other derivatives of the cobalamin such as aquo (hydroxy)- and cyanocobalamin did not mediate the methyl transfer reaction. The dehydrogenation and methyl transfer reactions were assumed to occur concomitantly, and the methyl transfer reaction seemed to depend on the dehydrogenation. To our knowledge, the enzyme is the first dehydrogenase that shows a methyl transfer activity as well. (+info)Cytochrome P-450 3A and 2D6 catalyze ortho hydroxylation of 4-hydroxytamoxifen and 3-hydroxytamoxifen (droloxifene) yielding tamoxifen catechol: involvement of catechols in covalent binding to hepatic proteins. (4/1002)
Earlier study suggested that 3,4-dihydroxytamoxifen (tam catechol), a tamoxifen metabolite, is proximate to the reactive intermediate that binds covalently to proteins and possibly to DNA (). The current study demonstrates that rat and human hepatic cytochrome P-450s (CYPs) catalyze tam catechol formation from tamoxifen (tam), 3-hydroxy-tam (Droloxifene), and 4-hydroxy-tam (4-OH-tam). Higher levels of catechol were formed from 4-OH-tam and 3-hydroxy-tam than from tam. Evidence that human hepatic CYP3A4 and 2D6 catalyze the formation of tam catechol from 4-OH-tam and supportive data that the catechol is proximate to the reactive intermediate, was obtained: 1) There was a good correlation (r = 0.82; p +info)Effect of catecholamic acid on detoxication and distribution of NiCl2 in mice and rats. (5/1002)
AIM: To study the effect of catecholamic acid (CBMIDA) on detoxication of NiCl2. METHODS: Mice and rats were injected s.c. or i.m. CBMIDA immediately after i.p. NiCl2. Each mouse was injected i.p. CBMIDA after i.v. 63NiCl2 185 kBq, and radioactivities of various tissues were measured with liquid scintillation counter at 24 h. The localization of 63Ni was shown by the whole-body autoradiography. RESULTS: CBMIDA s.c. 0.5-1.5 g.kg-1 markedly reduced the mortality from acute poisoning of i.p. NiCl2 500 mg.kg-1. After i.p. NiCl2 in mice, the LD50 was 82.7 mg.kg-1. Mice were injected s.c. CBMIDA 1.5 or 2.5 g.kg-1 after Ni poisoning, the LD50 of NiCl2 were raised to 789 or 820 mg.kg-1, respectively. The LD50 of NiCl2 was 39 mg.kg-1 in rat. If CBMIDA was injected i.m. 0.5 g.kg-1 after i.p. NiCl2, the LD50 was 332 mg.kg-1. CBMIDA 1.5 g.kg-1 i.m. after i.v. 63NiCl2, decreased the contents of 63Ni in blood and lung of mice vs control mice at 24 h. The contents of 63Ni in brain, heart, spleen, and kidney were similar to those of the control mice. The content of 63Ni in bone was more than the control. The excretions of 63Ni through urine and feces were not increased by CBMIDA at 24 h. The whole-body autoradiography showed that the radioactivity was highly localized in the kidney, lung, and Harder's gland. There was a moderate level of 63Ni in the liver, bone, skin, and blood. A pronounced accumulation occurred in the bone. There was a marked reduction of 63Ni in the lung, skin, liver, and blood after i.p. CBMIDA. CONCLUSION: The CBMIDA markedly raised the survival rate of nickel-poisoned mice and rats, and decreased 63Ni levels in lung and blood. (+info)Cloning of a gene encoding hydroxyquinol 1,2-dioxygenase that catalyzes both intradiol and extradiol ring cleavage of catechol. (6/1002)
Two Escherichia coli transformants with catechol 1,2-dioxygenase activity were selected from a gene library of the benzamide-assimilating bacterium Arthrobacter species strain BA-5-17, which produces four catechol 1,2-dioxygenase isozymes. A DNA fragment isolated from one transformant contained a complete open reading frame (ORF). The deduced amino acid sequence of the ORF shared high identity with hydroxyquinol 1,2-dioxygenase. An enzyme expressed by the ORF was purified to homogeneity and characterized. When hydroxyquinol was used as a substrate, the purified enzyme showed 6.8-fold activity of that for catechol. On the basis of the sequence identity and substrate specificity of the enzyme, we concluded that the ORF encoded hydroxyquinol 1,2-dioxygenase. When catechol was used as a substrate, cis,cis-muconic acid and 2-hydroxymuconic 6-semialdehyde, which were products by the intradiol and extradiol ring cleavage activities, respectively, were produced. These results showed that the hydroxyquinol 1,2-dioxygenase reported here was a novel dioxygenase that catalyzed both the intradiol and extradiol cleavage of catechol. (+info)Interactions of 6-gingerol and ellagic acid with the cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase. (7/1002)
The inotropic/lusitropic effects of beta-adrenergic agonists on the heart are mediated largely by protein kinase A (PKA)-catalyzed phosphorylation of phospholamban, the natural protein regulator of the Ca2+ pump present in sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) membranes. Gingerol, a plant derivative, is known to produce similar effects when tested in isolated cardiac muscle. The purpose of the present study was to compare the effects of gingerol and another plant derivative, ellagic acid, on the kinetics of the SR Ca2+ pump with those of PKA-catalyzed phospholamban phosphorylation to elucidate their mechanisms of Ca2+ pump regulation. As previously demonstrated for PKA, 50 microM gingerol or ellagic acid increased Vmax(Ca) of Ca2+ uptake and Ca2+-ATPase activity assayed at millimolar ATP concentrations in light cardiac SR vesicles. Unlike PKA, which decreases Km(Ca), neither compound had a significant effect on Km(Ca) in unphosphorylated vesicles. However, gingerol increased Km(Ca) in phosphorylated vesicles, in which Ca2+ uptake was significantly increased further at saturating Ca2+ and remained unchanged at subsaturating Ca2+. An inhibition of Ca2+ uptake by gingerol at micromolar MgATP concentrations was overcome with increasing MgATP concentrations. The stimulation of Ca2+ uptake attributable to gingerol in unphosphorylated microsomes at saturating Ca2+ was 30% to 40% when assayed at 0.05 to 2 mM MgATP and only about 12% in phosphorylated microsomes as well as in rabbit fast skeletal muscle light SR. The present results support the view that an ATP-dependent increase in Vmax(Ca) of the SR Ca2+ pump plays an important role in mediating cardiac contractile responses to gingerol and phospholamban-dependent beta-adrenergic stimulation. (+info)A potential mechanism underlying the increased susceptibility of individuals with a polymorphism in NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) to benzene toxicity. (8/1002)
NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) is a two-electron reductase that detoxifies quinones derived from the oxidation of phenolic metabolites of benzene. A polymorphism in NQO1, a C609T substitution, has been identified, and individuals homozygous for this change (T/T) have no detectable NQO1. Exposed workers with a T/T genotype have an increased risk of benzene hematotoxicity. This finding suggests NQO1 is protective against benzene toxicity, which is difficult to reconcile with the lack of detectable NQO1 in human bone marrow. The human promyeloblastic cell line, KG-1a, was used to investigate the ability of the benzene metabolite hydroquinone (HQ) to induce NQO1. A concentration-dependent induction of NQO1 protein and activity was observed in KG-1a cells cultured with HQ. Multiple detoxification systems, including NQO1 and glutathione protect against benzene metabolite-induced toxicity. Indeed, exposure to a noncytotoxic concentration of HQ induced both NQO1 and soluble thiols and protected against HQ-induced apoptosis. NQO1 protein and activity increased in wild-type human bone marrow cells (C/C) exposed to HQ, whereas no NQO1 was induced by HQ in bone marrow cells with the T/T genotype. Intermediate induction of NQO1 by HQ was observed in heterozygous bone marrow cells (C/T). NQO1 also was induced by HQ in wild-type (C/C) human bone marrow CD34(+) progenitor cells. Our data suggest that failure to induce functional NQO1 may contribute to the increased risk of benzene poisoning in individuals homozygous for the NQO1 C609T substitution (T/T). (+info)Catechols are a type of chemical compound that contain a benzene ring with two hydroxyl groups (-OH) attached to it in the ortho position. The term "catechol" is often used interchangeably with "ortho-dihydroxybenzene." Catechols are important in biology because they are produced through the metabolism of certain amino acids, such as phenylalanine and tyrosine, and are involved in the synthesis of various neurotransmitters and hormones. They also have antioxidant properties and can act as reducing agents. In chemistry, catechols can undergo various reactions, such as oxidation and polymerization, to form other classes of compounds.
Catechol 2,3-dioxygenase is an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of catechols to muconic acids as part of the meta-cleavage pathway in the breakdown of aromatic compounds. This enzyme plays a crucial role in the degradation of various aromatic hydrocarbons, including lignin and environmental pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Catechol 2,3-dioxygenase requires Fe(II) as a cofactor for its activity. The gene that encodes this enzyme is often used as a bioremediation marker to monitor the degradation of aromatic pollutants in the environment.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Estrogens, Catechol" is not a recognized medical term or classification. Estrogens are a group of steroid hormones that are primarily responsible for the development and maintenance of female sexual characteristics. They are produced mainly in the ovaries, but also in other tissues such as fat, liver, and breast tissue.
Catechols, on the other hand, are a type of chemical compound that contain a benzene ring with two hydroxyl groups attached to it in a particular arrangement. Some estrogens can be metabolized into catechol estrogen metabolites, which have been studied for their potential role in cancer development and progression.
If you have any specific questions about estrogens or catechols, I'd be happy to try to help answer them!
Catechol 1,2-dioxygenase is an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of catechols to muconic acids as part of the meta-cleavage pathway in the breakdown of aromatic compounds in bacteria. The enzyme requires iron as a cofactor and functions by cleaving the aromatic ring between the two hydroxyl groups in the catechol molecule. This reaction is an important step in the degradation of various environmental pollutants, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and lignin, by certain bacterial species.
Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) is an enzyme that plays a role in the metabolism of catecholamines, which are neurotransmitters and hormones such as dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine. COMT mediates the transfer of a methyl group from S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) to a catechol functional group in these molecules, resulting in the formation of methylated products that are subsequently excreted.
The methylation of catecholamines by COMT regulates their concentration and activity in the body, and genetic variations in the COMT gene can affect enzyme function and contribute to individual differences in the metabolism of these neurotransmitters. This has been implicated in various neurological and psychiatric conditions, including Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Dioxygenases are a class of enzymes that catalyze the incorporation of both atoms of molecular oxygen (O2) into their substrates. They are classified based on the type of reaction they catalyze and the number of iron atoms in their active site. The two main types of dioxygenases are:
1. Intradiol dioxygenases: These enzymes cleave an aromatic ring by inserting both atoms of O2 into a single bond between two carbon atoms, leading to the formation of an unsaturated diol (catechol) intermediate and the release of CO2. They contain a non-heme iron(III) center in their active site.
An example of intradiol dioxygenase is catechol 1,2-dioxygenase, which catalyzes the conversion of catechol to muconic acid.
2. Extradiol dioxygenases: These enzymes cleave an aromatic ring by inserting one atom of O2 at a position adjacent to the hydroxyl group and the other atom at a more distant position, leading to the formation of an unsaturated lactone or cyclic ether intermediate. They contain a non-heme iron(II) center in their active site.
An example of extradiol dioxygenase is homogentisate 1,2-dioxygenase, which catalyzes the conversion of homogentisate to maleylacetoacetate in the tyrosine degradation pathway.
Dioxygenases play important roles in various biological processes, including the metabolism of aromatic compounds, the biosynthesis of hormones and signaling molecules, and the detoxification of xenobiotics.
Oxygenases are a class of enzymes that catalyze the incorporation of molecular oxygen (O2) into their substrates. They play crucial roles in various biological processes, including the biosynthesis of many natural products, as well as the detoxification and degradation of xenobiotics (foreign substances).
There are two main types of oxygenases: monooxygenases and dioxygenases. Monooxygenases introduce one atom of molecular oxygen into a substrate while reducing the other to water. An example of this type of enzyme is cytochrome P450, which is involved in drug metabolism and steroid hormone synthesis. Dioxygenases, on the other hand, incorporate both atoms of molecular oxygen into their substrates, often leading to the formation of new carbon-carbon bonds or the cleavage of existing ones.
It's important to note that while oxygenases are essential for many life-sustaining processes, they can also contribute to the production of harmful reactive oxygen species (ROS) during normal cellular metabolism. An imbalance in ROS levels can lead to oxidative stress and damage to cells and tissues, which has been linked to various diseases such as cancer, neurodegeneration, and cardiovascular disease.
Catechol oxidase, also known as polyphenol oxidase, is an enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of catechols and other phenolic compounds to quinones. These quinones can then undergo further reactions to form various pigmented compounds, such as melanins. Catechol oxidase is widely distributed in nature and is found in plants, fungi, and some bacteria. In humans, catechol oxidase is involved in the metabolism of neurotransmitters such as dopamine and epinephrine.
Phenol, also known as carbolic acid, is an organic compound with the molecular formula C6H5OH. It is a white crystalline solid that is slightly soluble in water and has a melting point of 40-42°C. Phenol is a weak acid, but it is quite reactive and can be converted into a variety of other chemicals.
In a medical context, phenol is most commonly used as a disinfectant and antiseptic. It has a characteristic odor that is often described as "tarry" or " medicinal." Phenol is also used in some over-the-counter products, such as mouthwashes and throat lozenges, to help kill bacteria and freshen breath.
However, phenol is also a toxic substance that can cause serious harm if it is swallowed, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin. It can cause irritation and burns to the eyes, skin, and mucous membranes, and it can damage the liver and kidneys if ingested. Long-term exposure to phenol has been linked to an increased risk of cancer.
Because of its potential for harm, phenol is regulated as a hazardous substance in many countries, and it must be handled with care when used in medical or industrial settings.
Hydroxybenzoates are the salts or esters of hydroxybenzoic acids. They are commonly used as preservatives in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical products due to their antimicrobial and antifungal properties. The most common examples include methylparaben, ethylparaben, propylparaben, and butylparaben. These compounds work by inhibiting the growth of bacteria and fungi, thereby increasing the shelf life and safety of various products. However, there has been some concern about their potential health effects, including possible hormonal disruption, and their use in certain applications is being re-evaluated.
Sorbic acid is a chemical compound that is commonly used as a preservative in various food and cosmetic products. Medically, it's not typically used as a treatment for any specific condition. However, its preservative properties help prevent the growth of bacteria, yeast, and mold, which can improve the safety and shelf life of certain medical supplies such as ointments and eye drops.
The chemical structure of sorbic acid is that of a carboxylic acid with two double bonds, making it a unsaturated fatty acid. It's naturally found in some fruits like rowanberries and serviceberries, but most commercial sorbic acid is synthetically produced.
Food-grade sorbic acid is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and it has a wide range of applications in food preservation, including baked goods, cheeses, wines, and fruit juices. In cosmetics, it's often used to prevent microbial growth in products like creams, lotions, and makeup.
It is important to note that some people may have allergic reactions to sorbic acid or its salts (sorbates), so caution should be exercised when introducing new products containing these substances into personal care routines or diets.
Equilenin is an estrogen compound that is found in certain plants and is also produced synthetically. It is structurally similar to the natural estrogens produced by the human body, such as estradiol and estrone. Equilenin has been used in some forms of hormone replacement therapy and in the treatment of certain medical conditions, such as breast cancer and prostate cancer. However, its use is not as common as other synthetic estrogens due to its potential side effects and risks.
Like other estrogen compounds, equilenin works by binding to estrogen receptors in the body, which are found in various tissues including the breasts, uterus, bones, and brain. This binding action can stimulate cell growth and development, as well as regulate various physiological processes such as bone density, cholesterol levels, and mood.
It is important to note that the use of estrogen therapy, including equilenin, carries certain risks, particularly for postmenopausal women. Long-term use of estrogen therapy has been associated with an increased risk of breast cancer, endometrial cancer, stroke, and blood clots. Therefore, it should only be used under the close supervision of a healthcare provider and for the shortest duration necessary to treat the underlying medical condition.
"Pseudomonas" is a genus of Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria that are widely found in soil, water, and plants. Some species of Pseudomonas can cause disease in animals and humans, with P. aeruginosa being the most clinically relevant as it's an opportunistic pathogen capable of causing various types of infections, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems.
P. aeruginosa is known for its remarkable ability to resist many antibiotics and disinfectants, making infections caused by this bacterium difficult to treat. It can cause a range of healthcare-associated infections, such as pneumonia, bloodstream infections, urinary tract infections, and surgical site infections. In addition, it can also cause external ear infections and eye infections.
Prompt identification and appropriate antimicrobial therapy are crucial for managing Pseudomonas infections, although the increasing antibiotic resistance poses a significant challenge in treatment.
Benzoates are the salts and esters of benzoic acid. They are widely used as preservatives in foods, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals to prevent the growth of microorganisms. The chemical formula for benzoic acid is C6H5COOH, and when it is combined with a base (like sodium or potassium), it forms a benzoate salt (e.g., sodium benzoate or potassium benzoate). When benzoic acid reacts with an alcohol, it forms a benzoate ester (e.g., methyl benzoate or ethyl benzoate).
Benzoates are generally considered safe for use in food and cosmetics in small quantities. However, some people may have allergies or sensitivities to benzoates, which can cause reactions such as hives, itching, or asthma symptoms. In addition, there is ongoing research into the potential health effects of consuming high levels of benzoates over time, particularly in relation to gut health and the development of certain diseases.
In a medical context, benzoates may also be used as a treatment for certain conditions. For example, sodium benzoate is sometimes given to people with elevated levels of ammonia in their blood (hyperammonemia) to help reduce those levels and prevent brain damage. This is because benzoates can bind with excess ammonia in the body and convert it into a form that can be excreted in urine.
Environmental biodegradation is the breakdown of materials, especially man-made substances such as plastics and industrial chemicals, by microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi in order to use them as a source of energy or nutrients. This process occurs naturally in the environment and helps to break down organic matter into simpler compounds that can be more easily absorbed and assimilated by living organisms.
Biodegradation in the environment is influenced by various factors, including the chemical composition of the substance being degraded, the environmental conditions (such as temperature, moisture, and pH), and the type and abundance of microorganisms present. Some substances are more easily biodegraded than others, and some may even be resistant to biodegradation altogether.
Biodegradation is an important process for maintaining the health and balance of ecosystems, as it helps to prevent the accumulation of harmful substances in the environment. However, some man-made substances, such as certain types of plastics and industrial chemicals, may persist in the environment for long periods of time due to their resistance to biodegradation, leading to negative impacts on wildlife and ecosystems.
In recent years, there has been increasing interest in developing biodegradable materials that can break down more easily in the environment as a way to reduce waste and minimize environmental harm. These efforts have led to the development of various biodegradable plastics, coatings, and other materials that are designed to degrade under specific environmental conditions.
"Pseudomonas putida" is a species of gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria that is commonly found in soil and water environments. It is a non-pathogenic, opportunistic microorganism that is known for its versatile metabolism and ability to degrade various organic compounds. This bacterium has been widely studied for its potential applications in bioremediation and industrial biotechnology due to its ability to break down pollutants such as toluene, xylene, and other aromatic hydrocarbons. It is also known for its resistance to heavy metals and antibiotics, making it a valuable tool in the study of bacterial survival mechanisms and potential applications in bioremediation and waste treatment.
Benzene is a colorless, flammable liquid with a sweet odor. It has the molecular formula C6H6 and is composed of six carbon atoms arranged in a ring, bonded to six hydrogen atoms. Benzene is an important industrial solvent and is used as a starting material in the production of various chemicals, including plastics, rubber, resins, and dyes. It is also a natural component of crude oil and gasoline.
In terms of medical relevance, benzene is classified as a human carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Long-term exposure to high levels of benzene can cause various health effects, including anemia, leukemia, and other blood disorders. Occupational exposure to benzene is regulated by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) to protect workers from potential health hazards.
It's important to note that while benzene has legitimate uses in industry, it should be handled with care due to its known health risks. Exposure to benzene can occur through inhalation, skin contact, or accidental ingestion, so appropriate safety measures must be taken when handling this chemical.
Pyrogallol is not typically considered a medical term, but it does have relevance to the field of pathology as a chemical reagent. Pyrogallol is an organic compound with the formula C6H3(OH)3. It is a type of phenol and can be used in histological stains to demonstrate the presence of certain enzymes or structures within tissue samples.
In a medical context, pyrogallol may be mentioned in pathology reports related to the use of this chemical in laboratory tests. However, it is not a condition or disease entity itself.
Phenols, also known as phenolic acids or phenol derivatives, are a class of chemical compounds consisting of a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to an aromatic hydrocarbon ring. In the context of medicine and biology, phenols are often referred to as a type of antioxidant that can be found in various foods and plants.
Phenols have the ability to neutralize free radicals, which are unstable molecules that can cause damage to cells and contribute to the development of chronic diseases such as cancer, heart disease, and neurodegenerative disorders. Some common examples of phenolic compounds include gallic acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and ellagic acid, among many others.
Phenols can also have various pharmacological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and analgesic effects. However, some phenolic compounds can also be toxic or irritating to the body in high concentrations, so their use as therapeutic agents must be carefully monitored and controlled.
Benzoic acid is an organic compound with the formula C6H5COOH. It is a colorless crystalline solid that is slightly soluble in water and more soluble in organic solvents. Benzoic acid occurs naturally in various plants and serves as an intermediate in the synthesis of other chemical compounds.
In medical terms, benzoic acid and its salts (sodium benzoate, potassium benzoate) are used as preservatives in food, beverages, and cosmetics to prevent bacterial growth. They work by inhibiting the growth of bacteria, particularly gram-positive bacteria, through the disruption of their energy production processes.
Additionally, sodium benzoate is sometimes used as a treatment for hyperammonemia, a condition characterized by high levels of ammonia in the blood. In this case, sodium benzoate acts as a detoxifying agent by binding to excess ammonia and converting it into a more easily excreted compound called hippuric acid.
It is important to note that benzoic acid and its salts can cause allergic reactions or skin irritation in some individuals, particularly those with pre-existing sensitivities or conditions. As with any medication or chemical substance, it should be used under the guidance of a healthcare professional.
Adipates are a group of chemical compounds that are esters of adipic acid. Adipic acid is a dicarboxylic acid with the formula (CH₂)₄(COOH)₂. Adipates are commonly used as plasticizers in the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) products, such as pipes, cables, and flooring. They can also be found in cosmetics, personal care products, and some food additives.
Adipates are generally considered to be safe for use in consumer products, but like all chemicals, they should be used with caution and in accordance with recommended guidelines. Some adipates have been shown to have potential health effects, such as endocrine disruption and reproductive toxicity, at high levels of exposure. Therefore, it is important to follow proper handling and disposal procedures to minimize exposure.
Chlorobenzenes are a group of chemical compounds that consist of a benzene ring (a cyclic structure with six carbon atoms in a hexagonal arrangement) substituted with one or more chlorine atoms. They have the general formula C6H5Clx, where x represents the number of chlorine atoms attached to the benzene ring.
Chlorobenzenes are widely used as industrial solvents, fumigants, and intermediates in the production of other chemicals. Some common examples of chlorobenzenes include monochlorobenzene (C6H5Cl), dichlorobenzenes (C6H4Cl2), trichlorobenzenes (C6H3Cl3), and tetrachlorobenzenes (C6H2Cl4).
Exposure to chlorobenzenes can occur through inhalation, skin contact, or ingestion. They are known to be toxic and can cause a range of health effects, including irritation of the eyes, skin, and respiratory tract, headaches, dizziness, nausea, and vomiting. Long-term exposure has been linked to liver and kidney damage, neurological effects, and an increased risk of cancer.
It is important to handle chlorobenzenes with care and follow appropriate safety precautions to minimize exposure. If you suspect that you have been exposed to chlorobenzenes, seek medical attention immediately.
Cresols are a group of chemical compounds that are phenolic derivatives of benzene, consisting of methyl substituted cresidines. They have the formula C6H4(OH)(\_3CH3). There are three isomers of cresol, depending on the position of the methyl group: ortho-cresol (m-cresol), meta-cresol (p-cresol), and para-cresol (o-cresol). Cresols are used as disinfectants, antiseptics, and preservatives in various industrial and commercial applications. They have a characteristic odor and are soluble in alcohol and ether. In medical terms, cresols may be used as topical antiseptic agents, but they can also cause skin irritation and sensitization.
Hydroxyestrones are metabolites of estrogens, which are female sex hormones. They are formed in the liver and other tissues when estrogens are broken down. Hydroxyestrones have weak estrogenic activity and can also act as antioxidants. Some hydroxyestrones, such as 2-hydroxyestrone and 4-hydroxyestrone, have been studied for their potential role in cancer development and progression, particularly hormone-dependent cancers like breast cancer. However, more research is needed to fully understand their effects on human health.
Toluene is not a medical condition or disease, but it is a chemical compound that is widely used in various industrial and commercial applications. Medically, toluene can be relevant as a substance of abuse due to its intoxicating effects when inhaled or sniffed. It is a colorless liquid with a distinctive sweet aroma, and it is a common solvent found in many products such as paint thinners, adhesives, and rubber cement.
In the context of medical toxicology, toluene exposure can lead to various health issues, including neurological damage, cognitive impairment, memory loss, nausea, vomiting, and hearing and vision problems. Chronic exposure to toluene can also cause significant harm to the developing fetus during pregnancy, leading to developmental delays, behavioral problems, and physical abnormalities.
Hydroquinones are a type of chemical compound that belong to the group of phenols. In a medical context, hydroquinones are often used as topical agents for skin lightening and the treatment of hyperpigmentation disorders such as melasma, age spots, and freckles. They work by inhibiting the enzyme tyrosinase, which is necessary for the production of melanin, the pigment that gives skin its color.
It's important to note that hydroquinones can have side effects, including skin irritation, redness, and contact dermatitis. Prolonged use or high concentrations may also cause ochronosis, a condition characterized by blue-black discoloration of the skin. Therefore, they should be used under the supervision of a healthcare provider and for limited periods of time.
Chlorobenzoates are a group of chemical compounds that consist of a benzene ring substituted with one or more chlorine atoms and a carboxylate group. They are derivatives of benzoic acid, where one or more hydrogen atoms on the benzene ring have been replaced by chlorine atoms.
Chlorobenzoates can be found in various industrial applications, such as solvents, plasticizers, and pesticides. Some chlorobenzoates also have medical uses, for example, as antimicrobial agents or as intermediates in the synthesis of pharmaceuticals.
However, some chlorobenzoates can be toxic and harmful to the environment, so their use is regulated in many countries. It's important to handle and dispose of these substances properly to minimize potential health and environmental risks.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Planococcus bacteria" is not a specific type of bacterium that has a widely accepted medical definition. The genus Planococcus belongs to the family Planococcaceae and includes several species of Gram-positive, catalase-positive, aerobic or facultatively anaerobic cocci. These bacteria are typically found in various environments such as soil, water, and food. While some species can cause opportunistic infections in humans, they are not commonly associated with significant medical issues.
If you're looking for information on a specific bacterium or medical condition, please provide more details so I can give you a more accurate and helpful response.
'Acinetobacter' is a genus of gram-negative, aerobic bacteria that are commonly found in the environment, including water, soil, and healthcare settings. They are known for their ability to survive in a wide range of temperatures and pH levels, as well as their resistance to many antibiotics.
Some species of Acinetobacter can cause healthcare-associated infections, particularly in patients who are hospitalized, have weakened immune systems, or have been exposed to medical devices such as ventilators or catheters. These infections can include pneumonia, bloodstream infections, wound infections, and meningitis.
Acinetobacter baumannii is one of the most common species associated with human infection and is often resistant to multiple antibiotics, making it a significant public health concern. Infections caused by Acinetobacter can be difficult to treat and may require the use of last-resort antibiotics.
Preventing the spread of Acinetobacter in healthcare settings is important and includes practices such as hand hygiene, environmental cleaning, and contact precautions for patients with known or suspected infection.
'Alcaligenes' is a genus of gram-negative, aerobic bacteria that are commonly found in soil, water, and the respiratory and intestinal tracts of animals. These bacteria are capable of using a variety of organic compounds as their sole source of carbon and energy. Some species of Alcaligenes have been known to cause opportunistic infections in humans, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems. However, they are not considered major human pathogens.
The name 'Alcaligenes' comes from the Latin word "alcali," meaning "alkali," and the Greek word "genos," meaning "kind" or "race." This is because many species of Alcaligenes can grow in alkaline environments with a pH above 7.
It's worth noting that while Alcaligenes species are not typically harmful to healthy individuals, they may be resistant to certain antibiotics and can cause serious infections in people with compromised immune systems. Therefore, it is important for healthcare professionals to consider the possibility of Alcaligenes infection in patients who are at risk and to choose appropriate antibiotic therapy based on laboratory testing.
Rhodococcus is a genus of gram-positive, aerobic, actinomycete bacteria that are widely distributed in the environment, including soil and water. Some species of Rhodococcus can cause opportunistic infections in humans and animals, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems. These infections can affect various organs and tissues, such as the lungs, skin, and brain, and can range from mild to severe.
Rhodococcus species are known for their ability to degrade a wide variety of organic compounds, including hydrocarbons, making them important players in bioremediation processes. They also have complex cell walls that make them resistant to many antibiotics and disinfectants, which can complicate treatment of Rhodococcus infections.
Mixed Function Oxygenases (MFOs) are a type of enzyme that catalyze the addition of one atom each from molecular oxygen (O2) to a substrate, while reducing the other oxygen atom to water. These enzymes play a crucial role in the metabolism of various endogenous and exogenous compounds, including drugs, carcinogens, and environmental pollutants.
MFOs are primarily located in the endoplasmic reticulum of cells and consist of two subunits: a flavoprotein component that contains FAD or FMN as a cofactor, and an iron-containing heme protein. The most well-known example of MFO is cytochrome P450, which is involved in the oxidation of xenobiotics and endogenous compounds such as steroids, fatty acids, and vitamins.
MFOs can catalyze a variety of reactions, including hydroxylation, epoxidation, dealkylation, and deamination, among others. These reactions often lead to the activation or detoxification of xenobiotics, making MFOs an important component of the body's defense system against foreign substances. However, in some cases, these reactions can also produce reactive intermediates that may cause toxicity or contribute to the development of diseases such as cancer.
Siderophores are low-molecular-weight organic compounds that are secreted by microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, to chelate and solubilize iron from their environment. They are able to bind ferric iron (Fe3+) with very high affinity and form a siderophore-iron complex, which can then be taken up by the microorganism through specific transport systems. This allows them to acquire iron even in environments where it is present at very low concentrations or in forms that are not readily available for uptake. Siderophores play an important role in the survival and virulence of many pathogenic microorganisms, as they help them to obtain the iron they need to grow and multiply.
Quinones are a class of organic compounds that contain a fully conjugated diketone structure. This structure consists of two carbonyl groups (C=O) separated by a double bond (C=C). Quinones can be found in various biological systems and synthetic compounds. They play important roles in many biochemical processes, such as electron transport chains and redox reactions. Some quinones are also known for their antimicrobial and anticancer properties. However, some quinones can be toxic or mutagenic at high concentrations.
Tyrosinase, also known as monophenol monooxygenase, is an enzyme (EC 1.14.18.1) that catalyzes the ortho-hydroxylation of monophenols (like tyrosine) to o-diphenols (like L-DOPA) and the oxidation of o-diphenols to o-quinones. This enzyme plays a crucial role in melanin synthesis, which is responsible for the color of skin, hair, and eyes in humans and animals. Tyrosinase is found in various organisms, including plants, fungi, and animals. In humans, tyrosinase is primarily located in melanocytes, the cells that produce melanin. The enzyme's activity is regulated by several factors, such as pH, temperature, and metal ions like copper, which are essential for its catalytic function.
"Pseudomonas mendocina" is a gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that belongs to the family Pseudomonadaceae. It is commonly found in soil and water environments. This species is generally considered to be nonpathogenic, meaning it does not typically cause disease in humans. However, there have been rare cases of infection associated with this bacterium, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems.
The name "mendocina" comes from the location where the bacterium was first isolated, which is Mendocino County in California, USA. Like other Pseudomonas species, it can survive under a wide range of environmental conditions and can metabolize various organic compounds as its energy source.
It's worth noting that while "Pseudomonas mendocina" is not a common human pathogen, identifying the specific bacterial species involved in an infection is important for appropriate treatment. Therefore, laboratory testing and identification of bacteria to the species level can be helpful in guiding medical decision-making.
Oxidation-Reduction (redox) reactions are a type of chemical reaction involving a transfer of electrons between two species. The substance that loses electrons in the reaction is oxidized, and the substance that gains electrons is reduced. Oxidation and reduction always occur together in a redox reaction, hence the term "oxidation-reduction."
In biological systems, redox reactions play a crucial role in many cellular processes, including energy production, metabolism, and signaling. The transfer of electrons in these reactions is often facilitated by specialized molecules called electron carriers, such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+/NADH) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD/FADH2).
The oxidation state of an element in a compound is a measure of the number of electrons that have been gained or lost relative to its neutral state. In redox reactions, the oxidation state of one or more elements changes as they gain or lose electrons. The substance that is oxidized has a higher oxidation state, while the substance that is reduced has a lower oxidation state.
Overall, oxidation-reduction reactions are fundamental to the functioning of living organisms and are involved in many important biological processes.
Toluidines are a group of organic compounds that consist of a benzene ring with two methyl groups and an amine group. They are derivatives of toluene, hence the name. There are three isomers of toluidines, depending on the position of the amino group: ortho-toluidine, meta-toluidine, and para-toluidine.
In a medical context, toluidines may be used as chemical reagents for diagnostic tests or in research. For example, they have been used in histology to stain tissues for microscopic examination. However, exposure to toluidines has been associated with an increased risk of bladder cancer, so appropriate safety precautions should be taken when handling these chemicals.
Adrenochrome is a chemical compound that is formed when adrenaline (epinephrine) is oxidized. It is not a naturally occurring hormone or neurotransmitter, but rather a byproduct of the breakdown of these substances. The existence of adrenochrome in the human body is controversial and its effects on the human brain are not well understood.
In popular culture, adrenochrome has been associated with theories about its psychoactive properties and alleged use as a drug in illegal or illicit activities. However, there is no scientific evidence to support these claims and they should be regarded with skepticism. The misinformation surrounding adrenochrome may have originated from Hunter S. Thompson's book "Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas," where it was described as a drug that produces intense hallucinations and feelings of euphoria. However, this portrayal is not based on any scientific evidence and should be considered fiction.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Gentisates" does not appear to be a recognized term in medical or physiological sciences. It is possible that you may have misspelled or misremembered the term. If you meant "Gentiates," then it refers to a class of enzymes (also known as beta-galactosidases) that can break down certain complex carbohydrates, such as the disaccharide melibiose into galactose and glucose. However, I would recommend double-checking the spelling or context to ensure you have the correct term, as my response is based on the assumption that "Gentiates" was the intended word.
Salicylates are a group of chemicals found naturally in certain fruits, vegetables, and herbs, as well as in some medications like aspirin. They are named after willow bark's active ingredient, salicin, from which they were derived. Salicylates have anti-inflammatory, analgesic (pain-relieving), and antipyretic (fever-reducing) properties.
In a medical context, salicylates are often used to relieve pain, reduce inflammation, and lower fever. High doses of salicylates can have blood thinning effects and may be used in the prevention of strokes or heart attacks. Commonly prescribed salicylate medications include aspirin, methylsalicylate, and sodium salicylate.
It is important to note that some people may have allergic reactions to salicylates, and overuse can lead to side effects such as stomach ulcers, ringing in the ears, and even kidney or liver damage.
Benzophenones are a class of chemical compounds that consist of a diphenylmethane structure with a carbonyl group attached to the central carbon atom. They are known for their ability to absorb ultraviolet (UV) light and are often used as UV absorbers or photoinitiators in various applications, such as plastics, coatings, and personal care products.
In the medical field, benzophenones may be used in topical medications as sunscreen agents or in pharmaceutical formulations as photostabilizers to prevent drug degradation caused by UV light exposure. However, some benzophenones have been found to have potential endocrine-disrupting properties and may pose health concerns at high levels of exposure. Therefore, their use is regulated in certain applications, and alternative sunscreen agents are being explored.
Normetanephrine is defined as a major metabolite of epinephrine (adrenaline), which is formed by the action of catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) on metanephrine. It is primarily produced in the adrenal gland and is also found in the sympathetic nervous system. Normetanephrine is often measured in clinical testing to help diagnose pheochromocytoma, a rare tumor of the adrenal glands that can cause high blood pressure and other symptoms due to excessive production of catecholamines. Increased levels of normetanephrine in the urine or plasma may indicate the presence of a pheochromocytoma or other conditions associated with increased catecholamine release.
"Ralstonia" is a genus of gram-negative, aerobic bacteria that are commonly found in soil and water. Some species of Ralstonia are known to cause healthcare-associated infections, particularly in patients with compromised immune systems. These infections can include pneumonia, bacteremia, and meningitis. One notable species, Ralstonia solanacearum, is a plant pathogen that causes bacterial wilt in a wide range of plants.
Ralstonia bacteria are known for their ability to form biofilms, which can make them resistant to antibiotics and disinfectants. They can also survive in harsh environments, such as those with low nutrient availability and high salt concentrations. These characteristics make Ralstonia a challenging organism to control in healthcare settings and in the environment.
It's important to note that while Ralstonia bacteria can cause serious infections, they are not typically considered highly virulent or contagious. Instead, infections are often associated with contaminated medical equipment or solutions, such as intravenous fluids, respiratory therapy equipment, and contaminated water sources. Proper infection control practices, including environmental cleaning and disinfection, can help prevent the spread of Ralstonia in healthcare settings.
Hydroxylation is a biochemical process that involves the addition of a hydroxyl group (-OH) to a molecule, typically a steroid or xenobiotic compound. This process is primarily catalyzed by enzymes called hydroxylases, which are found in various tissues throughout the body.
In the context of medicine and biochemistry, hydroxylation can have several important functions:
1. Drug metabolism: Hydroxylation is a common way that the liver metabolizes drugs and other xenobiotic compounds. By adding a hydroxyl group to a drug molecule, it becomes more polar and water-soluble, which facilitates its excretion from the body.
2. Steroid hormone biosynthesis: Hydroxylation is an essential step in the biosynthesis of many steroid hormones, including cortisol, aldosterone, and the sex hormones estrogen and testosterone. These hormones are synthesized from cholesterol through a series of enzymatic reactions that involve hydroxylation at various steps.
3. Vitamin D activation: Hydroxylation is also necessary for the activation of vitamin D in the body. In order to become biologically active, vitamin D must undergo two successive hydroxylations, first in the liver and then in the kidneys.
4. Toxin degradation: Some toxic compounds can be rendered less harmful through hydroxylation. For example, phenol, a toxic compound found in cigarette smoke and some industrial chemicals, can be converted to a less toxic form through hydroxylation by enzymes in the liver.
Overall, hydroxylation is an important biochemical process that plays a critical role in various physiological functions, including drug metabolism, hormone biosynthesis, and toxin degradation.
Catecholamines are a group of hormones and neurotransmitters that are derived from the amino acid tyrosine. The most well-known catecholamines are dopamine, norepinephrine (also known as noradrenaline), and epinephrine (also known as adrenaline). These hormones are produced by the adrenal glands and are released into the bloodstream in response to stress. They play important roles in the "fight or flight" response, increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and alertness. In addition to their role as hormones, catecholamines also function as neurotransmitters, transmitting signals in the nervous system. Disorders of catecholamine regulation can lead to a variety of medical conditions, including hypertension, mood disorders, and neurological disorders.
Xylenes are aromatic hydrocarbons that are often used as solvents in the industrial field. They are composed of two benzene rings with methyl side groups (-CH3) and can be found as a mixture of isomers: ortho-xylene, meta-xylene, and para-xylene.
In a medical context, xylenes may be relevant due to their potential for exposure in occupational settings or through environmental contamination. Short-term exposure to high levels of xylenes can cause irritation of the eyes, nose, throat, and lungs, as well as symptoms such as headache, dizziness, and nausea. Long-term exposure has been linked to neurological effects, including memory impairment, hearing loss, and changes in behavior and mood.
It is worth noting that xylenes are not typically considered a direct medical diagnosis, but rather a potential exposure hazard or environmental contaminant that may have health impacts.
'Gram-Negative Aerobic Rods and Cocci' are categorizations used in microbiology to describe certain types of bacteria based on their shape and staining characteristics.
1. Gram-Negative: This refers to the bacterial cells that do not retain crystal violet dye during the Gram staining procedure. Instead, they take up a counterstain such as safranin or fuchsin, making them appear pink or red under a microscope. Gram-negative bacteria possess an outer membrane in addition to the inner cytoplasmic membrane, which contains lipopolysaccharides (endotoxins) that can cause severe reactions and illnesses in humans. Examples of gram-negative bacteria include Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Klebsiella pneumoniae.
2. Aerobic: This term describes organisms that require oxygen to grow and metabolize. Aerobic bacteria use molecular oxygen as the final electron acceptor in their respiratory chain, which allows them to generate more energy compared to anaerobic bacteria. Many gram-negative bacteria are aerobic or facultatively anaerobic, meaning they can grow with or without oxygen.
3. Rods and Cocci: These terms describe the shape of bacterial cells. Rods (bacilli) are elongated, rod-shaped bacteria, while cocci are round or oval-shaped bacteria. Examples of gram-negative aerobic rods include Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli, while Neisseria meningitidis and Moraxella catarrhalis are examples of gram-negative aerobic cocci.
In summary, 'Gram-Negative Aerobic Rods and Cocci' is a collective term for bacteria that do not retain crystal violet during Gram staining, require oxygen to grow, and have either rod or coccus shapes. These bacteria can cause various infections and diseases in humans and are often resistant to multiple antibiotics.
Substrate specificity in the context of medical biochemistry and enzymology refers to the ability of an enzyme to selectively bind and catalyze a chemical reaction with a particular substrate (or a group of similar substrates) while discriminating against other molecules that are not substrates. This specificity arises from the three-dimensional structure of the enzyme, which has evolved to match the shape, charge distribution, and functional groups of its physiological substrate(s).
Substrate specificity is a fundamental property of enzymes that enables them to carry out highly selective chemical transformations in the complex cellular environment. The active site of an enzyme, where the catalysis takes place, has a unique conformation that complements the shape and charge distribution of its substrate(s). This ensures efficient recognition, binding, and conversion of the substrate into the desired product while minimizing unwanted side reactions with other molecules.
Substrate specificity can be categorized as:
1. Absolute specificity: An enzyme that can only act on a single substrate or a very narrow group of structurally related substrates, showing no activity towards any other molecule.
2. Group specificity: An enzyme that prefers to act on a particular functional group or class of compounds but can still accommodate minor structural variations within the substrate.
3. Broad or promiscuous specificity: An enzyme that can act on a wide range of structurally diverse substrates, albeit with varying catalytic efficiencies.
Understanding substrate specificity is crucial for elucidating enzymatic mechanisms, designing drugs that target specific enzymes or pathways, and developing biotechnological applications that rely on the controlled manipulation of enzyme activities.
Parabens are a group of synthetic preservatives that have been widely used in the cosmetics and personal care product industry since the 1920s. They are effective at inhibiting the growth of bacteria, yeasts, and molds, which helps to prolong the shelf life of these products. Parabens are commonly found in shampoos, conditioners, lotions, creams, deodorants, and other personal care items.
The most commonly used parabens include methylparaben, ethylparaben, propylparaben, and butylparaben. These compounds are often used in combination to provide broad-spectrum protection against microbial growth. Parabens work by penetrating the cell wall of microorganisms and disrupting their metabolism, which prevents them from multiplying.
Parabens have been approved for use as preservatives in cosmetics and personal care products by regulatory agencies around the world, including the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Commission's Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety (SCCS). However, there has been some controversy surrounding their safety, with concerns raised about their potential to mimic the hormone estrogen in the body and disrupt normal endocrine function.
While some studies have suggested that parabens may be associated with health problems such as breast cancer and reproductive toxicity, the evidence is not conclusive, and more research is needed to fully understand their potential risks. In response to these concerns, many manufacturers have begun to remove parabens from their products or offer paraben-free alternatives. It's important to note that while avoiding parabens may be a personal preference for some individuals, there is currently no scientific consensus on the need to avoid them entirely.
A bacterial gene is a segment of DNA (or RNA in some viruses) that contains the genetic information necessary for the synthesis of a functional bacterial protein or RNA molecule. These genes are responsible for encoding various characteristics and functions of bacteria such as metabolism, reproduction, and resistance to antibiotics. They can be transmitted between bacteria through horizontal gene transfer mechanisms like conjugation, transformation, and transduction. Bacterial genes are often organized into operons, which are clusters of genes that are transcribed together as a single mRNA molecule.
It's important to note that the term "bacterial gene" is used to describe genetic elements found in bacteria, but not all genetic elements in bacteria are considered genes. For example, some DNA sequences may not encode functional products and are therefore not considered genes. Additionally, some bacterial genes may be plasmid-borne or phage-borne, rather than being located on the bacterial chromosome.
Catechol
Catechol estrogen
Catechol oxidase
Catechol dioxygenase
Catechol oxidase (dimerizing)
Chloridazon-catechol dioxygenase
Catechol-O-methyltransferase
Catechol-O-methyltransferase inhibitor
Catechol 1,2-dioxygenase
Catechol 2,3-dioxygenase
Piperonal
1,3-Benzodioxole
Dakin oxidation
Salicylaldehyde
2-Hydroxyestrone
History of catecholamine research
Methyltransferase
Benzoate degradation via hydroxylation
Siderocalin
Siderophore
Polyphenol oxidase
Anthranilate 1,2-dioxygenase (deaminating, decarboxylating)
Muconolactone Δ-isomerase
Muconate lactonizing enzyme
3-O-Methyldopa
Fjodor Lishajko
4-carboxymuconolactone decarboxylase
Sclerotization
Rhododendrol
N-Acetyldopamine
Catechol - Wikipedia
NIOSH Skin Notation Profiles: Catechol (2019-118) | NIOSH | CDC
PRIME PubMed | Catechol-O-methyltransferase inhibitors for levodopa-induced complications in Parkinson's disease
Synthesis and antibiotic activity of oxazolidinone-catechol conjugates against Pseudomonas aeruginosa - Organic & Biomolecular...
Cloning, expression and structure of catechol-O-methyltransferase | Lund University Publications
Catechol
299. Adsorption mechanism and valency of catechol functionalized hyperbranched polyglycerols • Haag Group • Department of...
Catechol Market:Industry Size, Share, Growth and Forecast 2023
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Catechol 1,2-Dioxygenase is an Analogue of Homogentisate 1,2-Dioxygenase in Pseudomonas Chlororaphis Strain UFB2[v1] |...
Catechol
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Catechol-O-methyl transferase
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CATECHOL VIOLET AR - acesic
Network Portal - Function catechol proteo
FComEx: Catechol 1-O-sulphate (PC001009)
SOLKANE® 123 | Solvay
Catechol-O-methyltransferase activity does not influence emotional processing in men - Nuffield Department of Clinical...
Distinct Cellular Localization of Membrane‐Bound and Soluble Forms of Catechol‐O‐Methyltransferase in Brain<...
Catechol O-Methyltransferase
Collection of regulogs involved in 2-Methylhydroquinone and catechol resistance
Mouse COMT(Catechol-O-Methyltransferase) ELISA Kit - World Care Council
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Stalevo (Carbidopa, Levodopa and Entacapone): Uses, Dosage, Side Effects, Interactions, Warning
Inhibition of choline transport by redox-active cholinomimetic bis-catechol reagents
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COMT12
- In humans, catechol- O -methyltransferase protein is encoded by the COMT gene . (en-academic.com)
- Any compound having a catechol structure, like catecholestrogens and catechol-containing flavonoids, are substrates of COMT. (en-academic.com)
- Background: Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) regulates cortical dopaminergic transmission and prefrontal-dependent cognitive function. (ox.ac.uk)
- Abstract: The cellular localization of the two forms of catechol‐O‐methyltransferase (COMT) was investigated by measuring their activities in rat striatum following unilateral stereotaxic injection of kainic acid, which causes degeneration of striatal neurons followed by proliferation of astroglial cells. (psu.edu)
- Background: The catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) enzyme plays a crucial role in dopamine degradation, and the COMT Val158Met polymorphism (rs4680) is associated with significant differences in enzymatic activity and consequently dopamine concentrations in the prefrontal cortex. (umn.edu)
- Stalevo, a combination drug consisting of levodopa (aromatic amino acid), carbidopa (aromatic amino acid decarboxylation inhibitor), and entacapone (catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) inhibitor) is indicated for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. (nih.gov)
- The COMT gene provides instructions for making an enzyme called catechol-O-methyltransferase. (medlineplus.gov)
- The longer form, called membrane-bound catechol-O-methyltransferase (MB-COMT), is chiefly produced by nerve cells in the brain. (medlineplus.gov)
- Other tissues, including the liver, kidneys, and blood, produce a shorter form of the enzyme called soluble catechol-O-methyltransferase (S-COMT). (medlineplus.gov)
- A loss of one copy of the COMT gene in each cell leads to abnormal regulation of catechol-O-methyltransferase levels in the brain. (medlineplus.gov)
- Aims: The catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) gene codes for synaptic enzyme degrading catecholamines, including dopamine, and has been extensively studied in mental health research. (frontiersin.org)
- Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) genotype affects cognitive control during total sleep deprivation. (cdc.gov)
Polymorphism1
- Most studies have focused on the effects of a particular common variation (polymorphism) in catechol-O-methyltransferase. (medlineplus.gov)
Enzyme5
- Small amounts of catechol occur naturally in fruits and vegetables, along with the enzyme polyphenol oxidase (also known as catecholase, or catechol oxidase). (wikipedia.org)
- Upon mixing the enzyme with the substrate and exposure to oxygen (as when a potato or apple is cut and left out), the colorless catechol oxidizes to reddish-brown melanoid pigments, derivatives of benzoquinone. (wikipedia.org)
- An enzyme of the oxidoreductase class that catalyzes the reaction between catechol and oxygen to yield benzoquinone and water. (lookformedical.com)
- These results indicate that the K m membrane‐bound catechol‐O‐methyltransferase may be localized predominantly in neurons, whereas the high‐K m soluble enzyme is found in glial cells. (psu.edu)
- They synthesized catechol 1, 2 - dioxygense enzyme which is unique its properties to transform catechol to cis, cis - muconic acid. (researchbib.com)
Methyltransferase12
- TY - JOUR T1 - Catechol-O-methyltransferase inhibitors for levodopa-induced complications in Parkinson's disease. (unboundmedicine.com)
- Catechol-O-methyltransferase is shown in green boxes. (en-academic.com)
- Catechol- O -methyltransferase is involved in the inactivation of the catecholamine neurotransmitters ( dopamine , epinephrine , and norepinephrine ). (en-academic.com)
- Rivett, AJ , Francis, A & Roth, JA 1983, ' Distinct Cellular Localization of Membrane‐Bound and Soluble Forms of Catechol‐O‐Methyltransferase in Brain ', Journal of neurochemistry , vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 215-219. (psu.edu)
- Description: A sandwich ELISA for quantitative measurement of Rat Catechol O methyltransferase domain containing protein 1(COMTD1) in samples from blood, plasma, serum, cell culture supernatant and other biological fluids. (worldcarecouncil.org)
- Description: A sandwich ELISA for quantitative measurement of Human Catechol O methyltransferase domain containing protein 1(COMTD1) in samples from blood, plasma, serum, cell culture supernatant and other biological fluids. (worldcarecouncil.org)
- In the brain, catechol-O-methyltransferase helps break down certain chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. (medlineplus.gov)
- Catechol-O-methyltransferase is particularly important in an area at the front of the brain called the prefrontal cortex, which organizes and coordinates information from other parts of the brain. (medlineplus.gov)
- Catechol-O-methyltransferase helps maintain appropriate levels of these neurotransmitters in this part of the brain. (medlineplus.gov)
- Little is known, however, about the relationship between catechol-O-methyltransferase activity and the specific mental and emotional problems characteristic of this condition. (medlineplus.gov)
- The change affects the stability and activity of catechol-O-methyltransferase, which alters the enzyme's ability to break down neurotransmitters in the prefrontal cortex. (medlineplus.gov)
- Variations in catechol-o-methyltransferase gene interact with parenting to influence attention in early development. (bvsalud.org)
Dioxygenase4
- Iron-containing dioxygenase enzymes catalyze the cleavage of catechol. (wikipedia.org)
- The aim of the study was to purify, characterize and predict template-based three-dimensional structure of catechol 1,2-dioxygenase (C12O) from indigenous Pseudomonas chlororaphis strain UFB2 ( Pc UFB2). (preprints.org)
- Global transcriptomic analysis of a ΔsifR strain defines the SifR regulon as genes encoding a candidate catechol dioxygenase CatE, an uncharacterized oxidoreductase YwnB, a candidate flavin-dependent ferric reductase YhdA, a candidate heme -based ferric reductase domain-containing protein and the Piu ( pneumococcus iron uptake) Fe transporter (piuBCDA). (bvsalud.org)
- Consistent with this model, we show that CatE is an FeII-dependent 2,3-catechol dioxygenase with broad substrate specificity , YwnB is an NAD (P)H-dependent quinone reductase capable of reducing the oxidized and cyclized norepinephrine , adrenochrome , and YhdA is capable of reducing a number of FeIII complexes, including PiuA-binding transport substrates . (bvsalud.org)
20191
- Yabu, H 2019, Catechol-containing polymers: A biomimetic approach for creating novel adhesive and reducing polymers . (elsevierpure.com)
Dopamine1
- A comparison of Langmuirian binding constants for alizarin red S (1.4 x 10(5) mol(-1) dm(3)), catechol (8.4 x 10(4) mol(-1) dm(3)), caffeic acid (7.5 x 10(4) mol(-1) dm(3)), dopamine (1.0 x 10(4) mol(-1) dm(3)), and L-dopa (8 x 10(3) mol(-1) dm(3)) reveals that a combination of hydrophobicity and electrostatic interaction causes considerable selectivity effects. (bath.ac.uk)
Hydroxylation of phenol2
- Catechol is produced industrially by the hydroxylation of phenol using hydrogen peroxide. (wikipedia.org)
- Catechol is produced by hydroxylation of phenol with hydrogen peroxide in presence of Titanium Silicalite. (cfseuropespa.com)
Moiety1
- We describe the synthesis of conjugates between a catechol moiety and oxazolidinone antibiotics. (rsc.org)
Oxidase4
- Catechol oxidase. (lookformedical.com)
- Substrate specificity of catechol oxidase from Lycopus europaeus and characterization of the bioproducts of enzymic caffeic acid oxidation. (lookformedical.com)
- The substrate specificity of catechol oxidase from Lycopus europaeus towards phenols is examined. (lookformedical.com)
- Substrates containing a -COOH group are inhibitors for catechol oxidase. (lookformedical.com)
Phenol1
- The contribution of irradiation and the dihydroxybenzenes (DHB), catechol (CAT) and hydroquinone (HQ), added or formed as phenol oxidation intermediates, was evaluated for the reduction of Fe III and for phenol degradation via Fenton processes. (scielo.br)
Norepinephrine1
- Previous work established that membrane -anchored PiuA binds FeIII-bis-catechol or monocatechol complexes with high affinity, including the human catecholamine stress hormone , norepinephrine . (bvsalud.org)
Soluble1
- Catechol occurs as feathery white crystals that are very rapidly soluble in water. (wikipedia.org)
Nanoparticles1
- The experience and background of the team brings an important asset in the synthesis of "sticky" catechol based coatings and nanoparticles with bioadhesion properties in humid conditions. (polyphenols-site.com)
Derivatives2
- Like other difunctional benzene derivatives, catechol readily condenses to form heterocyclic compounds. (wikipedia.org)
- The N-hexadecyl-pyridinium-4-boronic acid hexafluorophosphate monolayer acts as an active receptor for 1,2-dihydroxy-benzene (catechol) derivatives in aqueous media. (bath.ac.uk)
Precursor2
- About 20,000 tonnes of catechol are now synthetically produced annually as a commodity organic chemical, mainly as a precursor to pesticides, flavors, and fragrances. (wikipedia.org)
- Catechol is used as a precursor to many of the chemicals that are used in the pharmaceutical and personal care product industries. (credenceresearch.com)
Complexes2
- Toughening elastomers using mussel-inspired iron-catechol complexes. (ucsb.edu)
- These findings are consistent with a model where FeIII-catechol complexes serve as significant nutritional Fe sources in the host. (bvsalud.org)
Hydroquinone1
- Orto - and para -dihydroxybenzene (DHB) compounds, such as catechol (CAT) and hydroquinone (HQ), have capacity to reduce iron(III) 9 9 Chen, R. (scielo.br)
Compounds1
- The chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the breakdown of (R)-mandelate into other compounds, including catechol. (planteome.org)
Derivative2
- Its methyl ether derivative, guaiacol, converts to catechol via hydrolysis of the CH3−O bond as promoted by hydroiodic acid (HI). (wikipedia.org)
- Brevipolide H (1) was the less cytotoxic and best antiparasitic, while the catechol derivative (2) the most active and cytotoxic. (lu.se)
20231
- The market for Catechol: Market is expected to reach XX Mn in 2023. (credenceresearch.com)
Catechin2
- Catechol was first isolated in 1839 by Edgar Hugo Emil Reinsch (1809-1884) by distilling it from the solid tannic preparation catechin, which is the residuum of catechu, the boiled or concentrated juice of Mimosa catechu (Acacia catechu). (wikipedia.org)
- Catechol was first discovered in a plant extract called catechin via destructive distillation. (credenceresearch.com)
Levodopa1
- To reveal specific structural requirements for direct stabilization of the transcription factors responsible for triggering the antihypoxic and antioxidant programs, we studied flavones, isoflavones and catechols including dihydroxybenzoate, didox, levodopa, and nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA), using novel luciferase-based reporters specific for the first step in HIF1 or Nrf2 protein stabilization. (elsevierpure.com)
Compound2
- Catechol (/ˈkætɪtʃɒl/ or /ˈkætɪkɒl/), also known as pyrocatechol or 1,2-dihydroxybenzene, is an organic compound with the molecular formula C6H4(OH)2. (wikipedia.org)
- Catechol, which is also known as 1,2-dihydroxybenzene or pyrocatechol, is an organic compound that is used for various applications in the global market. (credenceresearch.com)
Pesticides2
- More than 50% of catechol produced artificially, known as synthetic catechol, is used in the manufacture of pesticides. (credenceresearch.com)
- Rising demand for pesticides has led to the growth of the agrochemical industry, thereby boosting the growth of the catechol market worldwide. (credenceresearch.com)
Reversible1
- Inspired by cuticles of marine mussel byssi, we circumvent this inherent trade-off by incorporating sacrificial, reversible iron-catechol cross-links into a dry, loosely cross-linked epoxy network. (ucsb.edu)
Humans1
- Information was considered from studies of humans, animals, or appropriate modeling systems that are relevant to assessing the effects of dermal exposure to catechol. (cdc.gov)
Flavors1
- A large number of flavors and fragrances are produced using catechol as a starting material. (credenceresearch.com)
Acid2
- Catechol dioxygenases in microorganisms cleave catechol into cis - cis -muconic acid or 2-hydroxymuconic semialdehyde via the ortho- or meta- pathway, respectively. (preprints.org)
- It is shown that the immobilised boronic acid monolayer acts as sensor film for a wider range of catechols. (bath.ac.uk)
Organic1
- Background: Urushiol, the causative allergens in Toxicodendron plants such as poison ivy, is an oily mixture of organic catechols with alkyl-(C15-C17) side chains of varying degrees of saturation. (cdc.gov)
Aims1
- Objective: This study aims to determine whether urushiol-like catechols are present in consumer products labeled as containing Toxicodendron extracts. (cdc.gov)
Search1
- A literature search was conducted through February 2018 to identify catechol toxicokinetics, acute toxicity, repeated-dose systemic toxicity, carcinogenicity, biological ystem/function-specific effects (including reproductive and developmental effects and immunotoxicity), irritation, and ensitization. (cdc.gov)
Reaction1
- Upon reaction with catechol-derived quinones , we show that SifR dissociates from the DNA leading to regulon derepression, allowing the pneumococcus to access a catechol-derived source of Fe while minimizing reactive electrophile stress induced by quinones . (bvsalud.org)
Sensor1
- SifR is an Rrf2-family quinone sensor associated with catechol iron uptake in Streptococcus pneumoniae D39. (bvsalud.org)
Exposure1
- The summarized information and health hazard assessment are limited to an evaluation of the potential health effects of dermal exposure to catechol and the potential for direct skin injuries from catechol. (cdc.gov)
Presence1
- By contrast, stabilization of Nrf2 requires the presence of 3,4-dihydroxy- (catechol) groups. (elsevierpure.com)
Form1
- Catechol has since been shown to occur in free form naturally in kino and in beechwood tar. (wikipedia.org)