Brain mapping. Medical search

Imaging techniques used to colocalize sites of brain functions or physiological activity with brain structures.

Non-invasive method of demonstrating internal anatomy based on the principle that atomic nuclei in a strong magnetic field absorb pulses of radiofrequency energy and emit them as radiowaves which can be reconstructed into computerized images. The concept includes proton spin tomographic techniques.

Involuntary ("parrot-like"), meaningless repetition of a recently heard word, phrase, or song. This condition may be associated with transcortical APHASIA; SCHIZOPHRENIA; or other disorders. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p485)

The part of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM that is contained within the skull (CRANIUM). Arising from the NEURAL TUBE, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including PROSENCEPHALON (the forebrain); MESENCEPHALON (the midbrain); and RHOMBENCEPHALON (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of CEREBRUM; CEREBELLUM; and other structures in the BRAIN STEM.

A technique of inputting two-dimensional images into a computer and then enhancing or analyzing the imagery into a form that is more useful to the human observer.

Surgery performed on the nervous system or its parts.

Any method used for determining the location of and relative distances between genes on a chromosome.

The period during a surgical operation.

The process of generating three-dimensional images by electronic, photographic, or other methods. For example, three-dimensional images can be generated by assembling multiple tomographic images with the aid of a computer, while photographic 3-D images (HOLOGRAPHY) can be made by exposing film to the interference pattern created when two laser light sources shine on an object.

The thin layer of GRAY MATTER on the surface of the CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES that develops from the TELENCEPHALON and folds into gyri and sulchi. It reaches its highest development in humans and is responsible for intellectual faculties and higher mental functions.

Recording of electric currents developed in the brain by means of electrodes applied to the scalp, to the surface of the brain, or placed within the substance of the brain.

Area of the parietal lobe concerned with receiving sensations such as movement, pain, pressure, position, temperature, touch, and vibration. It lies posterior to the central sulcus.

Changes in the amounts of various chemicals (neurotransmitters, receptors, enzymes, and other metabolites) specific to the area of the central nervous system contained within the head. These are monitored over time, during sensory stimulation, or under different disease states.

The circulation of blood through the BLOOD VESSELS of the BRAIN.

Acute and chronic (see also BRAIN INJURIES, CHRONIC) injuries to the brain, including the cerebral hemispheres, CEREBELLUM, and BRAIN STEM. Clinical manifestations depend on the nature of injury. Diffuse trauma to the brain is frequently associated with DIFFUSE AXONAL INJURY or COMA, POST-TRAUMATIC. Localized injuries may be associated with NEUROBEHAVIORAL MANIFESTATIONS; HEMIPARESIS, or other focal neurologic deficits.

A procedure consisting of a sequence of algebraic formulas and/or logical steps to calculate or determine a given task.

Neoplasms of the intracranial components of the central nervous system, including the cerebral hemispheres, basal ganglia, hypothalamus, thalamus, brain stem, and cerebellum. Brain neoplasms are subdivided into primary (originating from brain tissue) and secondary (i.e., metastatic) forms. Primary neoplasms are subdivided into benign and malignant forms. In general, brain tumors may also be classified by age of onset, histologic type, or presenting location in the brain.

The statistical reproducibility of measurements (often in a clinical context), including the testing of instrumentation or techniques to obtain reproducible results. The concept includes reproducibility of physiological measurements, which may be used to develop rules to assess probability or prognosis, or response to a stimulus; reproducibility of occurrence of a condition; and reproducibility of experimental results.

Increased intracellular or extracellular fluid in brain tissue. Cytotoxic brain edema (swelling due to increased intracellular fluid) is indicative of a disturbance in cell metabolism, and is commonly associated with hypoxic or ischemic injuries (see HYPOXIA, BRAIN). An increase in extracellular fluid may be caused by increased brain capillary permeability (vasogenic edema), an osmotic gradient, local blockages in interstitial fluid pathways, or by obstruction of CSF flow (e.g., obstructive HYDROCEPHALUS). (From Childs Nerv Syst 1992 Sep; 8(6):301-6)

The part of the brain that connects the CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES with the SPINAL CORD. It consists of the MESENCEPHALON; PONS; and MEDULLA OBLONGATA.

Localized reduction of blood flow to brain tissue due to arterial obstruction or systemic hypoperfusion. This frequently occurs in conjunction with brain hypoxia (HYPOXIA, BRAIN). Prolonged ischemia is associated with BRAIN INFARCTION.

Analysis of PEPTIDES that are generated from the digestion or fragmentation of a protein or mixture of PROTEINS, by ELECTROPHORESIS; CHROMATOGRAPHY; or MASS SPECTROMETRY. The resulting peptide fingerprints are analyzed for a variety of purposes including the identification of the proteins in a sample, GENETIC POLYMORPHISMS, patterns of gene expression, and patterns diagnostic for diseases.

Methods used for studying the interactions of antibodies with specific regions of protein antigens. Important applications of epitope mapping are found within the area of immunochemistry.

A circumscribed collection of purulent exudate in the brain, due to bacterial and other infections. The majority are caused by spread of infected material from a focus of suppuration elsewhere in the body, notably the PARANASAL SINUSES, middle ear (see EAR, MIDDLE); HEART (see also ENDOCARDITIS, BACTERIAL), and LUNG. Penetrating CRANIOCEREBRAL TRAUMA and NEUROSURGICAL PROCEDURES may also be associated with this condition. Clinical manifestations include HEADACHE; SEIZURES; focal neurologic deficits; and alterations of consciousness. (Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp712-6)

Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.

Mapping of the linear order of genes on a chromosome with units indicating their distances by using methods other than genetic recombination. These methods include nucleotide sequencing, overlapping deletions in polytene chromosomes, and electron micrography of heteroduplex DNA. (From King & Stansfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 5th ed)

Recording of regional electrophysiological information by analysis of surface potentials to give a complete picture of the effects of the currents from the heart on the body surface. It has been applied to the diagnosis of old inferior myocardial infarction, localization of the bypass pathway in Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome, recognition of ventricular hypertrophy, estimation of the size of a myocardial infarct, and the effects of different interventions designed to reduce infarct size. The limiting factor at present is the complexity of the recording and analysis, which requires 100 or more electrodes, sophisticated instrumentation, and dedicated personnel. (Braunwald, Heart Disease, 4th ed)

The basic cellular units of nervous tissue. Each neuron consists of a body, an axon, and dendrites. Their purpose is to receive, conduct, and transmit impulses in the NERVOUS SYSTEM.

The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.

A phenotypically recognizable genetic trait which can be used to identify a genetic locus, a linkage group, or a recombination event.

A reduction in brain oxygen supply due to ANOXEMIA (a reduced amount of oxygen being carried in the blood by HEMOGLOBIN), or to a restriction of the blood supply to the brain, or both. Severe hypoxia is referred to as anoxia, and is a relatively common cause of injury to the central nervous system. Prolonged brain anoxia may lead to BRAIN DEATH or a PERSISTENT VEGETATIVE STATE. Histologically, this condition is characterized by neuronal loss which is most prominent in the HIPPOCAMPUS; GLOBUS PALLIDUS; CEREBELLUM; and inferior olives.

The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.

Specialized non-fenestrated tightly-joined ENDOTHELIAL CELLS with TIGHT JUNCTIONS that form a transport barrier for certain substances between the cerebral capillaries and the BRAIN tissue.

Recording the locations and measurements of electrical activity in the EPICARDIUM by placing electrodes on the surface of the heart to analyze the patterns of activation and to locate arrhythmogenic sites.

Use of restriction endonucleases to analyze and generate a physical map of genomes, genes, or other segments of DNA.

The co-inheritance of two or more non-allelic GENES due to their being located more or less closely on the same CHROMOSOME.

A condition characterized by long-standing brain dysfunction or damage, usually of three months duration or longer. Potential etiologies include BRAIN INFARCTION; certain NEURODEGENERATIVE DISORDERS; CRANIOCEREBRAL TRAUMA; ANOXIA, BRAIN; ENCEPHALITIS; certain NEUROTOXICITY SYNDROMES; metabolic disorders (see BRAIN DISEASES, METABOLIC); and other conditions.

A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.

Works containing information articles on subjects in every field of knowledge, usually arranged in alphabetical order, or a similar work limited to a special field or subject. (From The ALA Glossary of Library and Information Science, 1983)

The combination of genetic and optical methods in controlling specific events with temporal precision in targeted cells of a functioning intact biological system.

A discipline concerned with studying biological phenomena in terms of the chemical and physical interactions of molecules.

On the neural correlates of visual perception. (1/14812)

Neurological findings suggest that the human striate cortex (V1) is an indispensable component of a neural substratum subserving static achromatic form perception in its own right and not simply as a central distributor of retinally derived information to extrastriate visual areas. This view is further supported by physiological evidence in primates that the finest-grained conjoined representation of spatial detail and retinotopic localization that underlies phenomenal visual experience for local brightness discriminations is selectively represented at cortical levels by the activity of certain neurons in V1. However, at first glance, support for these ideas would appear to be undermined by incontrovertible neurological evidence (visual hemineglect and the simultanagnosias) and recent psychophysical results on 'crowding' that confirm that activation of neurons in V1 may, at times, be insufficient to generate a percept. Moreover, a recent proposal suggests that neural correlates of visual awareness must project directly to those in executive space, thus automatically excluding V1 from a related perceptual space because V1 lacks such direct projections. Both sets of concerns are, however, resolved within the context of adaptive resonance theories. Recursive loops, linking the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) through successive cortical visual areas to the temporal lobe by means of a series of ascending and descending pathways, provide a neuronal substratum at each level within a modular framework for mutually consistent descriptions of sensory data. At steady state, such networks obviate the necessity that neural correlates of visual experience project directly to those in executive space because a neural phenomenal perceptual space subserving form vision is continuously updated by information from an object recognition space equivalent to that destined to reach executive space. Within this framework, activity in V1 may engender percepts that accompany figure-ground segregations only when dynamic incongruities are resolved both within and between ascending and descending streams. Synchronous neuronal activity on a short timescale within and across cortical areas, proposed and sometimes observed as perceptual correlates, may also serve as a marker that a steady state has been achieved, which, in turn, may be a requirement for the longer time constants that accompany the emergence and stability of perceptual states compared to the faster dynamics of adapting networks and the still faster dynamics of individual action potentials. Finally, the same consensus of neuronal activity across ascending and descending pathways linking multiple cortical areas that in anatomic sequence subserve phenomenal visual experiences and object recognition may underlie the normal unity of conscious experience. (+info)

Physiological characteristics of capacity constraints in working memory as revealed by functional MRI. (2/14812)

A fundamental characteristic of working memory is that its capacity to handle information is limited. While there have been many brain mapping studies of working memory, the physiological basis of its capacity limitation has not been explained. We identified characteristics of working memory capacity using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in healthy subjects. Working memory capacity was studied using a parametric 'n-back' working memory task involving increasing cognitive load and ultimately decreasing task performance. Loci within dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) evinced exclusively an 'inverted-U' shaped neurophysiological response from lowest to highest load, consistent with a capacity-constrained response. Regions outside of DLPFC, in contrast, were more heterogeneous in response and often showed early plateau or continuously increasing responses, which did not reflect capacity constraints. However, sporadic loci, including in the premotor cortex, thalamus and superior parietal lobule, also demonstrated putative capacity-constrained responses, perhaps arising as an upstream effect of DLPFC limitations or as part of a broader network-wide capacity limitation. These results demonstrate that regionally specific nodes within the working memory network are capacity-constrained in the physiological domain, providing a missing link in current explorations of the capacity characteristics of working memory. (+info)

Morphogenesis of callosal arbors in the parietal cortex of hamsters. (3/14812)

The morphogenesis of callosal axons originating in the parietal cortex was studied by anterograde labeling with Phaseolus lectin or biocytin injected in postnatal (P) hamsters aged 7-25 days. Some labeled fibers were serially reconstructed. At P7, some callosal fibers extended as far as the contralateral rhinal fissure, with simple arbors located in the homotopic region of the opposite cortical gray matter, and two or three unbranched sprouts along their trajectory. From P7 to P13, the homotopic arbors became more complex, with branches focused predominantly, but not exclusively, in the supra- and infragranular layers of the homotopic region. Simultaneously, the lateral extension of the trunk axon in the white matter became shorter, finally disappearing by P25. Arbors in the gray matter were either bilaminar (layers 2/3 and 5) or supragranular. A heterotopic projection to the lateral cortex was consistently seen at all ages; the heterotopic arbors follow a similar sequence of events to that seen in homotopic regions. These observations document that callosal axons undergo regressive tangential remodeling during the first postnatal month, as the lateral extension of the trunk fiber gets eliminated. Radially, however, significant arborization occurs in layer-specific locations. The protracted period of morphogenesis suggests a correspondingly long plastic period for this system of cortical fibers. (+info)

The functional anatomy of the normal human auditory system: responses to 0.5 and 4.0 kHz tones at varied intensities. (4/14812)

Most functional imaging studies of the auditory system have employed complex stimuli. We used positron emission tomography to map neural responses to 0.5 and 4.0 kHz sine-wave tones presented to the right ear at 30, 50, 70 and 90 dB HL and found activation in a complex neural network of elements traditionally associated with the auditory system as well as non-traditional sites such as the posterior cingulate cortex. Cingulate activity was maximal at low stimulus intensities, suggesting that it may function as a gain control center. In the right temporal lobe, the location of the maximal response varied with the intensity, but not with the frequency of the stimuli. In the left temporal lobe, there was evidence for tonotopic organization: a site lateral to the left primary auditory cortex was activated equally by both tones while a second site in primary auditory cortex was more responsive to the higher frequency. Infratentorial activations were contralateral to the stimulated ear and included the lateral cerebellum, the lateral pontine tegmentum, the midbrain and the medial geniculate. Contrary to predictions based on cochlear membrane mechanics, at each intensity, 4.0 kHz stimuli were more potent activators of the brain than the 0.5 kHz stimuli. (+info)

Trans-synaptically induced bursts in regular spiking non-pyramidal cells in deep layers of the cat motor cortex. (5/14812)

In deep layers of the cat motor cortex, we have investigated the properties of neurons displaying trans-synaptically induced bursts. In in vivo experiments, extracellularly recorded burst neurons were separated into two subtypes based on their dependence on stimulation sites, the medullary pyramid or the ventrolateral (VL) thalamic nucleus, from which bursts of 10-20 spikes were triggered. The spike amplitude attenuation and frequency adaptation during a burst were more prominent in pyramid-dependent burst neurons than in VL-dependent burst neurons. Intracellular recordings in in vivo experiments revealed that pyramid-dependent bursts emerged from a long-lasting depolarization, while each spike during a VL-dependent burst was narrow in half-width and was followed by a fast AHP, similar to fast spiking neurons. In in vitro slice experiments, intracellular recordings were obtained from neurons that displayed a burst of attenuated spikes emerging from a long-lasting depolarization, and were also obtained from fast spiking neurons. They were morphologically recovered to be multipolar cells with sparsely spiny dendrites and local axonal networks, suggesting that they are inhibitory interneurons. The multipolar neurons displaying bursts of attenuated spikes may mediate the recurrent inhibition of pyramidal tract cells. (+info)

Neural mapping of direction and frequency in the cricket cercal sensory system. (6/14812)

Primary mechanosensory receptors and interneurons in the cricket cercal sensory system are sensitive to the direction and frequency of air current stimuli. Receptors innervating long mechanoreceptor hairs (>1000 microm) are most sensitive to low-frequency air currents (<150 Hz); receptors innervating medium-length hairs (900-500 microm) are most sensitive to higher frequency ranges (150-400 Hz). Previous studies demonstrated that the projection pattern of the synaptic arborizations of long hair receptor afferents form a continuous map of air current direction within the terminal abdominal ganglion (). We demonstrate here that the projection pattern of the medium-length hair afferents also forms a continuous map of stimulus direction. However, the afferents from the long and medium-length hair afferents show very little spatial segregation with respect to their frequency sensitivity. The possible functional significance of this small degree of spatial segregation was investigated, by calculating the relative overlap between the long and medium-length hair afferents with the dendrites of two interneurons that are known to have different frequency sensitivities. Both interneurons were shown to have nearly equal anatomical overlap with long and medium hair afferents. Thus, the differential overlap of these interneurons with the two different classes of afferents was not adequate to explain the observed frequency selectivity of the interneurons. Other mechanisms such as selective connectivity between subsets of afferents and interneurons and/or differences in interneuron biophysical properties must play a role in establishing the frequency selectivities of these interneurons. (+info)

Major changes in the brain histamine system of the ground squirrel Citellus lateralis during hibernation. (7/14812)

Hibernation in mammals such as the rodent hibernator Citellus lateralis is a physiological state in which CNS activity is endogenously maintained at a very low, but functionally responsive, level. The neurotransmitter histamine is involved in the regulation of diurnal rhythms and body temperature in nonhibernators and, therefore, could likely play an important role in maintaining the hibernating state. In this study, we show that histamine neuronal systems undergo major changes during hibernation that are consistent with such a role. Immunohistochemical mapping of histaminergic fibers in the brains of hibernating and nonhibernating golden-mantled ground squirrels (C. lateralis) showed a clear increase in fiber density during the hibernating state. The tissue levels of histamine and its first metabolite tele-methylhistamine were also elevated throughout the brain of hibernating animals, suggesting an increase in histamine turnover during hibernation, which occurs without an increase in histidine decarboxylase mRNA expression. This hibernation-related apparent augmentation of histaminergic neurotransmission was particularly evident in the hypothalamus and hippocampus, areas of importance to the control of the hibernating state, in which tele-methylhistamine levels were increased more than threefold. These changes in the histamine neuronal system differ from those reported for the metabolic pattern in other monoaminergic systems during hibernation, which generally indicate a decrease in turnover. Our results suggest that the influence of histamine neuronal systems may be important in controlling CNS activity during hibernation. (+info)

The effect of face inversion on activity in human neural systems for face and object perception. (8/14812)

The differential effect of stimulus inversion on face and object recognition suggests that inverted faces are processed by mechanisms for the perception of other objects rather than by face perception mechanisms. We investigated the face inversion using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). The principal effect of face inversion on was an increased response in ventral extrastriate regions that respond preferentially to another class of objects (houses). In contrast, house inversion did not produce a similar change in face-selective regions. Moreover, stimulus inversion had equivalent, minimal effects for faces in in face-selective regions and for houses in house-selective regions. The results suggest that the failure of face perception systems with inverted faces leads to the recruitment of processing resources in object perception systems, but this failure is not reflected by altered activity in face perception systems. (+info)

Brain mapping is a broad term that refers to the techniques used to understand the structure and function of the brain. It involves creating maps of the various cognitive, emotional, and behavioral processes in the brain by correlating these processes with physical locations or activities within the nervous system. Brain mapping can be accomplished through a variety of methods, including functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), positron emission tomography (PET) scans, electroencephalography (EEG), and others. These techniques allow researchers to observe which areas of the brain are active during different tasks or thoughts, helping to shed light on how the brain processes information and contributes to our experiences and behaviors. Brain mapping is an important area of research in neuroscience, with potential applications in the diagnosis and treatment of neurological and psychiatric disorders.

Medical Definition:

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a non-invasive diagnostic imaging technique that uses a strong magnetic field and radio waves to create detailed cross-sectional or three-dimensional images of the internal structures of the body. The patient lies within a large, cylindrical magnet, and the scanner detects changes in the direction of the magnetic field caused by protons in the body. These changes are then converted into detailed images that help medical professionals to diagnose and monitor various medical conditions, such as tumors, injuries, or diseases affecting the brain, spinal cord, heart, blood vessels, joints, and other internal organs. MRI does not use radiation like computed tomography (CT) scans.

Echolalia is a term used in the field of medicine, specifically in neurology and psychology. It refers to the repetition of words or phrases spoken by another person, mimicking their speech in a near identical manner. This behavior is often observed in individuals with developmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

Echolalia can be either immediate or delayed. Immediate echolalia occurs when an individual repeats the words or phrases immediately after they are spoken by someone else. Delayed echolalia, on the other hand, involves the repetition of words or phrases that were heard at an earlier time.

Echolalia is not necessarily a pathological symptom and can be a normal part of language development in young children who are learning to speak. However, when it persists beyond the age of 3-4 years or occurs in older individuals with developmental disorders, it may indicate difficulties with initiating spontaneous speech or forming original thoughts and ideas.

In some cases, echolalia can serve as a communication tool for individuals with ASD who have limited verbal abilities. By repeating words or phrases that they have heard before, they may be able to convey their needs or emotions in situations where they are unable to generate appropriate language on their own.

The brain is the central organ of the nervous system, responsible for receiving and processing sensory information, regulating vital functions, and controlling behavior, movement, and cognition. It is divided into several distinct regions, each with specific functions:

1. Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions such as thinking, learning, memory, language, and perception. It is divided into two hemispheres, each controlling the opposite side of the body.
2. Cerebellum: Located at the back of the brain, it is responsible for coordinating muscle movements, maintaining balance, and fine-tuning motor skills.
3. Brainstem: Connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord, controlling vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. It also serves as a relay center for sensory information and motor commands between the brain and the rest of the body.
4. Diencephalon: A region that includes the thalamus (a major sensory relay station) and hypothalamus (regulates hormones, temperature, hunger, thirst, and sleep).
5. Limbic system: A group of structures involved in emotional processing, memory formation, and motivation, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus.

The brain is composed of billions of interconnected neurons that communicate through electrical and chemical signals. It is protected by the skull and surrounded by three layers of membranes called meninges, as well as cerebrospinal fluid that provides cushioning and nutrients.

Computer-assisted image processing is a medical term that refers to the use of computer systems and specialized software to improve, analyze, and interpret medical images obtained through various imaging techniques such as X-ray, CT (computed tomography), MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), ultrasound, and others.

The process typically involves several steps, including image acquisition, enhancement, segmentation, restoration, and analysis. Image processing algorithms can be used to enhance the quality of medical images by adjusting contrast, brightness, and sharpness, as well as removing noise and artifacts that may interfere with accurate diagnosis. Segmentation techniques can be used to isolate specific regions or structures of interest within an image, allowing for more detailed analysis.

Computer-assisted image processing has numerous applications in medical imaging, including detection and characterization of lesions, tumors, and other abnormalities; assessment of organ function and morphology; and guidance of interventional procedures such as biopsies and surgeries. By automating and standardizing image analysis tasks, computer-assisted image processing can help to improve diagnostic accuracy, efficiency, and consistency, while reducing the potential for human error.

Neurosurgical procedures are operations that are performed on the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. These procedures are typically carried out by neurosurgeons, who are medical doctors with specialized training in the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of the nervous system. Neurosurgical procedures can be used to treat a wide range of conditions, including traumatic injuries, tumors, aneurysms, vascular malformations, infections, degenerative diseases, and congenital abnormalities.

Some common types of neurosurgical procedures include:

* Craniotomy: A procedure in which a bone flap is temporarily removed from the skull to gain access to the brain. This type of procedure may be performed to remove a tumor, repair a blood vessel, or relieve pressure on the brain.
* Spinal fusion: A procedure in which two or more vertebrae in the spine are fused together using bone grafts and metal hardware. This is often done to stabilize the spine and alleviate pain caused by degenerative conditions or spinal deformities.
* Microvascular decompression: A procedure in which a blood vessel that is causing pressure on a nerve is repositioned or removed. This type of procedure is often used to treat trigeminal neuralgia, a condition that causes severe facial pain.
* Deep brain stimulation: A procedure in which electrodes are implanted in specific areas of the brain and connected to a battery-operated device called a neurostimulator. The neurostimulator sends electrical impulses to the brain to help alleviate symptoms of movement disorders such as Parkinson's disease or dystonia.
* Stereotactic radiosurgery: A non-invasive procedure that uses focused beams of radiation to treat tumors, vascular malformations, and other abnormalities in the brain or spine. This type of procedure is often used for patients who are not good candidates for traditional surgery due to age, health status, or location of the lesion.

Neurosurgical procedures can be complex and require a high degree of skill and expertise. Patients considering neurosurgical treatment should consult with a qualified neurosurgeon to discuss their options and determine the best course of action for their individual situation.

Chromosome mapping, also known as physical mapping, is the process of determining the location and order of specific genes or genetic markers on a chromosome. This is typically done by using various laboratory techniques to identify landmarks along the chromosome, such as restriction enzyme cutting sites or patterns of DNA sequence repeats. The resulting map provides important information about the organization and structure of the genome, and can be used for a variety of purposes, including identifying the location of genes associated with genetic diseases, studying evolutionary relationships between organisms, and developing genetic markers for use in breeding or forensic applications.

The intraoperative period is the phase of surgical treatment that refers to the time during which the surgery is being performed. It begins when the anesthesia is administered and the patient is prepared for the operation, and it ends when the surgery is completed, the anesthesia is discontinued, and the patient is transferred to the recovery room or intensive care unit (ICU).

During the intraoperative period, the surgical team, including surgeons, anesthesiologists, nurses, and other healthcare professionals, work together to carry out the surgical procedure safely and effectively. The anesthesiologist monitors the patient's vital signs, such as heart rate, blood pressure, oxygen saturation, and body temperature, throughout the surgery to ensure that the patient remains stable and does not experience any complications.

The surgeon performs the operation, using various surgical techniques and instruments to achieve the desired outcome. The surgical team also takes measures to prevent infection, control bleeding, and manage pain during and after the surgery.

Overall, the intraoperative period is a critical phase of surgical treatment that requires close collaboration and communication among members of the healthcare team to ensure the best possible outcomes for the patient.

Three-dimensional (3D) imaging in medicine refers to the use of technologies and techniques that generate a 3D representation of internal body structures, organs, or tissues. This is achieved by acquiring and processing data from various imaging modalities such as X-ray computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ultrasound, or confocal microscopy. The resulting 3D images offer a more detailed visualization of the anatomy and pathology compared to traditional 2D imaging techniques, allowing for improved diagnostic accuracy, surgical planning, and minimally invasive interventions.

In 3D imaging, specialized software is used to reconstruct the acquired data into a volumetric model, which can be manipulated and viewed from different angles and perspectives. This enables healthcare professionals to better understand complex anatomical relationships, detect abnormalities, assess disease progression, and monitor treatment response. Common applications of 3D imaging include neuroimaging, orthopedic surgery planning, cancer staging, dental and maxillofacial reconstruction, and interventional radiology procedures.

The cerebral cortex is the outermost layer of the brain, characterized by its intricate folded structure and wrinkled appearance. It is a region of great importance as it plays a key role in higher cognitive functions such as perception, consciousness, thought, memory, language, and attention. The cerebral cortex is divided into two hemispheres, each containing four lobes: the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. These areas are responsible for different functions, with some regions specializing in sensory processing while others are involved in motor control or associative functions. The cerebral cortex is composed of gray matter, which contains neuronal cell bodies, and is covered by a layer of white matter that consists mainly of myelinated nerve fibers.

Electroencephalography (EEG) is a medical procedure that records electrical activity in the brain. It uses small, metal discs called electrodes, which are attached to the scalp with paste or a specialized cap. These electrodes detect tiny electrical charges that result from the activity of brain cells, and the EEG machine then amplifies and records these signals.

EEG is used to diagnose various conditions related to the brain, such as seizures, sleep disorders, head injuries, infections, and degenerative diseases like Alzheimer's or Parkinson's. It can also be used during surgery to monitor brain activity and ensure that surgical procedures do not interfere with vital functions.

EEG is a safe and non-invasive procedure that typically takes about 30 minutes to an hour to complete, although longer recordings may be necessary in some cases. Patients are usually asked to relax and remain still during the test, as movement can affect the quality of the recording.

The somatosensory cortex is a part of the brain located in the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe, which is responsible for processing sensory information from the body. It receives and integrates tactile, proprioceptive, and thermoception inputs from the skin, muscles, joints, and internal organs, allowing us to perceive and interpret touch, pressure, pain, temperature, vibration, position, and movement of our body parts. The somatosensory cortex is organized in a map-like manner, known as the sensory homunculus, where each body part is represented according to its relative sensitivity and density of innervation. This organization allows for precise localization and discrimination of tactile stimuli across the body surface.

Brain chemistry refers to the chemical processes that occur within the brain, particularly those involving neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, and neuropeptides. These chemicals are responsible for transmitting signals between neurons (nerve cells) in the brain, allowing for various cognitive, emotional, and physical functions.

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse (the tiny gap between two neurons). Examples of neurotransmitters include dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), and glutamate. Each neurotransmitter has a specific role in brain function, such as regulating mood, motivation, attention, memory, and movement.

Neuromodulators are chemicals that modify the effects of neurotransmitters on neurons. They can enhance or inhibit the transmission of signals between neurons, thereby modulating brain activity. Examples of neuromodulators include acetylcholine, histamine, and substance P.

Neuropeptides are small protein-like molecules that act as neurotransmitters or neuromodulators. They play a role in various physiological functions, such as pain perception, stress response, and reward processing. Examples of neuropeptides include endorphins, enkephalins, and oxytocin.

Abnormalities in brain chemistry can lead to various neurological and psychiatric conditions, such as depression, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. Understanding brain chemistry is crucial for developing effective treatments for these conditions.

Cerebrovascular circulation refers to the network of blood vessels that supply oxygenated blood and nutrients to the brain tissue, and remove waste products. It includes the internal carotid arteries, vertebral arteries, circle of Willis, and the intracranial arteries that branch off from them.

The internal carotid arteries and vertebral arteries merge to form the circle of Willis, a polygonal network of vessels located at the base of the brain. The anterior cerebral artery, middle cerebral artery, posterior cerebral artery, and communicating arteries are the major vessels that branch off from the circle of Willis and supply blood to different regions of the brain.

Interruptions or abnormalities in the cerebrovascular circulation can lead to various neurological conditions such as stroke, transient ischemic attack (TIA), and vascular dementia.

A brain injury is defined as damage to the brain that occurs following an external force or trauma, such as a blow to the head, a fall, or a motor vehicle accident. Brain injuries can also result from internal conditions, such as lack of oxygen or a stroke. There are two main types of brain injuries: traumatic and acquired.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is caused by an external force that results in the brain moving within the skull or the skull being fractured. Mild TBIs may result in temporary symptoms such as headaches, confusion, and memory loss, while severe TBIs can cause long-term complications, including physical, cognitive, and emotional impairments.

Acquired brain injury (ABI) is any injury to the brain that occurs after birth and is not hereditary, congenital, or degenerative. ABIs are often caused by medical conditions such as strokes, tumors, anoxia (lack of oxygen), or infections.

Both TBIs and ABIs can range from mild to severe and may result in a variety of physical, cognitive, and emotional symptoms that can impact a person's ability to perform daily activities and function independently. Treatment for brain injuries typically involves a multidisciplinary approach, including medical management, rehabilitation, and supportive care.

An algorithm is not a medical term, but rather a concept from computer science and mathematics. In the context of medicine, algorithms are often used to describe step-by-step procedures for diagnosing or managing medical conditions. These procedures typically involve a series of rules or decision points that help healthcare professionals make informed decisions about patient care.

For example, an algorithm for diagnosing a particular type of heart disease might involve taking a patient's medical history, performing a physical exam, ordering certain diagnostic tests, and interpreting the results in a specific way. By following this algorithm, healthcare professionals can ensure that they are using a consistent and evidence-based approach to making a diagnosis.

Algorithms can also be used to guide treatment decisions. For instance, an algorithm for managing diabetes might involve setting target blood sugar levels, recommending certain medications or lifestyle changes based on the patient's individual needs, and monitoring the patient's response to treatment over time.

Overall, algorithms are valuable tools in medicine because they help standardize clinical decision-making and ensure that patients receive high-quality care based on the latest scientific evidence.

Brain neoplasms, also known as brain tumors, are abnormal growths of cells within the brain. These growths can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Benign brain tumors typically grow slowly and do not spread to other parts of the body. However, they can still cause serious problems if they press on sensitive areas of the brain. Malignant brain tumors, on the other hand, are cancerous and can grow quickly, invading surrounding brain tissue and spreading to other parts of the brain or spinal cord.

Brain neoplasms can arise from various types of cells within the brain, including glial cells (which provide support and insulation for nerve cells), neurons (nerve cells that transmit signals in the brain), and meninges (the membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord). They can also result from the spread of cancer cells from other parts of the body, known as metastatic brain tumors.

Symptoms of brain neoplasms may vary depending on their size, location, and growth rate. Common symptoms include headaches, seizures, weakness or paralysis in the limbs, difficulty with balance and coordination, changes in speech or vision, confusion, memory loss, and changes in behavior or personality.

Treatment for brain neoplasms depends on several factors, including the type, size, location, and grade of the tumor, as well as the patient's age and overall health. Treatment options may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, or a combination of these approaches. Regular follow-up care is essential to monitor for recurrence and manage any long-term effects of treatment.

Reproducibility of results in a medical context refers to the ability to obtain consistent and comparable findings when a particular experiment or study is repeated, either by the same researcher or by different researchers, following the same experimental protocol. It is an essential principle in scientific research that helps to ensure the validity and reliability of research findings.

In medical research, reproducibility of results is crucial for establishing the effectiveness and safety of new treatments, interventions, or diagnostic tools. It involves conducting well-designed studies with adequate sample sizes, appropriate statistical analyses, and transparent reporting of methods and findings to allow other researchers to replicate the study and confirm or refute the results.

The lack of reproducibility in medical research has become a significant concern in recent years, as several high-profile studies have failed to produce consistent findings when replicated by other researchers. This has led to increased scrutiny of research practices and a call for greater transparency, rigor, and standardization in the conduct and reporting of medical research.

Brain edema is a medical condition characterized by the abnormal accumulation of fluid in the brain, leading to an increase in intracranial pressure. This can result from various causes, such as traumatic brain injury, stroke, infection, brain tumors, or inflammation. The swelling of the brain can compress vital structures, impair blood flow, and cause neurological symptoms, which may range from mild headaches to severe cognitive impairment, seizures, coma, or even death if not treated promptly and effectively.

The brainstem is the lower part of the brain that connects to the spinal cord. It consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. The brainstem controls many vital functions such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure. It also serves as a relay center for sensory and motor information between the cerebral cortex and the rest of the body. Additionally, several cranial nerves originate from the brainstem, including those that control eye movements, facial movements, and hearing.

Brain ischemia is the medical term used to describe a reduction or interruption of blood flow to the brain, leading to a lack of oxygen and glucose delivery to brain tissue. This can result in brain damage or death of brain cells, known as infarction. Brain ischemia can be caused by various conditions such as thrombosis (blood clot formation), embolism (obstruction of a blood vessel by a foreign material), or hypoperfusion (reduced blood flow). The severity and duration of the ischemia determine the extent of brain damage. Symptoms can range from mild, such as transient ischemic attacks (TIAs or "mini-strokes"), to severe, including paralysis, speech difficulties, loss of consciousness, and even death. Immediate medical attention is required for proper diagnosis and treatment to prevent further damage and potential long-term complications.

Peptide mapping is a technique used in proteomics and analytical chemistry to analyze and identify the sequence and structure of peptides or proteins. This method involves breaking down a protein into smaller peptide fragments using enzymatic or chemical digestion, followed by separation and identification of these fragments through various analytical techniques such as liquid chromatography (LC) and mass spectrometry (MS).

The resulting peptide map serves as a "fingerprint" of the protein, providing information about its sequence, modifications, and structure. Peptide mapping can be used for a variety of applications, including protein identification, characterization of post-translational modifications, and monitoring of protein degradation or cleavage.

In summary, peptide mapping is a powerful tool in proteomics that enables the analysis and identification of proteins and their modifications at the peptide level.

Epitope mapping is a technique used in immunology to identify the specific portion or regions (called epitopes) on an antigen that are recognized and bind to antibodies or T-cell receptors. This process helps to understand the molecular basis of immune responses against various pathogens, allergens, or transplanted tissues.

Epitope mapping can be performed using different methods such as:

1. Peptide scanning: In this method, a series of overlapping peptides spanning the entire length of the antigen are synthesized and tested for their ability to bind to antibodies or T-cell receptors. The peptide that shows binding is considered to contain the epitope.
2. Site-directed mutagenesis: In this approach, specific amino acids within the antigen are altered, and the modified antigens are tested for their ability to bind to antibodies or T-cell receptors. This helps in identifying the critical residues within the epitope.
3. X-ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy: These techniques provide detailed information about the three-dimensional structure of antigen-antibody complexes, allowing for accurate identification of epitopes at an atomic level.

The results from epitope mapping can be useful in various applications, including vaccine design, diagnostic test development, and understanding the basis of autoimmune diseases.

A brain abscess is a localized collection of pus in the brain that is caused by an infection. It can develop as a result of a bacterial, fungal, or parasitic infection that spreads to the brain from another part of the body or from an infection that starts in the brain itself (such as from a head injury or surgery).

The symptoms of a brain abscess may include headache, fever, confusion, seizures, weakness or numbness on one side of the body, and changes in vision, speech, or behavior. Treatment typically involves antibiotics to treat the infection, as well as surgical drainage of the abscess to relieve pressure on the brain.

It is a serious medical condition that requires prompt diagnosis and treatment to prevent potentially life-threatening complications such as brain herniation or permanent neurological damage.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Physical chromosome mapping, also known as physical mapping or genomic mapping, is the process of determining the location and order of specific genes or DNA sequences along a chromosome based on their physical distance from one another. This is typically done by using various laboratory techniques such as restriction enzyme digestion, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), and chromosome walking to identify the precise location of a particular gene or sequence on a chromosome.

Physical chromosome mapping provides important information about the organization and structure of chromosomes, and it is essential for understanding genetic diseases and disorders. By identifying the specific genes and DNA sequences that are associated with certain conditions, researchers can develop targeted therapies and treatments to improve patient outcomes. Additionally, physical chromosome mapping is an important tool for studying evolution and comparative genomics, as it allows scientists to compare the genetic makeup of different species and identify similarities and differences between them.

Body Surface Potential Mapping (BSPM) is a non-invasive medical technique used to record and analyze the electrical activity of the heart from the surface of the body. It involves placing multiple electrodes on the skin of the chest, back, and limbs to measure the potential differences between these points during each heartbeat. This information is then used to create a detailed, visual representation of the electrical activation pattern of the heart, which can help in the diagnosis and evaluation of various cardiac disorders such as arrhythmias, myocardial infarction, and ventricular hypertrophy.

The BSPM technique provides high-resolution spatial and temporal information about the cardiac electrical activity, making it a valuable tool for both clinical and research purposes. It can help identify the origin and spread of abnormal electrical signals in the heart, which is crucial for determining appropriate treatment strategies. Overall, Body Surface Potential Mapping is an important diagnostic modality that offers unique insights into the electrical functioning of the heart.

Neurons, also known as nerve cells or neurocytes, are specialized cells that constitute the basic unit of the nervous system. They are responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting information and signals within the body. Neurons have three main parts: the dendrites, the cell body (soma), and the axon. The dendrites receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptors, while the axon transmits these signals to other neurons, muscles, or glands. The junction between two neurons is called a synapse, where neurotransmitters are released to transmit the signal across the gap (synaptic cleft) to the next neuron. Neurons vary in size, shape, and structure depending on their function and location within the nervous system.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

Genetic markers are specific segments of DNA that are used in genetic mapping and genotyping to identify specific genetic locations, diseases, or traits. They can be composed of short tandem repeats (STRs), single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs), or variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs). These markers are useful in various fields such as genetic research, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and breeding programs. They can help to track inheritance patterns, identify genetic predispositions to diseases, and solve crimes by linking biological evidence to suspects or victims.

Brain hypoxia is a medical condition characterized by a reduced supply of oxygen to the brain. The brain requires a continuous supply of oxygen to function properly, and even a brief period of hypoxia can cause significant damage to brain cells.

Hypoxia can result from various conditions, such as cardiac arrest, respiratory failure, carbon monoxide poisoning, or high altitude exposure. When the brain is deprived of oxygen, it can lead to a range of symptoms, including confusion, disorientation, seizures, loss of consciousness, and ultimately, brain death.

Brain hypoxia is a medical emergency that requires immediate treatment to prevent long-term neurological damage or death. Treatment typically involves addressing the underlying cause of hypoxia, such as administering oxygen therapy, resuscitating the heart, or treating respiratory failure. In some cases, more invasive treatments, such as therapeutic hypothermia or mechanical ventilation, may be necessary to prevent further brain damage.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

The Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) is a highly specialized, selective interface between the central nervous system (CNS) and the circulating blood. It is formed by unique endothelial cells that line the brain's capillaries, along with tight junctions, astrocytic foot processes, and pericytes, which together restrict the passage of substances from the bloodstream into the CNS. This barrier serves to protect the brain from harmful agents and maintain a stable environment for proper neural function. However, it also poses a challenge in delivering therapeutics to the CNS, as most large and hydrophilic molecules cannot cross the BBB.

Epicardial mapping is a medical procedure used to create a detailed map of the electrical activity on the surface of the heart (epicardium). This technique is often used during electrophysiology studies to help diagnose and locate the source of abnormal heart rhythms, such as ventricular tachycardia or atrial fibrillation.

During epicardial mapping, a specialist (usually an electrophysiologist) will introduce a catheter through a vein or artery, which is then guided to the heart. Once in position, electrodes on the tip of the catheter record electrical signals from the heart's surface. These signals are used to create a detailed map of the heart's electrical activity, allowing the specialist to identify areas with abnormal electrical patterns.

This information can be crucial for determining the best course of treatment, such as targeted ablation therapy to eliminate the source of the arrhythmia. Epicardial mapping is typically performed in an electrophysiology lab or cardiac catheterization laboratory under fluoroscopy guidance, and it requires expertise in both cardiovascular medicine and interventional techniques.

Restriction mapping is a technique used in molecular biology to identify the location and arrangement of specific restriction endonuclease recognition sites within a DNA molecule. Restriction endonucleases are enzymes that cut double-stranded DNA at specific sequences, producing fragments of various lengths. By digesting the DNA with different combinations of these enzymes and analyzing the resulting fragment sizes through techniques such as agarose gel electrophoresis, researchers can generate a restriction map - a visual representation of the locations and distances between recognition sites on the DNA molecule. This information is crucial for various applications, including cloning, genome analysis, and genetic engineering.

Genetic linkage is the phenomenon where two or more genetic loci (locations on a chromosome) tend to be inherited together because they are close to each other on the same chromosome. This occurs during the process of sexual reproduction, where homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange genetic material through a process called crossing over.

The closer two loci are to each other on a chromosome, the lower the probability that they will be separated by a crossover event. As a result, they are more likely to be inherited together and are said to be linked. The degree of linkage between two loci can be measured by their recombination frequency, which is the percentage of meiotic events in which a crossover occurs between them.

Linkage analysis is an important tool in genetic research, as it allows researchers to identify and map genes that are associated with specific traits or diseases. By analyzing patterns of linkage between markers (identifiable DNA sequences) and phenotypes (observable traits), researchers can infer the location of genes that contribute to those traits or diseases on chromosomes.

Chronic brain damage is a condition characterized by long-term, persistent injury to the brain that results in cognitive, physical, and behavioral impairments. It can be caused by various factors such as trauma, hypoxia (lack of oxygen), infection, toxic exposure, or degenerative diseases. The effects of chronic brain damage may not be immediately apparent and can worsen over time, leading to significant disability and reduced quality of life.

The symptoms of chronic brain damage can vary widely depending on the severity and location of the injury. They may include:

* Cognitive impairments such as memory loss, difficulty concentrating, trouble with problem-solving and decision-making, and decreased learning ability
* Motor impairments such as weakness, tremors, poor coordination, and balance problems
* Sensory impairments such as hearing or vision loss, numbness, tingling, or altered sense of touch
* Speech and language difficulties such as aphasia (problems with understanding or producing speech) or dysarthria (slurred or slow speech)
* Behavioral changes such as irritability, mood swings, depression, anxiety, and personality changes

Chronic brain damage can be diagnosed through a combination of medical history, physical examination, neurological evaluation, and imaging studies such as MRI or CT scans. Treatment typically focuses on managing symptoms and maximizing function through rehabilitation therapies such as occupational therapy, speech therapy, and physical therapy. In some cases, medication or surgery may be necessary to address specific symptoms or underlying causes of the brain damage.

Sprague-Dawley rats are a strain of albino laboratory rats that are widely used in scientific research. They were first developed by researchers H.H. Sprague and R.C. Dawley in the early 20th century, and have since become one of the most commonly used rat strains in biomedical research due to their relatively large size, ease of handling, and consistent genetic background.

Sprague-Dawley rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not suffer from the same limitations as inbred strains, which can have reduced fertility and increased susceptibility to certain diseases. They are also characterized by their docile nature and low levels of aggression, making them easier to handle and study than some other rat strains.

These rats are used in a wide variety of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, and behavioral studies. Because they are genetically diverse, Sprague-Dawley rats can be used to model a range of human diseases and conditions, making them an important tool in the development of new drugs and therapies.

An encyclopedia is a comprehensive reference work containing articles on various topics, usually arranged in alphabetical order. In the context of medicine, a medical encyclopedia is a collection of articles that provide information about a wide range of medical topics, including diseases and conditions, treatments, tests, procedures, and anatomy and physiology. Medical encyclopedias may be published in print or electronic formats and are often used as a starting point for researching medical topics. They can provide reliable and accurate information on medical subjects, making them useful resources for healthcare professionals, students, and patients alike. Some well-known examples of medical encyclopedias include the Merck Manual and the Stedman's Medical Dictionary.

Optogenetics is not a term with a specific medical definition, but it is a scientific technique that is used in biomedical research. Here's a general definition:

Optogenetics is a neuroscientific technique that involves the use of light to control and manipulate the activity of individual neurons or groups of neurons in living organisms, typically using genetic modification to introduce light-sensitive proteins into specific cells. This allows researchers to precisely control the electrical activity of targeted neurons with high temporal resolution, providing insights into their function and connectivity in various physiological and pathological processes.

Optogenetics has been used to study a wide range of neurological disorders, including epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, and addiction, among others. It is an interdisciplinary field that combines optics, genetics, molecular biology, and neuroscience.

Molecular biology is a branch of biology that deals with the structure, function, and organization of molecules involved in biological processes, especially informational molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins. It includes the study of molecular mechanisms of genetic inheritance, gene expression, protein synthesis, and cellular regulation. Molecular biology also involves the use of various experimental techniques to investigate and manipulate these molecules, including recombinant DNA technology, genomic sequencing, protein crystallography, and bioinformatics. The ultimate goal of molecular biology is to understand how biological systems work at a fundamental level and to apply this knowledge to improve human health and the environment.

Many mapping techniques have a relatively low resolution, including hundreds of thousands of neurons in a single voxel. (wikipedia.org)
It shows neurons and their connections along with blood vessels and other components of a millionth of a brain. (wikipedia.org)
He and colleague Philipp J. Keller were recording the activity of about 80,000 neurons in a live zebrafish brain, the first time something on this scale had been done. (acs.org)
Neuroscientists plunge microelectrode arrays, like the 64-channel version depicted here, into the brains of model organisms to measure voltage from nearby neurons. (acs.org)
A new project, dubbed " The Human Connectome ," will take five years and cost $30 Million, will map out approximately 100 billion neurons and 150 trillion synapses. (bigthink.com)
Technology does not yet allow us to trace every instance of individual neurons speaking to each other, but it is possible to untangle the connections between regions, which reveals how the brain processes information. (wtkr.com)
The mouse brain is composed of about 75 million nerve cells or neurons, which are wired together in complex networks that underlie sophisticated behaviors. (noozhawk.com)
The researchers used large-scale calcium imaging to measure the responses of individual neurons in multiple areas of the brain while mice performed a delayed response task. (noozhawk.com)
As expected, we found many neurons that responded only during the visual stimulus or the licking action, but we also found a lot of neurons that responded during other parts of the task," said Goard, an assistant professor in UCSB's Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences and Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology. (noozhawk.com)
Based on the neural activity in the different brain areas, Goard and his team then used optogenetics - a method of manipulating the nerve cells with light - to inactivate neurons in a temporally precise manner to identify those that function during different parts of the task. (noozhawk.com)
MEG is a promising imaging technique that uses superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs) to detect ionic currents produced by excited neurons, giving a window into the live activity of the brain. (medgadget.com)
My thoughts turned to this question reading a recent New York Times piece about Sebastian Seung's project to map the brain by tracing out each of the trillions of links between individual neurons. (wypr.org)
The new 'connectome' maps some 25,000 neurons in a fruit fly's brain, a portion of which are shown here. (theverge.com)
Scientists from Google and the Janelia Research Campus in Virginia have published the largest high-resolution map of brain connectivity in any animal, sharing a 3D model that traces 20 million synapses connecting some 25,000 neurons in the brain of a fruit fly. (theverge.com)
But critics note it has yet to produce any major breakthroughs, and they say that the painstaking work of mapping neurons is a drain on resources that might be better put to use elsewhere. (theverge.com)
In total, a fruit fly's brain contains 100,000 neurons, while a human brain has roughly 86 billion. (theverge.com)
You may remember Seung's talk from TEDGlobal 2010 , in which he uses the relatively new term "connectome," to describe the connections between each of the hundreds of millions of neurons in our brains that make us who we are. (ted.com)
Because of the vast number of neurons firing in our brain, this is work that could take years to complete. (ted.com)
To expedite this research, Seung's lab has created EyeWire , an online game where any player, err "citizen scientist," can map the neurons of the brain - cubic millimeter by cubic millimeter. (ted.com)
John O'Keefe , a neuroscientist at University College London, and his colleagues monitored the brain activity of freely roaming rats and observed that some of their neurons fired only when they were in specific parts of their cages. (getpocket.com)
To understand the full relationship between brain activity and behavior, scientists have needed a way to map this relationship for all of the neurons across a whole brain-a so far insurmountable challenge. (neurosciencenews.com)
But after inventing new technologies and methods for the purpose, a team of scientists in The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory at MIT has produced a rigorous accounting of the neurons in the tractably tiny brain of a humble C. elegans worm, mapping out how its brain cells encode almost all of its essential behaviors, such as movement and feeding. (neurosciencenews.com)
In the journal Cell, the team presents new brain-wide recordings and a mathematical model that accurately predicts the versatile ways that neurons represent the worm's behaviors. (neurosciencenews.com)
Much like a human driver must remember to steer the car in the opposite way when going in reverse versus going forward, certain neurons in the worm's brain integrated the animal's direction of motion and steering direction. (neurosciencenews.com)
To address these issues, a KAIST research team led by Professor Se-Bum Paik from the Department of Bio and Brain Engineering developed new brain imaging data analysis software named 'AMaSiNe (Automated 3-D Mapping of Single Neurons)', and introduced the algorithm in the May 26 issue of Cell Reports. (medicalxpress.com)
AMaSiNe automatically detects the positions of single neurons from multiple brain images, and accurately maps all the data onto a common standard 3-D reference space. (medicalxpress.com)
The two co-lead authors of this study, Jun Ho Song and Woochul Choi, exploited these benefits of AMaSiNe to investigate the topographic organization of neurons that project to the primary visual area (VISp) in various ROIs, such as the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (LGd), which could hardly be addressed without proper calibration and standardization of the brain slice image samples. (medicalxpress.com)
Stained neurons shown in a slice of brain tissue donated by a brain surgery patient. (wmot.org)
In a recently published study [1], the researchers managed to determine the density and number of neurons in the brains of a variety of organisms, says Mathias. (lu.se)
"They counted the number of neurons and studied the number in relation to the size of the brain. (lu.se)
In this comparison, song birds (a very large group of birds) and parrots had the highest densities of neurons of all (they have a high density and a relatively large brain). (lu.se)
However, the human brain is so large that the number of neurons by far exceeds that of a bird. (lu.se)
Assessment of brain metabolite correlates of adeno-associated virus-mediated over-expression of human alpha-synuclein in cortical neurons by in vivo (1) H-MR spectroscopy at 9.4 T. (lu.se)

The Healthy Brain Initiative (HBI) Road Map, updated for 2023-2027, is a framework designed to help public health professionals lead with urgency and act for impact in their communities to improve brain health across the life course and support caregivers. (alz.org)
HBI Road Map, 2023-2027 (PDF). (alz.org)
The Healthy Brain Initiative: State and Local Road Map for Public Health, 2023-2027 expands on previous progress, promotes equity by integrating brain health and caregiving into state and local public health practices, and addresses the social factors that impact brain health throughout a person's life. (alz.org)
Watch this recorded webinar with experts from the Alzheimer's Association and CDC to learn what's new in the 2023-2027 Road Map. (alz.org)
An Implementation Guide (PDF) and several topic-specific issue maps are available as part of the 2023-2027 HBI Road Map. (alz.org)

Brain mapping can be conceived as a higher form of neuroimaging, producing brain images supplemented by the result of additional (imaging or non-imaging) data processing or analysis, such as maps projecting (measures of) behavior onto brain regions (see fMRI). (wikipedia.org)
page needed] Of specific interest is using structural and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), diffusion MRI (dMRI), magnetoencephalography (MEG), electroencephalography (EEG), positron emission tomography (PET), Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) and other non-invasive scanning techniques to map anatomy, physiology, perfusion, function and phenotypes of the human brain. (wikipedia.org)
The study, led by Dr. Read Montague, professor of neuroscience at BCM and director of its Brown Human Neuroimaging Laboratory, used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to monitor brain activity in pairs of subjects during a social exchange game. (eurekalert.org)
Advancements in brain scanning technology including EEG (Electroencephalograph), CAT (Computerized Axial Tomography) Scans, MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging), fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging), MEG (Magnetoencephalography) have allowed us to gain a much larger insight in both neuroscience and psychiatry. (bigthink.com)
Using fMRI scans, the study authors can examine brains in their normal states and under the effects of mind-altering drugs. (popsci.com)
According to the authors, this is the largest fMRI study to date that has plotted a detailed map of the neurotransmitter landscape when under the influence. (popsci.com)
The typical approach currently used for brain mapping is functional magnetic resonance imaging, or fMRI," said Zouridakis, associate professor at UH's College of Technology. (dotmed.com)
Robin Carhart-Harris at Imperial College London and colleagues recruited 30 volunteers who agreed to be injected with psilocybin and have their brain scanned using two types of fMRI. (maps.org)
A new brain imaging (fMRI) study by Robin Carhart-Harris at Imperial College London has found that the psychedelic or "mind-manifesting" effects of psilocybin could be due to the drug's ability to decrease, rather than increase, activity in certain parts of the brain. (maps.org)

Brain mapping is a set of neuroscience techniques predicated on the mapping of (biological) quantities or properties onto spatial representations of the (human or non-human) brain resulting in maps. (wikipedia.org)
To create the colorful map, "We brought together a variety of methodological improvements," explained Matthew Glasser, first author and a doctoral student in neuroscience. (wtkr.com)
Such mental (internal or cognitive) representations ( Paivio, 1990 ) are widely investigated in cognitive psychology, psycholinguistics, philosophy of mind and related fields ( Carruthers and Cummins, 1990 ), but often without a clear connection to neural representations, which are more commonly addressed in brain research, neuroscience and neuroimaging. (frontiersin.org)
Advocates argue that it helps link physical parts of the brain to specific behaviors, which is a key goal in neuroscience. (theverge.com)
This white paper will be a valuable resource for neuroscientists, clinicians, and entrepreneurs on the state of the art in neurotechnology and brain-machine interface systems, from the perspective of closed-loop control of neural activity," says IEEE Brain Co-Chair Jose M. Carmena, Chancellor's Professor of Electrical Engineering and Neuroscience and Co-Director of the Center for Neural Engineering and Prostheses (CNEP) at the University of California, Berkeley. (embs.org)
collaboration and coordination to advance research, standardization, and development of technologies in neuroscience to help transform our understanding of the brain to treat diseases and to improve lives. (embs.org)
Brain imaging data analysis is indispensable in the studies of neuroscience. (medicalxpress.com)

Neuroscientists mapped the human brain on 10 mind-altering drugs. (popsci.com)
In the future we intend to augment the research of many labs with our community of citizen neuroscientists and help map the first entire human brain. (ted.com)
A team of neuroscientists have now taken a step forward and mapped the cognitive abilities in the brain. (healthjockey.com)
Through this test, the neuroscientists have provided additional information as to how certain elements that determine intelligence quotient scores may rely on particular regions of the brain. (healthjockey.com)

One such map, called a connectogram, depicts cortical regions around a circle, organized by lobes. (wikipedia.org)
Consider the neocortex, the so-called CPU of the brain: Scientists assumed for decades that most cortical circuits were essentially the same--the brain was supposed to rely on a standard set of microchips, like a typical supercomputer. (scienceblogs.com)
The atlas plots genetic correlations between different points on the cortical surface of the twins' brains. (medicalnewstoday.com)
He added the idea of a complete cortical map has been thought about "as far back as I can remember. (wtkr.com)
Here, we constructed a whole-brain, three-dimensional (3D) map showing the tract pathways and targeting locations of these four motor cortical outputs in mice. (nature.com)
This 3D topographic map ultimately provides evidence for the relevance of comparative connectomics: motor cortical projections known to be convergent are actually segregated in many target areas with unique targeting patterns, a finding that has anatomical value for revealing functional subdomains that have not been classified by conventional methods. (nature.com)
This map provides insight into how four different motor cortical projections have actomic and topographic patterns in different and similar target areas. (nature.com)
Problem addressed by this workflow Computing and tabulating the Brain Volumes of 56 cortical and sub-cortical ROIs. (myexperiment.org)
Brain-wide Maps Reveal Stereotyped Cell-Type-Based Cortical Architecture and Subcortical Sexual Dimorphism. (bvsalud.org)

While the mice performed the task, the investigators recorded neural activity from multiple brain regions thought to be involved - including visual, parietal and frontal motor cortices. (noozhawk.com)
Researchers successfully mapped the neural activity of the C. elegans worm, correlating it to its behaviors such as movement and feeding. (neurosciencenews.com)

The useful information for most researchers, however, is what do expression patterns look like in different brain regions. (scienceblogs.com)
HOUSTON -- (May 19, 2006) - Researchers at Baylor College of Medicine (BCM) have mapped not only where trust forms in the brain but have also uncovered clues as to how humans represent themselves and others as physical responses in their brains. (eurekalert.org)
The first atlas of the surface of the human brain based upon genetic information has been produced by a national team of scientists, led by researchers at the University of California, San Diego School of Medicine and the VA San Diego Healthcare System. (medicalnewstoday.com)
Before researchers even start the process of creating the first 3-D map of the brain's connections, they need to test a specially modified 3-tesla magnet which they say will take about two years to make efficient and ensure that it's in perfect working order. (bigthink.com)
It's difficult for researchers to track the immense number of connections that these chemical messengers make- Google recently created one of the most detailed maps of neuronal connectivity patterns, but even the tech giant could only focus on a small section of the brain. (popsci.com)
Next, instead of focusing on just one biological property of the brain - architecture, function, connectivity or topography - the researchers combined all four criteria to draw border lines around each "country" within the cortex. (wtkr.com)
The research is expected to help researchers develop better animal models of human brain diseases like Alzheimer's and ALS. (npr.org)
KAIST researchers developed a new algorithm for brain imaging data analysis that enables the precise and quantitative mapping of complex neural circuits onto a standardized 3-D reference atlas. (medicalxpress.com)
Researchers at Duke university have been able to identify different emotions in the brain seen on MRI scans using a machine-learning algorithm. (medicaldaily.com)

page needed] The ultimate goal is to develop flexible computational brain atlases. (wikipedia.org)
Other atlases have mapped the brain by cytoarchitecture - differences in tissues or function. (medicalnewstoday.com)
Until leaving the AA in 2018, she oversaw the production of millions of AA maps and atlases and was responsible for the AA's traffic and routeplanner webpages, serving as many as 4 million routes a week. (abebooks.co.uk)

This undertaking to map the system of connections which make us what we are - to map what Seung called "the connectome" in his - can seem, from a certain point of view, like a glorious and heroic step backward. (wypr.org)
This map, known as a "connectome," covers roughly one-third of the fruit fly's brain. (theverge.com)

brain dysfunctions that interfere with language processing or cognition. (psychiatrictimes.com)
Emerging evidence suggests that the brain encodes abstract knowledge in the same way that it represents positions in space, which hints at a more universal theory of cognition. (getpocket.com)
They might be surprised, therefore, to hear that psilocybin - the active ingredient in magic mushrooms - actually decreases blood flow as well as connectivity between important areas of the brain that control perception and cognition. (maps.org)

The Organization for Human Brain Mapping has established an award that recognizes the best replication study, highlights OHBM's commitment to reproducibility in neuroimaging research and incentives valuable replication research. (humanbrainmapping.org)
The Organization for Human Brain Mapping, is pleased to announce the Call for Fellow of OHBM. (humanbrainmapping.org)
The Fellow of OHBM distinction honors outstanding Active members (as defined in the dues category) of the Organization of Human Brain Mapping who have demonstrated academic and intellectual leadership in the disciplines represented by the Society over an extended period of time. (humanbrainmapping.org)
a. promote joint actions and contribute to the growth of the Organization for Human Brain Mapping, which the LABMAN is one of the chapters. (humanbrainmapping.org)
Manual analysis processes for brain images are also laborious, and thus studying the complete 3-D neuronal organization on a whole-brain scale is a formidable task. (medicalxpress.com)
Professor Paik said, "Our new algorithm allows the spatial organization of complex neural circuits to be found in a standardized 3-D reference atlas on a whole-brain scale. (medicalxpress.com)
He continued, "More in-depth insights for understanding the function of brain circuits can be achieved by facilitating more reliable and standardized analysis of the spatial organization of neural circuits in various regions of the brain. (medicalxpress.com)
Components in this research: (1) understanding of insect brain organization, here represented by a 3D reconstruction of all neuronal branches of one bumblebee nodulus at medium resolution (24nm), demonstrating ability to obtain connectomics data. (lu.se)

It may be that most brain functions will only be described correctly after being measured with much more fine-grained measurements that look not at large regions but instead at a very large number of tiny individual brain circuits. (wikipedia.org)
A UC Santa Barbara researcher studying how the brain uses perception of the environment to guide action has a new understanding of the neural circuits responsible for transforming sensation into movement. (noozhawk.com)
The stereotyped features of neuronal circuits are those most likely to explain the remarkable capacity of the brain to process information and govern behaviors , yet it has not been possible to comprehensively quantify neuronal distributions across animals or genders due to the size and complexity of the mammalian brain . (bvsalud.org)

Some scientists have criticized the brain image-based claims made in scientific journals and the popular press, like the discovery of "the part of the brain responsible" things like love or musical abilities or a specific memory. (wikipedia.org)
About two months later, scientists reported that they created the first complete neuron-level-resolution 3D map of a monkey brain which they scanned via a new method within 100 hours. (wikipedia.org)
Scientists at the institute are just starting to grapple with the seemingly infinite regress of the brain, in which every new level of detail reveals yet another level. (scienceblogs.com)
The genetic atlas provides scientists with a new tool for studying and explaining how the brain works, particularly the involvement of genes. (medicalnewstoday.com)
Kremen said the genetic brain atlas may be especially useful for scientists who employ genome-wide association studies, a relatively new tool that looks for common genetic variants in people that may be associated with a particular trait, condition or disease. (medicalnewstoday.com)
Two Japanese scientists will arrive at the University of Houston next month to help develop a unique brain-mapping device that promises to deliver more comprehensive and accurate insights into the mind at a fraction of the cost of current technologies. (dotmed.com)
Scientists have created detailed maps of the brain area that controls movement in mice, monkeys and people. (npr.org)
Scientists at the Allen Institute for Brain Science uncovered differences among human brain cells (left) those of the marmoset monkey (middle) and mouse in a brain region that controls movement, the primary motor cortex. (npr.org)
An international consortium involving hundreds of scientists has unveiled highly detailed maps of the brain area that controls movement. (npr.org)
A complete map will help scientists understand how cells in different brain areas "work together to carry out a particular function or behavior, like moving your arm," Zeng says. (npr.org)
By quickly transporting brain tissue from the operating room to the lab, scientists were able to compare living human brain cells with the living cells found in monkeys and mice. (npr.org)
The company says it took two years and hundreds of thousands of hours for scientists at Janelia to "proofread" the 3D map, verifying the route of each of the 20 million chemical synapses using virtual reality headsets and custom 3D editing software. (theverge.com)
A team of IBM scientists used 410 anatomical tracing studies of the macaque brain to create what is possibly the most complete and complex map of the primate organ. (medgadget.com)
H.M.'s story, though tragic, revolutionized scientists' understanding of the role the hippocampus plays in how the brain organizes memory. (getpocket.com)

Functional and structural neuroimaging are at the core of the mapping aspect of brain mapping. (wikipedia.org)
This is a region of the brain that is overdeveloped in humans and other social species and is a region you can monitor in social exchanges between people with either functional or dysfunctional social capacities," said Montague. (eurekalert.org)
One day it may have a great number of applications outside of clinical research, but as of now it is expected to be primarily used for mapping the functional brain activity of people with epilepsy in preparation for surgery. (medgadget.com)
For some time, electroencephalography (EEG) has been employed clinically as a measure of brain function in the hope of determining and differentiating certain functional conditions of the brain. (medscape.com)

The group found the map in an area of the brain called the cingulate cortex, which is known to be involved in bonding and social interactions. (eurekalert.org)
The atlas reveals that the cerebral cortex - the sheet of neural tissue enveloping the brain - is roughly divided into genetic divisions that differ from other brain maps based on physiology or function. (medicalnewstoday.com)
It's not quite Google Maps, but the new optic still provides the most detailed understanding of the cerebral cortex to date, based on the freshest data from the latest technologies. (wtkr.com)
The cerebral cortex is an outer layer of brain tissue. (wtkr.com)
Naturally, creating an accurate map of the cortex has been the holy grail for many a neuroscientist. (wtkr.com)
Each has a unique microstructural architecture (including thickness of the cortex), plus a unique pattern of activity and connectivity with other brain areas. (wtkr.com)
The next step was to create a map for each species, showing where these parts are found in the motor cortex. (npr.org)
Generating a map for the motor cortex is really the first step towards that goal," Zeng says. (npr.org)
Lisa Giocomo , PhD, assistant professor of neurobiology at Stanford, researches the medial entorhinal cortex, an area of the brain where nerve cells act as compasses, speedometers, latitude and longitude coordinates, or boundary and landmark detectors. (stanford.edu)
For example, mice have very few brain cells in the motor cortex that are able to make long-distance connections. (wmot.org)
In humans, as the brain has gotten bigger, as the cortex has gotten bigger, you have more cells that connect across the cortex," Lein says. (wmot.org)
Low flow Less blood flow was seen in the brain regions known as the thalamus, the posterior cingulate and the medial prefrontal cortex. (maps.org)

This led to the establishment of the Human Brain Project. (wikipedia.org)
In 2021, the most comprehensive 3D map of the human brain was published by an U.S. IT company. (wikipedia.org)
The Allen Brain Atlas just launched their first set of gene expression maps in the adult human brain, based on microarray data from over 700 different anatomical locations. (scienceblogs.com)
I wrote about the construction of the human brain atlas last year in Wired, if you'd like to learn more about how the map was made. (scienceblogs.com)
With all our medical advances, it is proving difficult to understand all the neural hook-ups of a fruit fly brain, let alone a human brain. (bigthink.com)
What we are doing in a sense is developing a key that we have hopes will unlock some of the secrets of the human brain and give us a much better understanding of exactly how it works, what makes it work and why. (bigthink.com)
The brain is the most complex part of the human body. (popsci.com)
While it may take decades until someone fully maps out the human brain, there are ways to trace different aspects of connectivity. (popsci.com)
To address these questions, Luppi and his coauthors analyzed two sets of neuroimaging data from past studies to map out the ways the human brain changes when taking 10 mind-altering drugs. (popsci.com)
The Obama administration is working on a plan to map human brain activity that may be released next month. (marketplace.org)
By earning the right to include the initials FOHBM among their credentials demonstrates that the individual has been honored by one of the community's most eminent Society's for human brain mapping. (humanbrainmapping.org)
A new 21st Century map of the human brain contains 180 distinct areas in each hemisphere, including 97 previously undiscovered territories, research published Wednesday in the journal Nature revealed. (wtkr.com)
The maps could help explain human ailments like Alzheimer's and Lou Gehrig's disease. (npr.org)
The project is part of the BRAIN initiative's Cell Census Network, which launched a $250 million effort to create a "parts list" for human and animal brains in 2017. (npr.org)
The first step was to conduct an exhaustive inventory of the types of cells in human and animal brains, says Hongkui Zeng , director of the Allen Institute for Brain Science. (npr.org)
One involves finding a way to study human brain tissue that is still alive. (npr.org)
The 3D map produced by Google and the FlyEM team at Janelia is certainly a technical achievement, the product of both automated methods and laborious human labor. (theverge.com)
The first step in creating the map was to slice sections of fruit fly brain into pieces just 20 microns thick, roughly a third the width of a human hair. (theverge.com)
All human behavior, including aggression and violence, is the outcome of complex processes in the brain. (psychiatrictimes.com)
Sebastian Seung is one of the most influential explorers of our time - and his terrain is the human brain. (ted.com)
The human brain, a super organ of around 100 billion nerve cells, remains the single most powerful, complex and least understood computer on the planet. (techonomy.com)
Such a visual matching process between experimentally obtained brain images and 2-D brain atlas images has been one of the major sources of error in brain imaging data analysis, as the process is highly subjective, sample-specific, and susceptible to human error. (medicalxpress.com)
Nonparametric D-R1-R2 distribution MRI of the living human brain. (lu.se)
Towards non-parametric diffusion-T1 characterization of crossing fibers in the human brain. (lu.se)
Computing and visualising intra-voxel orientation-specific relaxation-diffusion features in the human brain. (lu.se)

The BRAIN initiative will likely build on available techniques for recording and manipulating neuron dynamics. (acs.org)
The overarching vision of the Healthy Brain Initiative (HBI) is that everyone deserves a life with the healthiest brain possible. (alz.org)
In order to understand how things go wrong, we need to understand what the basic principles are to begin with," says John Ngai , director of the National Institutes of Health BRAIN initiative, which played a central role in organizing and funding the project. (npr.org)
To that end, the IEEE Brain Initiative has issued a white paper identifying key challenges and advances required to successfully develop and translate these next generation closed-loop neurotechnologies. (embs.org)

Trying to understand how the brain works by looking at the behavior of individual cells - so observed David Marr , one of modern cognitive science's foundational figures writing in the late 1970s - would be like trying to understand how a bird flies by examining the behavior of individual feathers. (wypr.org)
This study provides a global map of how the animal's nervous system is organized to control behavior," said senior author Steven Flavell, Associate Professor in MIT's Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences. (neurosciencenews.com)
We discuss the difference is between compulsive behavior and substance addiction and their impact on our brains, what constitutes an addiction, and what you can do if you feel you have an addiction. (sociable.co)
In this study, we've learned your internal map changes depending on your behavior, memories and state of mind," said Giocomo, the study's senior author. (stanford.edu)

According to the definition established in 2013 by Society for Brain Mapping and Therapeutics (SBMT), brain mapping is specifically defined, in summary, as the study of the anatomy and function of the brain and spinal cord through the use of imaging, immunohistochemistry, molecular & optogenetics, stem cell and cellular biology, engineering, neurophysiology and nanotechnology. (wikipedia.org)
Both healthy and diseased brains may be mapped to study memory, learning, aging, and drug effects in various populations such as people with schizophrenia, autism, and clinical depression. (wikipedia.org)
The study made use of a new approach to studying social interactions, called hyperscanning, where two interacting brains are monitored simultaneously. (eurekalert.org)
Previous results from the same study, reported last year in Science, showed where and when trust forms in the brains of two anonymous people interacting via hyperscanning. (eurekalert.org)
However, with hyperscanning, we're able study brain activity between two people as interpersonal relationships develop and break down. (eurekalert.org)
The new map is based entirely upon genetic information derived from magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) of 406 adult twins participating in the Vietnam Era Twin Registry (VETSA), an ongoing longitudinal study of cognitive aging supported in part by grants from the National Institutes of Health (NIH). (medicalnewstoday.com)
We have of course been able to study various chemical levels in the brain and determine abnormal or increased levels which we are then able to treat with drugs. (bigthink.com)
According to the study authors, their mapping provides new opportunities to explore how each of these mind-altering drugs affects the neurotransmitter landscape. (popsci.com)
The new map "is a major revision and updating" of previous maps" said David Van Essen, senior author of the study. (wtkr.com)
For example, in the research team's previous study jointly conducted with Professor Yang Dan's group at UC Berkeley, the algorithm enabled the accurate analysis of the neuronal subsets in the substantia nigra and their projections to the whole brain. (medicalxpress.com)
It is also stated that the brain maps produced by the study could be used to diagnose likely areas of brain damage by combining the maps with the patients' Weschler test results. (healthjockey.com)
The study indicates that training the brain to block out negative thoughts could improve symptoms of anxiety, depression, and PTSD. (medicaldaily.com)
The study shows that when rats learn they will receive a reward at certain places on those maps, their brain's navigation circuitry redraws the maps to incorporate spots they want to revisit. (stanford.edu)
The author offers an original method of the study of the midbrain structures and liquor circulation system (the third ventricle, brain water-pipe, the fourth ventricle) in the small cavity in the course of autopsy. (who.int)
Stanley Heinze will study insect brains and their neural circuitry in a new ERC Consolidator grant. (lu.se)
EJF2: study conception, data en el hemicuello derecho con afectación del plexo braquial, adenopatías cervicales, infraclaviculares y axilares derechas. (bvsalud.org)
Visual assessment of brain perfusion MRI scans in dementia: a pilot study. (lu.se)

The correlations represent shared genetic influences and reveal that genetic brain divisions do not map one-to-one with traditional brain divisions that are based on structure and function. (medicalnewstoday.com)

To date, only a single organism, the roundworm C. elegans , has had its brain completely mapped in this way. (theverge.com)

This feature-based quantitative image-to-image comparison technology improves the accuracy, consistency, and reliability of analysis results using only a small number of brain slice image samples, and helps standardize brain imaging data analyses. (medicalxpress.com)
Quantitative MRI (qMRI) refers to the process of deriving maps of MR contrast parameters, such as relaxation times, from conventional images. (lu.se)
Here we apply our quantitative brain -wide (qBrain) mapping platform to document the stereotyped distributions of mainly inhibitory cell types. (bvsalud.org)

the rest underwent a scan that measured connectivity between different regions of the brain. (maps.org)

These findings inspired the proposal that the hippocampus might be creating and storing "cognitive maps" (an idea first put forth by psychologist Edward Tolman in the 1940s to explain how rats could suss out new shortcuts to rewards in mazes) beyond spatial ones. (getpocket.com)
This tells us the rats' brains are making a new map of space, in response to their experience of a reward, that reflects the importance of the place where they got it by providing a more accurate representation of its position," said Giocomo. (stanford.edu)

The model is a milestone in the field of connectomics, which uses detailed imaging techniques to map the physical pathways of the brain. (theverge.com)

The Healthy Brain Initiative's (HBI) Road Map for Indian Country is a guide for AI/AN leaders to learn about dementia and start discussions throughout their communities. (cdc.gov)
The Healthy Brain Initiative's Road Map for Indian Country is tailored for leaders of American Indian and Alaska Native (AI/AN) communities as they develop a broad response to Alzheimer's and other dementias. (cdc.gov)

This non-invasive test creates an electroencephalogram (EEG) map of the brain looking for the root causes of symptoms. (emtexas.com)
This exam creates a map of your central 30 degrees of vision. (medlineplus.gov)

I wonder if this phenomenon occurs in the brains of other mammals. (scienceblogs.com)
The cells have been identified in rodents, bats, monkeys and humans, suggesting that such spatial-mapping circuitry is a universal mechanism in mammals. (stanford.edu)

Neuroscientist Ralph Adolphs, from the California Institute of Technology and his colleagues assembled the brain maps of around 241 neurological patients, which were enlisted in the extensive brain lesion registry of the University of Iowa. (healthjockey.com)

But data from the atlas has rendered the old maps not only obsolete but flat-out misleading. (scienceblogs.com)
We are excited by the development of this new atlas, which we hope will help us understand aging-related changes in brain structure and cognitive function now occurring in the VETSA participants,' said Jonathan W. King, PhD, of the National Institute on Aging, part of the NIH. (medicalnewstoday.com)
The atlas is freely available at http://mouse.brain-map.org/agea , courtesy of the Allen Foundation. (discovermagazine.com)
The genomic atlas is derived from the Allen Brain Atlas which allows you to see where in the brain any given gene is expressed. (discovermagazine.com)
The atlas therefore reveals the underlying "logic" of how the worm's brain produces a sophisticated and flexible repertoire of behaviors, even as its environmental circumstances change. (neurosciencenews.com)
Conventional brain imaging data analysis typically begins with finding a 2-D brain atlas image that is visually similar to the experimentally obtained brain image. (medicalxpress.com)

The qBrain resource can be further mined to link stereotyped aspects of neuronal distributions to known and unknown functions of diverse brain regions. (bvsalud.org)

page needed] It may also be crucial to understanding traumatic brain injuries (as in the case of Phineas Gage) and improving brain injury treatment. (wikipedia.org)
There they will work as visiting faculty members with lab director George Zouridakis in expanding a noninvasive technology that may offer a more thorough understanding of brain activities and help diagnose traumatic brain injuries in emergency rooms and on the battlefield. (dotmed.com)
These patients were said to have cognitive impairments due to stroke, tumor resection, and traumatic brain injury. (healthjockey.com)

The touch maps created based on the questionnaire results indicate that cultural differences with regards to social touch are smaller than was previously believed. (aalto.fi)

This massive and complex undertaking will finally give us the first (rough) map of the brain's neural network which computational neuroscientist H. Sebastian Seung says is one of the most technological and computational challenges of all time. (bigthink.com)
Seung and his lab at MIT work to map these connections in order to understand both our visual and motion perception. (ted.com)

Dementia is a chronic condition that affects a person's brain. (cdc.gov)
Vascular dementia is caused by conditions or lifestyle behaviors, such as smoking cigarettes or not being active, that weaken or block blood flow the brain. (cdc.gov)
Since 2005, the HBI has been working to implement public health strategies that promote brain health, address dementia, and support individuals living with dementia and their caregivers. (alz.org)
Clinical dementia is a fairly broad-based decline of brain function, and most definitions center on the patient's intellectual decline and memory dysfunction. (medscape.com)

Brain Mapp. (lu.se)

The interactive and citizen science website Eyewire maps mices' retinal cells and was launched in 2012. (wikipedia.org)
Today, December 10, EyeWire is releasing a new challenge: for players to map the specific cells - J-type ganglion - associated with motion detection in the retina. (ted.com)

The work revealed the existence of a new kind of map in the brain - a "social agency map" that keeps track of "who" is responsible for an outcome during a social exchange between two interacting partners. (eurekalert.org)
Knowing how they work in the brain can improve how they are used in clinical practice in the future. (popsci.com)
Brain mapping showed that mind-altering drugs work with multiple neurotransmitter systems. (popsci.com)
Brains Byte Back interviews startups, entrepreneurs, and industry leaders that tap into how our brains work. (sociable.co)
Uncover the history of Britain's roads and work your way around its highways, byways, bypasses and backwaters in these map-based challenges. (abebooks.co.uk)

The first data set, based on the PET scans of 1,200 people, helped the team sketch out 19 types of molecules in the brain: all neurotransmitter receptors and transporters. (popsci.com)
The brain scans reveals if the person touching is a stranger or a close partner. (aalto.fi)

The most ambitious suggestions even venture that these grid codes could be the key to understanding how the brain processes all details of general knowledge, perception and memory. (getpocket.com)

Until recently, this small fold of tissue in the middle of the brain was depicted as neatly divided into four distinct areas. (scienceblogs.com)
The light, which becomes scattered as it travels through the layers of the brain tissue, is then reflected back out of the brain and is measured by a set of sensors. (dotmed.com)
Several labs in the consortium arranged with local hospitals to obtain healthy brain tissue removed by surgeons in order to reach a tumor or other diseased area. (npr.org)

Ed Boyden, associate professor of Biological Engineering and Brain and Cognitive Sciences at the MIT Media Lab and the MIT McGovern Institute, explores the frontier of brain mapping in this talk at the Techonomy 2014 conference in Half Moon Bay, Calif. (techonomy.com)

Yet, the pattern of this genetic map still suggests that it is neuroanatomically meaningful,' said Kremen. (medicalnewstoday.com)
Each issue map explains the need for action, suggests related HBI Road Map actions and highlights members of the HBI Collaborative to provide additional guidance. (alz.org)

Implementation is performed within the well-established multi-parameter mapping (MPM) framework and special attention is afforded to the reduction of biases as well as overcoming saftey restrictions imposed by SAR. (lu.se)
The Road Map provides a framework for building strategic partnerships for increased investment in maternal and newborn health at institutional and programme levels, focusing particularly on the health service and community levels. (who.int)

Goard is in the departments of Molecular, cellular and Developmental Biology and Psychology & Brain Science at UC Santa Barbara. (uctv.tv)

We have yet to learn how memory and many functions of the brain are constructed, both in humans and in animals. (lu.se)

Many functions also involve multiple parts of the brain, meaning that this type of claim is probably both unverifiable with the equipment used, and generally based on an incorrect assumption about how brain functions are divided. (wikipedia.org)
Adolphs says, "The first question we asked was if there are any parts of the brain that are critically important for these indices or if they are very distributed, with intelligence processed globally in a way that can't be mapped. (healthjockey.com)
Abnormal results may be due to diseases or central nervous system (CNS) disorders, such as tumors that damage or press on (compress) the parts of the brain that deal with vision. (medlineplus.gov)

Administering mind-altering drugs that rewire the connections in functionally impaired brain areas could be another treatment option for people who live with these conditions. (popsci.com)
The new map identifies 180 areas for each hemisphere, including 97 new territories along with 83 previously known regions. (wtkr.com)
Ultimately, next generation closed-loop devices will reimagine the partnership between the brain and body's nervous systems, with the potential to provide effective precision electronic medicine and drive new consumer applications in areas of wellness, gaming, and training. (embs.org)
The region provides major inputs to the hippocampus - and is also one of the first areas of the brain to deteriorate in Alzheimer's disease, which affects both navigation and memory. (getpocket.com)
In this episode of the Brains Byte Back podcast, will be looking at addiction in a general sense, but for the sake of this podcast and its technology focus, we will mainly be focusing on addiction relating to social media, while briefly touching on some other areas such as addiction to gambling, and even crypto. (sociable.co)
Furthermore, we identify local cell type distributions with more cells in the female brain in 10 out of 11 sexually dimorphic subcortical areas, in contrast to the overall larger brains in males . (bvsalud.org)
Understanding of the neuro-architecture of key areas in the insect brain and its attached sensory systems will be used to create III-V nanowire and molecular dye-based network systems that mimic neural computations underlying specific behaviours (in particular, navigation). (lu.se)

The changes in activity caused by mind-altering drugs are similar to the changes seen in the brains of patients with conditions such as autism, depression, and schizophrenia, the authors say. (popsci.com)
Our technology marries high-density electroencephalography, or EEG, which measures the electrophysiological activity of the brain, with near-infrared spectroscopy, or NIRS, which provides information about cerebral blood flow," Zouridakis said. (dotmed.com)
Like the EEG, NIRS is portable, costs only about $200,000, does not need a special room or personnel to maintain, and can quantify both direct and indirect measures of brain activity. (dotmed.com)
However, the brain is dynamic, and, thus the two recordings do not represent the same brain activity. (dotmed.com)
Seeing an area of unusual thickness of myelin (insulation for nerve cells) or a hotspot of connection activity, they would align all the brains according to that feature. (wtkr.com)
In a new paper, published in the journal eLife, Goard and colleagues at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology make progress in mapping brain activity in mice during simple but fundamental cognitive tasks. (noozhawk.com)

A neurosurgeon removed the hippocampus and surrounding tissues from deep within H.M.'s brain, alleviating some of his seizures but inadvertently leaving him a permanent amnesiac. (getpocket.com)

Mood swing Psilocybin has a similar chemical structure to serotonin - a hormone involved in regulating mood - and therefore binds to serotonin receptors on nerve cells in the brain. (maps.org)

Following a series of meetings, the International Consortium for Brain Mapping (ICBM) evolved. (wikipedia.org)

Alzheimer's is a disease that damages and destroys brain cells over time. (cdc.gov)
Brain cells communicate based on how they are wired together. (wtkr.com)
If so, then isn't it obvious that mapping brain cells is as wrong-headed as mapping out the atoms in a smartphone to understand how it works? (wypr.org)
We don't even know how many types of cells are in the retina, much less the entire brain. (ted.com)
That is, the cells encoded a sense of place ("you are here") - and together, they created a map of the entire space. (getpocket.com)

Anatomy6

Organisms1

Diseases8

Chemicals and Drugs1

Analytical, Diagnostic and Therapeutic Techniques and Equipment15

Phenomena and Processes7

Disciplines and Occupations1

Information Science7

Health Care2

On the neural correlates of visual perception. (1/14812)

Physiological characteristics of capacity constraints in working memory as revealed by functional MRI. (2/14812)

Morphogenesis of callosal arbors in the parietal cortex of hamsters. (3/14812)

The functional anatomy of the normal human auditory system: responses to 0.5 and 4.0 kHz tones at varied intensities. (4/14812)

Trans-synaptically induced bursts in regular spiking non-pyramidal cells in deep layers of the cat motor cortex. (5/14812)

Neural mapping of direction and frequency in the cricket cercal sensory system. (6/14812)

Major changes in the brain histamine system of the ground squirrel Citellus lateralis during hibernation. (7/14812)

The effect of face inversion on activity in human neural systems for face and object perception. (8/14812)

Brain Mapping

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Echolalia

Brain

Image Processing, Computer-Assisted

Neurosurgical Procedures

Chromosome Mapping

Intraoperative Period

Imaging, Three-Dimensional

Cerebral Cortex

Electroencephalography

Somatosensory Cortex

Brain Chemistry

Cerebrovascular Circulation

Brain Injuries

Algorithms

Brain Neoplasms

Reproducibility of Results

Brain Edema

Brain Stem

Brain Ischemia

Peptide Mapping

Epitope Mapping

Brain Abscess

Molecular Sequence Data

Physical Chromosome Mapping

Body Surface Potential Mapping

Neurons

Base Sequence

Genetic Markers

Hypoxia, Brain

Amino Acid Sequence

Blood-Brain Barrier

Epicardial Mapping

Restriction Mapping

Genetic Linkage

Brain Damage, Chronic

Rats, Sprague-Dawley

Encyclopedias as Topic

Optogenetics

Molecular Biology

On the neural correlates of visual perception. (1/14812)

Physiological characteristics of capacity constraints in working memory as revealed by functional MRI. (2/14812)

Morphogenesis of callosal arbors in the parietal cortex of hamsters. (3/14812)

The functional anatomy of the normal human auditory system: responses to 0.5 and 4.0 kHz tones at varied intensities. (4/14812)

Trans-synaptically induced bursts in regular spiking non-pyramidal cells in deep layers of the cat motor cortex. (5/14812)

Neural mapping of direction and frequency in the cricket cercal sensory system. (6/14812)

Major changes in the brain histamine system of the ground squirrel Citellus lateralis during hibernation. (7/14812)

The effect of face inversion on activity in human neural systems for face and object perception. (8/14812)

Neurons33

20235

FMRI9

Neuroscience7

Neuroscientists4

Cortical9

Neural activity2

Researchers9

Atlases3

Connectome2

Cognition3

Organization8

Circuits3

Scientists14

Functional4

Cortex12

Human25

Initiative4

Behavior4

Study17

Correlations1

Elegans1

Quantitative3

Connectivity1

Rats2

Pathways1

Initiative's2

Creates2

Mammals2

Lesion1

Atlas6