Monosaccharides
Simple sugars, carbohydrates which cannot be decomposed by hydrolysis. They are colorless crystalline substances with a sweet taste and have the same general formula CnH2nOn. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
Carbohydrate Sequence
Galactose
An aldohexose that occurs naturally in the D-form in lactose, cerebrosides, gangliosides, and mucoproteins. Deficiency of galactosyl-1-phosphate uridyltransferase (GALACTOSE-1-PHOSPHATE URIDYL-TRANSFERASE DEFICIENCY DISEASE) causes an error in galactose metabolism called GALACTOSEMIA, resulting in elevations of galactose in the blood.
Carbohydrates
The largest class of organic compounds, including STARCH; GLYCOGEN; CELLULOSE; POLYSACCHARIDES; and simple MONOSACCHARIDES. Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of Cn(H2O)n.
Oligosaccharides
Carbohydrates consisting of between two (DISACCHARIDES) and ten MONOSACCHARIDES connected by either an alpha- or beta-glycosidic link. They are found throughout nature in both the free and bound form.
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates consisting of long, often branched chains of repeating monosaccharide units joined together by glycosidic bonds, which serve as energy storage molecules (e.g., glycogen), structural components (e.g., cellulose), and molecular recognition sites in various biological systems.
Mannose
A hexose or fermentable monosaccharide and isomer of glucose from manna, the ash Fraxinus ornus and related plants. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed & Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 2d ed)
Monosaccharide Transport Proteins
Fucose
Fucose is a deoxyhexose sugar, specifically a L-configuration 6-deoxygalactose, often found as a component of complex carbohydrates called glycans in various glycoproteins and glycolipids within the human body.
Acetylglucosamine
The N-acetyl derivative of glucosamine.
Carbohydrate Metabolism
Cellular processes in biosynthesis (anabolism) and degradation (catabolism) of CARBOHYDRATES.
Hexoses
Sugar Alcohols
Fructose
Lectins
Proteins that share the common characteristic of binding to carbohydrates. Some ANTIBODIES and carbohydrate-metabolizing proteins (ENZYMES) also bind to carbohydrates, however they are not considered lectins. PLANT LECTINS are carbohydrate-binding proteins that have been primarily identified by their hemagglutinating activity (HEMAGGLUTININS). However, a variety of lectins occur in animal species where they serve diverse array of functions through specific carbohydrate recognition.
Glycosides
Any compound that contains a constituent sugar, in which the hydroxyl group attached to the first carbon is substituted by an alcoholic, phenolic, or other group. They are named specifically for the sugar contained, such as glucoside (glucose), pentoside (pentose), fructoside (fructose), etc. Upon hydrolysis, a sugar and nonsugar component (aglycone) are formed. (From Dorland, 28th ed; From Miall's Dictionary of Chemistry, 5th ed)
Acetylgalactosamine
The N-acetyl derivative of galactosamine.
Xylose
Plant Lectins
Protein or glycoprotein substances of plant origin that bind to sugar moieties in cell walls or membranes. Some carbohydrate-metabolizing proteins (ENZYMES) from PLANTS also bind to carbohydrates, however they are not considered lectins. Many plant lectins change the physiology of the membrane of BLOOD CELLS to cause agglutination, mitosis, or other biochemical changes. They may play a role in plant defense mechanisms.
Glycosylation
Rhamnose
A methylpentose whose L- isomer is found naturally in many plant glycosides and some gram-negative bacterial lipopolysaccharides.
Glycoconjugates
Carbohydrates covalently linked to a nonsugar moiety (lipids or proteins). The major glycoconjugates are glycoproteins, glycopeptides, peptidoglycans, glycolipids, and lipopolysaccharides. (From Biochemical Nomenclature and Related Documents, 2d ed; From Principles of Biochemistry, 2d ed)
Glucose
Methylglycosides
Methylglycosides are glycosides with a methanol group (CH3-) replacing the hydrogen atom on the glycosidic oxygen, which can be found in various natural sources and have potential applications as sweetening agents or in pharmaceuticals.
Glucosamine
Glucosamine is a naturally occurring amino sugar that plays a crucial role in the formation and maintenance of various tissues, particularly in the synthesis of proteoglycans and glycosaminoglycans, which are essential components of cartilage and synovial fluid in joints.
Molecular Sequence Data
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Lipid A
Hexosamines
Hexosamines are amino sugars that are formed by the substitution of an amino group for a hydroxyl group in a hexose sugar, playing crucial roles in various biological processes such as glycoprotein synthesis and protein folding.
Galactosephosphates
Phosphoric acid esters of galactose.
Glycoside Hydrolases
Glycoside Hydrolases are a class of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds, resulting in the breakdown of complex carbohydrates and oligosaccharides into simpler sugars.
Glycolipids
Phlorhizin
Phlorhizin is a non-transportable glucose analog that inhibits the sodium-glucose cotransporter 1 (SGLT1) and aldohexose transporter (GLUT2), leading to reduced intestinal absorption and increased renal excretion of glucose, which is used in research to study glucose transport and diabetes-related processes.
Glycopeptides
Glycoproteins
Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
Sialic Acids
Uronic Acids
Neuraminic Acids
Neuraminic acids are a family of nine-carbon sugars (sialic acids) that are commonly found as terminal residues on glycoproteins and gangliosides in animal tissues, playing crucial roles in various biological processes including cell recognition, inflammation, and bacterial/viral infectivity.
N-Acetylneuraminic Acid
An N-acyl derivative of neuraminic acid. N-acetylneuraminic acid occurs in many polysaccharides, glycoproteins, and glycolipids in animals and bacteria. (From Dorland, 28th ed, p1518)
Amino Sugars
SUGARS containing an amino group. GLYCOSYLATION of other compounds with these amino sugars results in AMINOGLYCOSIDES.
Uridine Diphosphate Sugars
Uridine Diphosphate (UDP) sugars are nucleotide sugars that serve as essential glycosyl donors in the biosynthesis of various glycoconjugates, including proteoglycans and glycoproteins.
Arabinose
Arabinose is a simple, pentose sugar (a monosaccharide with five carbon atoms) that is a constituent of various polysaccharides and glycosides, particularly found in plant tissues and some microorganisms, and can be metabolized in humans as a source of energy through the pentose phosphate pathway.
Polyisoprenyl Phosphate Monosaccharides
These compounds function as activated monosaccharide carriers in the biosynthesis of glycoproteins and oligosaccharide phospholipids. Obtained from a nucleoside diphosphate sugar and a polyisoprenyl phosphate.
Galactosamine
Galactosamine is a type of amino monosaccharide that is a key component of many glycosaminoglycans, and is commonly found in animal tissues, often used in research and pharmaceutical applications for its role in cellular metabolism and synthesis of various biological molecules.
Glyceraldehyde
Glyceraldehyde is a triose sugar, a simple monosaccharide (sugar) that contains three carbon atoms, with the molecular formula C3H6O3, and it exists in two structural forms, namely D-glyceraldehyde and L-glyceraldehyde, which are diastereomers of each other, and it is a key intermediate in several biochemical pathways, including glycolysis and gluconeogenesis.
Sucrose
Lignin
The most abundant natural aromatic organic polymer found in all vascular plants. Lignin together with cellulose and hemicellulose are the major cell wall components of the fibers of all wood and grass species. Lignin is composed of coniferyl, p-coumaryl, and sinapyl alcohols in varying ratios in different plant species. (From Merck Index, 11th ed)
Methylglucosides
Methylglucosides are a type of sugar alcohols, specifically methylated glucose derivatives, which are used as sweetening agents, excipients, and solvents in pharmaceutical and cosmetic products due to their low toxicity and good solubility in water.
Glucose Transporter Type 5
Sulfuric Acids
Erythrina
A genus of leguminous shrubs or trees, mainly tropical, yielding useful compounds such as ALKALOIDS and PLANT LECTINS.
Substrate Specificity
Mannosides
Glycosides formed by the reaction of the hydroxyl group on the anomeric carbon atom of mannose with an alcohol to form an acetal. They include both alpha- and beta-mannosides.
Biological Transport
Sugar Acids
'Sugar acids' are organic compounds derived from sugars through various processes, characterized by the presence of both a carboxyl group (-COOH) and a hydroxyl group (-OH) in their molecular structure, often found in food sources like fruits and used in industries such as food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic.
beta-Mannosidase
An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of terminal, non-reducing beta-D-mannose residues in beta-D-mannosides. The enzyme plays a role in the lysosomal degradation of the N-glycosylprotein glycans. Defects in the lysosomal form of the enzyme in humans result in a buildup of mannoside intermediate metabolites and the disease BETA-MANNOSIDOSIS.
Galactans
Polysaccharides composed of repeating galactose units. They can consist of branched or unbranched chains in any linkages.
Mannose-Binding Lectins
Galactosyltransferases
Structure-Activity Relationship
Chromatography, Gas
Fractionation of a vaporized sample as a consequence of partition between a mobile gaseous phase and a stationary phase held in a column. Two types are gas-solid chromatography, where the fixed phase is a solid, and gas-liquid, in which the stationary phase is a nonvolatile liquid supported on an inert solid matrix.
Molecular Structure
Pentoses
A class of carbohydrates that contains five carbon atoms.
Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid
Glucuronates
Derivatives of GLUCURONIC ACID. Included under this heading are a broad variety of acid forms, salts, esters, and amides that include the 6-carboxy glucose structure.
Glycosphingolipids
Lipids containing at least one monosaccharide residue and either a sphingoid or a ceramide (CERAMIDES). They are subdivided into NEUTRAL GLYCOSPHINGOLIPIDS comprising monoglycosyl- and oligoglycosylsphingoids and monoglycosyl- and oligoglycosylceramides; and ACIDIC GLYCOSPHINGOLIPIDS which comprises sialosylglycosylsphingolipids (GANGLIOSIDES); SULFOGLYCOSPHINGOLIPIDS (formerly known as sulfatides), glycuronoglycosphingolipids, and phospho- and phosphonoglycosphingolipids. (From IUPAC's webpage)
Chromatography, Ion Exchange
Mass Spectrometry
Glycosaminoglycans
Spectrometry, Mass, Electrospray Ionization
A mass spectrometry technique used for analysis of nonvolatile compounds such as proteins and macromolecules. The technique involves preparing electrically charged droplets from analyte molecules dissolved in solvent. The electrically charged droplets enter a vacuum chamber where the solvent is evaporated. Evaporation of solvent reduces the droplet size, thereby increasing the coulombic repulsion within the droplet. As the charged droplets get smaller, the excess charge within them causes them to disintegrate and release analyte molecules. The volatilized analyte molecules are then analyzed by mass spectrometry.
Maltose
Disaccharidases
Disaccharidases are a group of enzymes, including maltase, sucrase, lactase, and trehalase, found primarily in the brush border of the small intestine, responsible for breaking down complex disaccharides into simpler monosaccharides for absorption.
Chromatography, Affinity
Chemistry
Hydrogen-Ion Concentration
Sodium-Glucose Transporter 1
The founding member of the sodium glucose transport proteins. It is predominately expressed in the INTESTINAL MUCOSA of the SMALL INTESTINE.
Amino Acid Sequence
Chemical Phenomena
3-O-Methylglucose
A non-metabolizable glucose analogue that is not phosphorylated by hexokinase. 3-O-Methylglucose is used as a marker to assess glucose transport by evaluating its uptake within various cells and organ systems. (J Neurochem 1993;60(4):1498-504)
Heparitin Sulfate
A heteropolysaccharide that is similar in structure to HEPARIN. It accumulates in individuals with MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDOSIS.
Glucuronic Acid
A sugar acid formed by the oxidation of the C-6 carbon of GLUCOSE. In addition to being a key intermediate metabolite of the uronic acid pathway, glucuronic acid also plays a role in the detoxification of certain drugs and toxins by conjugating with them to form GLUCURONIDES.
O Antigens
The lipopolysaccharide-protein somatic antigens, usually from gram-negative bacteria, important in the serological classification of enteric bacilli. The O-specific chains determine the specificity of the O antigens of a given serotype. O antigens are the immunodominant part of the lipopolysaccharide molecule in the intact bacterial cell. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)
Pectins
High molecular weight polysaccharides present in the cell walls of all plants. Pectins cement cell walls together. They are used as emulsifiers and stabilizers in the food industry. They have been tried for a variety of therapeutic uses including as antidiarrheals, where they are now generally considered ineffective, and in the treatment of hypercholesterolemia.
Glycosyltransferases
Enzymes that catalyze the transfer of glycosyl groups to an acceptor. Most often another carbohydrate molecule acts as an acceptor, but inorganic phosphate can also act as an acceptor, such as in the case of PHOSPHORYLASES. Some of the enzymes in this group also catalyze hydrolysis, which can be regarded as transfer of a glycosyl group from the donor to water. Subclasses include the HEXOSYLTRANSFERASES; PENTOSYLTRANSFERASES; SIALYLTRANSFERASES; and those transferring other glycosyl groups. EC 2.4.
Raffinose
Cell Wall
The outermost layer of a cell in most PLANTS; BACTERIA; FUNGI; and ALGAE. The cell wall is usually a rigid structure that lies external to the CELL MEMBRANE, and provides a protective barrier against physical or chemical agents.
Sulfatases
Sulfatases are a group of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of sulfate ester bonds in various substrates, playing crucial roles in the metabolism and homeostasis of carbohydrates, proteoglycans, neurotransmitters, and steroid hormones within the body.
Fetuins
A family of calcium-binding alpha-globulins that are synthesized in the LIVER and play an essential role in maintaining the solubility of CALCIUM in the BLOOD. In addition the fetuins contain aminoterminal cystatin domains and are classified as type 3 cystatins.
Gastropoda
Lactose
Chromatography, Gel
Heparin
A highly acidic mucopolysaccharide formed of equal parts of sulfated D-glucosamine and D-glucuronic acid with sulfaminic bridges. The molecular weight ranges from six to twenty thousand. Heparin occurs in and is obtained from liver, lung, mast cells, etc., of vertebrates. Its function is unknown, but it is used to prevent blood clotting in vivo and vitro, in the form of many different salts.
Malabsorption Syndromes
General term for a group of MALNUTRITION syndromes caused by failure of normal INTESTINAL ABSORPTION of nutrients.
Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
A microanalytical technique combining mass spectrometry and gas chromatography for the qualitative as well as quantitative determinations of compounds.
Mucins
High molecular weight mucoproteins that protect the surface of EPITHELIAL CELLS by providing a barrier to particulate matter and microorganisms. Membrane-anchored mucins may have additional roles concerned with protein interactions at the cell surface.
Sorbitol
A polyhydric alcohol with about half the sweetness of sucrose. Sorbitol occurs naturally and is also produced synthetically from glucose. It was formerly used as a diuretic and may still be used as a laxative and in irrigating solutions for some surgical procedures. It is also used in many manufacturing processes, as a pharmaceutical aid, and in several research applications.